n>. 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


1.1 


m    ..„     yi2.o 


IJ& 


11^  1^4  iJi^ 

^ 

6"     

► 

*' 


^    ^% 


V 


Sciences 
CorpoBtion 


^ 


•S^ 


\ 


:\ 


\ 


^ 


33  WIST  MAIN  SHUT 

-^FISTM,N.Y.  USM 

(71*)I73-4S03 


^^^>^ 


;\ 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHIVI/iCIVIH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiques 


C 


Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notas/Notes  tachniques  at  bibllographiquaa 


Tl 
tc 


Tha  Instituta  has  attamptad  to  obtain  tha  bast 
original  copy  availabia  for  filming.  Faaturas  of  this 
copy  which  may  ba  bibliographically  uniqua. 
which  may  altar  any  of  tha  imagas  in  tha 
raproduction,  or  which  may  significantly  change 
tha  usual  method  of  filming,  are  checked  below. 


D 


D 


v/ 


D 
D 


D 


Coloured  covers/ 
Couverture  de  couleur 


I      I    Covers  damaged/ 


Couverture  endommagie 


Covers  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Couverture  restaurta  at/ou  pallicuMe 


I      I    Cover  title  missing/ 


Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 

Coloured  maps/ 

Cartas  gAographiques  an  couleur 


□    Coloured  ink  (i.e.  other  than  blue  or  black)/ 
Encra  de  couleur  (i.e.  autre  que  bleue  ou  noire) 

I      I    Coloured  plates  and/or  illustrations/ 


Planches  et/ou  illustrations  en  couleur 


Bound  with  other  material/ 
RaliA  avac  d'autras  documents 


Tight  binding  may  cause  shadows  or  distortion 
along  interior  margin/ 

La  re  liure  serrie  peut  causer  de  I'ombre  ou  de  la 
distortion  le  long  de  la  marge  intArieure 

Blank  leaves  added  during  restoration  may 
appear  within  the  text.  Whenever  possible,  these 
have  been  omitted  from  filming/ 
II  se  peut  que  certaines  pages  blanches  ajout^as 
lors  d'une  restauration  apparaissant  dans  le  texte, 
mais,  lorsqua  cela  Atait  possible,  ces  pages  n'ont 
pas  itt  filmtos. 


L'Institut  a  microfilm*  la  meilleur  exemplaira 
qu'il  lui  a  «t«  possible  de  se  procurer.  Les  details 
de  cet  exemplaira  qui  sont  paut-Atre  uniques  du 
point  de  vue  bibliographique.  qui  peuvent  modifier 
une  image  reproduite.  ou  qui  peuvent  exiger  une 
modification  dans  la  mithoda  normale  de  fiimage 
sont  indiquAs  ci-dassous. 


D 

D 
D 
0 
0 
0 
D 
D 
D 

^71 


Coloured  pages/ 
Pages  de  couleur 

Pages  damaged/ 
Pages  endommagies 

Pages  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Pages  restaurAas  et/ou  pellicuiies 

Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed.' 
Pages  dAcoiories,  tachetdes  ou  piqudes 

Pages  detached/ 
Pages  d6tach6es 

Showthrough/ 
Transparence 

Quality  of  print  varies/ 
Quality  inAgale  de  I'impression 

Includes  supplementary  material/ 
Comprend  du  material  supplimentaire 

Only  edition  available/ 
Seule  Edition  disponible 

Pages  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata  - 
slips,  tissues,  etc.,  have  been  refilmed  to 
ensure  the  best  possible  image/ 
Les  pages  totalament  ou  partiellement 
obscurcies  par  un  feuiilet  d'errata,  une  pelure, 
etc.,  ont  M  film^es  A  nouveau  de  fa^on  A 
obtenir  la  meilleure  image  possible. 


T 

P 
o 

ft 


0 
b 
t» 
si 
o^ 

fi 

sJ 

Ol 


n 

si 

Tl 
w 

M 
di 
ai 
b< 
rii 
ra 
m 


y 


Additional  comments:/ 
Commentaires  supplAmantairas: 


Various  pagingi. 


This  item  is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below/ 

Ce  document  est  film*  au  taux  de  reduction  indiqu*  ci-dessous. 

10X  14X  18X  Z2X 


J 


26X 


30X 


12X 


16X 


20X 


24X 


28X 


32X 


Th«  copy  filmad  h«r«  has  b««n  raproducad  thanka 
to  tha  ganaroaity  of: 


L'axamplaire  film*  fut  raproduit  grAca  A  la 
ginAroaitA  da: 


University  of  Alberta 
Edmonton 

Tha  imagas  appaaring  hara  ara  tha  bast  quality 
poaaibia  considaring  tha  condition  and  lagibility 
of  tha  original  copy  and  in  kaaping  with  tha 
filming  contract  spacif Icatlona. 


Univeraity  of  Alberta 
Edmonton 

Las  imagas  suivantas  ont  At*  raproduitas  avec  la 
plus  grand  soin.  compta  tanu  da  la  condition  ot 
da  la  nattat*  da  i'axampiaira  film*,  at  an 
conformiti  avac  las  conditions  du  contrat  da 
filmaga. 


Original  coplas  in  printad  papar  covara  ara  filmad 
baginning  with  tha  front  covar  and  anding  on 
tha  last  paga  with  a  printad  or  illuatratad  impraa> 
sion,  or  tha  back  covar  whan  approprlata.  All 
othar  original  copiaa  ara  filmad  baginning  on  tha 
firat  paga  with  a  printad  or  Illuatratad  impraa- 
slon,  and  anding  on  tha  laat  paga  with  a  printad 
or  illusiratad  Impraaaion. 


Las  axamplairaa  originaux  dont  la  couvartura  un 
paplar  aat  ImprimAa  sont  filmte  an  commancant 
par  la  pramiar  plat  at  an  tarminant  soit  par  la 
darnlAra  paga  qui  comporta  una  amprainta 
d'impraasion  ou  d'illustration.  soit  par  la  sacond 
plat,  aalon  la  caa.  Tous  las  autraa  axamplairas 
originaux  sont  filmAs  an  commandant  par  la 
pramlAra  paga  qui  comporta  una  amprainta 
d'impraasion  ou  d'illustration  at  an  tarminant  par 
la  darnlAra  paga  qui  comporta  una  talla 
amprainta. 


Tha  last  racordad  frama  on  aach  microflcha 
shall  contain  tha  symbol  ^^-  (moaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  tha  symbol  V  (moaning  "END"), 
whichavar  appllaa. 


Un  daa  symbolas  suivants  apparaltra  sur  la 
darniira  imaga  da  chaqua  microflcha,  salon  la 
cas:  la  symbols  — »>  signifia  "A  SUIVRE",  la 
symbols  V  signifia  "FIN". 


Maps,  plataa,  charts,  ate,  may  ba  filmad  at 
diffarant  raduction  ratios.  Thosa  too  larga  to  ba 
antlraly  includad  in  ona  axpoaura  m  filmad 
baginning  in  tha  uppar  laft  hand  cornar,  laft  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  aa  many  framas  aa 
raquirad.  Tha  following  diagrams  illustrata  tha 
mathod: 


Las  cartas,  planchas,  tablaau^.  ate.  pauvant  Atra 
fllmAs  A  das  taux  da  rAduction  diff Arants. 
Lorsqua  la  document  ast  trop  grand  pour  Atra 
raproduit  an  un  saul  clichA,  11  ast  filmA  A  partir 
da  I'angla  supAriaur  gaucha,  da  gauche  A  droita, 
at  da  haut  an  baa,  an  pranant  la  nombra 
d'imagaa  nAcassaira.  Las  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrant  la  mAthoda. 


1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

/ 


/ 


/ 


I 


■'S'^hiSJiEc::::  Si-::  SsbZ^''^ 


w 


>  [ 


f  .1 


/ 


CI1RC)N'J0LE8 


or 


ri{E  BUILDEES 


or  ')|ii 


CO  M  MONWE  ALTH 


iMrncncal  ubatactcr  Stu&^ 


»T 


HUBERT  HO WR  BANCROFT 


VOLUME  I 


SAN  FRANCISCO 

rmK  HJPTORY  COMPANY,  PUBLISHERS 

18G1 


/ 


/ 


CHRONICLES 


or 


THEBUILDEES 


OP  TBI 


COMMONWEALTH 


Distorical  Cbaractet  Stubi? 


•T 


HUBERT    HOWE    BANCROFT 


VOLUME  I 


SAN  FRANOISOO 
THE  HISTORY  COMPANY,  PUBLISHERS 

1801 


Bntered  according  to  Act  oi  Congress  In  the  year  im,  b, 

HUBERT  H.  BANCROFT, 
III  the  Office  of  the  Ubrarlan  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


AU  Righta  Reserved. 


tl 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ALBERTA 


PREFA03. 


DuRiNa  the  progress  of  my  historical  labors,  the 
fact  gradually  forced  itself  upon  me  that  the  men  who 
had  made  the  history  were  not  receiving  sufficient 
attention.  The  narrative  of  events  I  could  present  in 
clear,  connected  form,  but  the  artificers  of  those 
events  I  was  forced  to  leave  too  much  in  the  back- 
ground. Throughout  this  westernmost  America, 
within  a  comparatively  short  period,  a  great  work  had 
been  accomplished,  the  results  of  which  I  could  give ; 
but  the  men  who  had  achieved  those  results  I  could 
not  properly  present  without  so  breaking  the  narrative 
as  to  deprive  it  of  much  of  its  historical  value.  In 
the  history  proper  I  could  accord  the  usual  space  and 
attention  ;  nay,  more,  I  could  and  did  give  fully  and 
freely  biographical  notices  of  greater  or  less  extent ; 
but  this  was  not  enough.  They  were  not  merely  his- 
torical characters  in  the  ordinary  sense,  but  something 
more.  They  were  not  alone  factors  or  originators 
of  progress  ;  they  were  authors  of  actualities,  creators 
of  commonwealths,  having  with  their  own  hands 
fashioned  from  raw  material  the  fabrics  of  destiny. 
And  as  such  I  could  not  but  feel  they  were  entitled 
to  more  than  passing  notice. 

The  conditions  attending  development  here  were 
peculiar.  During  the  last  half-century  this  western 
world  has  unfolded  from  a  primeval  wilderness  into  a 

(V) 


2308706 


-1 


VI 


PRBFAOE. 


garden  of  the  fairest  civilization.  Many  thousands  of 
years  were  occupied  by  man  in  his  journey  from  the 
hypothetical  cradle  of  the  race  eastward  to  the 
western  shore  of  the  Pacific,  and  westward  to  its 
eastern  shore.  This  encompassment  of  the  earth  by 
civilization  completed  the  circle  of  human  migration. 
It  was  a  long  way  from  America  to  China,  and  a  still 
longer  period  was  occupied  by  progressive  man  in 
passing  from  the  same  initial  point  to  Egypt  and 
Greece,  to  Rome  and  western  Europe,  and  finally  to 
America,  and  across  its  plains  and  mountains  to  its 
western  seaboard.  But  after  two  or  three  hundred 
years  had  been  consumed  in  extending  settlement 
from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  mid-continent,  quick  work 
was  made  of  the  remainder.  To  the  ripeness  of  the 
time  was  added  one  of  those  culminating  periods  of 
progress,  in  which  human  affairs  are  forced  onward  to 
the  accomplishment  in  a  few  years  of  what  ordinarily 
occupies  centuries.  A  progressional  spasm  of  this 
kind  occurred  on  the  Pacific  coast  about  the  middle 
of  the  present  century. 

The  events  thus  culminating,  and  which  were  the 
seed  to  sudden  and  brilliant  blossoming,  were  the  war 
with  Mexico,  ending  in  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe 
Hidalgo,  and  the  cession  by  Mexico  to  the  United 
States  of  all  that  region  west  of  northern  Texas  and 
Colorado  to  the  Pacific  ocean  ;  the  discovery  of  rich 
placer  gold  deposits  for  five  hundred  miles  along  the 
foothills  of  the  California  sierra,  and  the  establishing 
of  a  line  of  ocean  steamships  between  the  eastern 
and  western  seaboards  via  the  isthmus  of  Panamd. 
The  more  immediate  results  were  the  rapid  inflowing 
of   population ;    a    revolutionizing    of   the    world's 


PREFACE. 


vH 


commerce  and  currency ;  a  marked  improvement  in 
ocean  sailing  and  steam  craft;  the  building  of  the 
Panamd  railway ;  the  development  of  mines,  agricul- 
ture, stock-raising,  commerce,  and  manufactures 
throughout  this  whole  western  rejyion  ;  the  laying 
out  of  roads,  and  the  establishing  of  stage,  steamboat, 
postal,  express,  and  telegraph  routes ;  the  building  of 
towns,  cities,  and  innumerable  happy  country  homes ; 
and,  finally,  railroads  everywhere,  and  high  intel- 
lectual enlightenment. 

Taking,  then,  California  as  the  primary  point,  and 
the  great  gold  discovery  as  the  coalescing  influence  of 
this  freak  of  evolution,  the  combination  of  events 
continuing  into  adjacent  parts,  as  illustrated  by  the 
quickly  following  discoveries  of  precious  metal  on 
Eraser  river,  in  Washington  Idaho  and  Montana,  in 
Colorado  and  Nevada,  and  elsewhere,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  great  cattle  interest  in  the  Rocky 
mountain  region,  from  Texas  through  Colorado 
Wyoming  and  Montana  to  British  Columbia — a 
single  glance  at  the  existing  state  of  affairs  before 
this  epoch,  and  at  what  followed  it,  overwhelms  us 
with  a  sense  of  the  marvels  which  have  been  accom- 
plished within  this  short  period  of  time  by  men  most 
of  whom  are  yet  among  the  living. 

The  year  1848  was  the  date  of  the  gold  discovery. 
Steam  had  then  been  applied  to  locomotive  engines 
scarcely  twenty  years.  Steam  navigation,  both 
on  inland  waters  and  on  the  ocean,  was  in  a  crude 
condition.  Indeed,  eight  years  had  barely  elapsed 
since  the  first  ocean  steamship  had  been  turned  out  of 
the  New  York  yards,  and  but  one  year  since  the  first 
United  States  mail  steamship  had  been  launched  upon 


1 


tU 


PREFACE. 


the  ocean.  The  first  line  of  magnetic  telegraph 
in  the  world,  that  from  New  York  to  Washington, 
had  not  been  four  years  in  operation.  The  first 
express  line  in  the  world,  that  between  New  York 
and  Boston,  had  not  been  nine  years  running,  and 
still  assumed  only  the  most  insignificant  proportions. 
Throughout  all  this  western  region  there  was  scarcely 
a  wheeled  conveyance,  except  a  few  emigrant  wagons 
and  the  Mexican  carreta,  or  solid-wood-wheel  cart ; 
there  were  no  agricultural  or  other  implements  of  civil- 
ization worthy  of  the  name ;  few  if  any  farms,  and  little 
or  no  farm  stock ;  there  was  scarcely  a  wf^on-road, 
except  the  natural  prairie,  or  the  widened  pack-mule 
trail;  scarcely  a  postoffice,  or  any  regular  intercom- 
munication anywhere,  by  land  or  water.  All  was  a 
primeval  wilderness ;  the  faint  sprinkling  of  settlers  in 
certain  parts,  and  the  attempt  at  towns  around  the 
mission  establishments  on  the  seaboard  south  of  San 
Francisco  bay,  hardly  affecting  the  face  of  nature  at 
all.  Hot  air  power,  electricity  lighting,  telephone 
talking,  and  like  miracles  of  science  were  as  far  beyond 
human  anticipation  as  was  the  way  in  which  Puck 
was  to  put  a  girdle  round  the  earth  in  forty  minutes. 
Colt's  revolver  h?  just  been  invented,  and  this  for 
the  special  divertisement  of  the  devil  in  these  parts. 
What  do  we  now  behold?  Throughout  a  vast 
region,  which  men  at  first  regarded  as  absolutely 
worthless,  we  see  the  land  inhabited  by  a  thrifty  and 
intelligent  population  ;  we  see  farms  fenced,  roads  laid 
out,  comfortable  dwellings,  and  the  implements  of 
husbandry  at  work  ;  we  see  mines  developed,  man- 
ufactures established,  and  hundreds  of  miles  of  irri- 
gating canals.     A  great  commerce  has  sprung  up — 


PREFACE. 


towns  and  cities  with  their  busy  hives  of  industry ; 
fleets  of  vessels ;  postal,  express,  and  telegraph 
facilities,  and  railroads  in  operation  everywhere. 

Who  has  accomplished  this?  What  Cresar  or 
Napoleon  has  wrought  this  wondrous  change  ?  No 
such  agency.  It  has  been  done,  not  by  military 
genius  or  supernatural  power,  but  by  plain,  practical 
men,  laboring  each  for  himself,  his  family,  his  locality, 
but  in  the  aggregate  accomplishing  greater  results 
than  ever  have  been  doiio  by  any  king,  potentate, 
or  government  on  earth — as  j,  more  than  has  been 
accomplished  within  the  time  and  in  equal  area  by  all 
the  kings  and  potentate  and  govframents  combined. 
It  would  seem  a  duty  to  thr  public  no  less  than  to 
themselves  that  their  friends  and  the  world  at  large 
know  more  of  them,  of  their  life,  and  the  means  by 
which  they  accomplished  their  life  work. 

It  was  thus  that  these  volumes  came  into  existence  ; 
the  plan  formulated  itself,  arising  in  the  truest  sense 
from  the  necessities  of  the  case.  It  seemed  abso- 
lutely essential,  before  it  could  be  said  that  a  complete 
historical  presentation  had  been  made,  of  the  country 
and  those  who  had  made  it,  of  the  empire  and  build- 
ers of  empire,  that  the  history  have  a  biographical 
section,  devoted  primarily  to  the  men,  as  the  historical 
section  proper  is  devoted  primarily  to  the  events,  and 
which  would  be  in  the  truest  sense  a  book  of  histor- 
ical biography  and  characterization. 

At  the  same  time,  here  was  an  opportunity  to  do 
much  better  than  simply  present  a  collection  of 
detached  biographies  of  the  most  influential  and 
prominent  personages,  aft?r  the  usual  form,  howsoever 
good  and  valuable  such  a  work  would  be  in  connection 


1 


X  PREFACE. 

\^ith  the  history.  But  what  would  make  it  teii-fdld 
ubiore  interesting  and  valuable  would  be  to  take  one  by 
one  the  more  important  of  these  men  of  strength  arid 
influence,  and  after  a  thorough  character  study,  place 
their  portraits  in  the  midst  of  the  work  which  they 
have  done,  and  in  company  with  kindred  industries 
accomplished  by  others,  and  round  the  whole  throw  a 
frame-work  of  history,  surrounding  the  frame-work 
With  fresh  biographies,  as  the  necessity  arises  for 
them  to  appear,  in  the  form  of  added  volumes.  Here, 
then,  are  embalmed  in  the  annals  of  their  own  time 
and  country  the  men  and  their  deeds,  there  to  remain, 
the  benefits  and  blessings  conferred  during  life  thus 
being  made  perpetual. 

To  this  biographical  section  of  my  historical  series 
was  given  the  name,  after  the  most  careful  considera- 
tion, of  Chronicles  of  the  Builders  of  the  ComTnonwealth, 
which  I  have  decided  to  adopt  as  most  appropriate. 
Those  whose  lives  we  write,  whose  deeds  we  chronicle, 
are  the  makers  and  rulers  of  the  commonwealth,  the 
political   and  social  dominators,    the  embodiment  of 
the  power,  wealth,  and  intelligence  of  the  community, 
paying  allegiance  to  none  ;  and  they  are  builders  of 
empire,  having  already  laid  the  foundation  for  more 
advanced  commonwealths  than  any  the  world  has  yet 
A^'itnessed. 

The  frame-work,  or  historical  and  industrial 
structure,  in  which  portraits  and  biographies  are 
inserted,  with  the  several  divisions  of  their  section  of 
the  history,  is  as  follows  : 

I.  Sources  of  Power  and  Progress,  and  the  Influ- 
ences Early  Dominating  America,  particularly 
the  Northwestern  Part  thereof. 


PREFACE. 


a 


II.  Government. — Officials,  Legislators,  The  Jtidici- 

ary,  Military,  Lawyers,  and  Political  Leaders. 

III.  Agriculture. — Agriculturists,  Irrigationists,  Or- 

chardists,  Stock-Haisers,  and  Viniculturists. 

IV.  Mines    and    Manufacturers. — Owners,  Mines, 

Mining  Ditches,  Crushing  Mills  and  Reduction 
Works,  and  Leaders  in  Mining  Stock  Opera- 
tions, Owners  of  Metal,  Wood,  Sugar,  Flour, 
Fibre,  Electrical  and  Chemical  Works,  Makers 
of  Machinery,  Fish  and  Fruit  Packers. 

V.  Routes   and  Transportation. — Railway,  Steam- 

ship, Telegraph,  Telephone,  and  Express 
Officials. 

VI.  Commerce. — Merchants,  Bankers,  and  Insurance 

Officials. 

VII.  Society. — Real  Estate  Owners,  Capitalists, 
Educators,  Physicians,  The  Clergy,  Men  of 
Science  and  Literature,  Journalists,  Artists, 
Architects,  and  Actors. 

To  study  the  lives  of  great  men  is  natural  and  ben- 
eficial. It  is  elevating  and  improving  to  search  out  in 
every  community  those  who  have  accomplished  most 
for  good,  those  who  are  doing  most  for  the  advancement 
of  mind  and  the  purification  of  morals.  Great  men 
have  their  mission.  They  are  the  embodiment  of 
progress.  Inferior  minds,  without  the  influence  of 
those  intellects  which  in  some  degree  dominate  events, 
are  retrograde. 

They  who  accomplish  most  are  greatest.  They 
who  achieve  most  are  best.  For  men  strive  to 
achieve  the  beneficial,  not  the  detrimental.  We 
plant  our  fields  to  corn  and  olives,  not  to  thistles  and 
noxious    weeds.     Absorbing    wealth    as    a    sponge 


xu 


PREFACE. 


absorbs  water  is  not  creating,  or  in  anywise  improv- 
ing ;  hence,  not  all  rich  men  are  admirable.  They 
alone  are  worthy  of  imitation  who  take  in  hand  the 
crude  materials  of  nature  and  make  them  beneficial 
to  man.  It  is  proper  and  just  that  men  thus  made 
prominent  by  their  merits  should  be  emulated  and 
honored.  It  is  by  them  and  through  them  that  the 
race  advances.  The  quality  of  the  community  is 
elevated  by  them  ;  every  citizen  is  raised  in  import- 
ance through  the  genius  of  one  man.  To  be  of 
Athens,  or  Rome,  or  Stratford-upon-Avon  is  to  have 
been  bathed  in  the  atmosphere  perfumed  by  the  god- 
like in  humanity. 

I  confess  to  a  profound  admiration  for  men  of 
superior  efforts  and  accomplishments,  for  men  of 
strength  and  ability,  of  applied  genius, — great  men 
if  you  will ;  for  no  man  ever  yet  performed  a  great 
work  who  was  not  entitled  himself  to  be  called  great, 
I  like  to  begin  with  the  boyhood  of  prominent  men, 
and  follow  these  strong,  deep  natures  from  their 
incipiency  all  through  the  several  stages  of  intel- 
lectual and  physical  development,  until  the  grand 
consummation  of  their  lives  has  been  attained.  I 
like  to  watch  the  gradual  formation  of  character, 
the  engendering  conditions  of  parentage,  physical 
environment,  and  education,  the  unfolding  of  physi- 
cal and  intellectual  strength,  the  courage  and  endur- 
ance displayed  under  discomfiture  and  disappointments, 
and  the  application  of  will  power  to  the  overcoming 
of  obstacles.  In  this  character  study  of  great  men, 
in  the  analysis  of  ingredient  qualities  and  the 
individualizations  attending  it,  we  derive  the  greatest 
pleasure  and  profit. 


PREFACE. 


xiU 


It  is  in  no  sense  exaggeration  to  say  that  within 
the  territory  of  which  we  have  been  speaking  has 
been  performed  the  greatest  work  the  world  has  ever 
witnessed  or  will  ever  again  behold.  I  speak 
advisedly.  No  such  miracle  of  development  within 
so  short  a  period  has  ever  before  come  to  pass ;  and 
it  never  can  happen  again,  because  the  engendering 
conditions  can  never  be  duplicated.  The  results  of 
the  application  here  of  intelligent  effort  are  remark- 
able. Within  the  short  period  of  thirty  or  rifty  years 
a  vast  wilderness  has  been  transformed  into  a  seat  of 
high  civilization.  This  work  has  not  been  done  by  one 
great  man  but  by  many  great  men  ;  builders  of 
empire,  who  have  here  laid  the  foundations  of  pro- 
gressive commonwealths  broader  and  better  than  they 
have  known.  Some  of  them  are  to  be  found  in  every 
center  of  population,  for  no  considerable  community 
could  have  been  formed  without  them.  They  are 
entitled  to  all  honor.  Their  deeds  should  be  recorded 
and  their  memory  embalmed  in  the  annals  of  the 
nation.     This  is  the  province  of  history. 

Most  of  those  the  history  of  whose  lives  appear  in 
this  work  are  founders  of  families  no  less  than 
founders  of  the  commonwealth,  and  in  thus  making 
in  some  degree  their  lives  perpetual,  and  continuing 
the  beneficial  results  thence  arising  throughout  all 
time,  the  greatest  benefits  to  mankind  must  neces- 
sarily accrue.  If  the  study  of  nature  is  improving  to 
the  heart  and  mind  of  man,  how  much  more  the 
study  of  man  himself,  who  is  the  crowning  work  of 
nature.  Therefore  I  say,  had  there  been  granted  me 
the  privilege  of  standing  by  at  the  great  creation,  and 
witnessing,  as  an  intelligent  spectator,  the  work  of 


iiy 


PREFACE. 


the  Almighty  in  originating  and  organizing  the 
agencies  of  force  and  mat^-er,  in  setting  in  motioti 
whirling  worlds  and  planting  in  inorganic  suhstances 
the  seeds  of  life  and  evolution,  next  only  to  the 
interest  I  fancy  I  might  have  felt  in  such  a  wondrous 
sight,  is  that  which  I  now  feel  in  following  the  men 
whom  the  Almighty  has  endowed  with  some  portion 
of  his  intelligence  and  power,  in  their  subordination 
of  nature  to  their  own  purposes,  chaining  the  light- 
ning, casting  down  mountains,  and  bridging  chasms, 
belting  the  earth  with  steam  highways,  disembowel- 
ing the  hills  for  their  treasures,  and  overspreading  the 
primeval  wilderness  with  the  fair  fields  and  happy 
homes  of  civilization. 


CONTENTS  OF  THIS  YOLUME. 


CHAPTER  I. 


aouRCEa  OF  power  and  influence. 


PAGE. 


Plan  of  the  Work — Man  PreSminently  Ruler — Hiatory  and  Biography 
— ^Aaaociation  and  Eavironmont — The  Lessons  of  History — Attrac- 
tiona  of  the  Western  Wilderness — Myths  and  Mysteries — ^The  Fur 
Trade — ^The  Hudson's  Bay  Company— Founding  of  Astoria — Life  of 
John  Jacob  Aster —William  B.  Astor — Life  of  John  Jacob  Astor 
the  Younger — William  Waldorf  Astor — The  Northwest  Company . 


CHAPTER  II. 


CENTRALIZATION   OF  POWER. 


Illustrations  from  History — Themistocles,  Epaminondas,  Philip  of  Mace- 
don,  Alexander  the  Oreat — Servius  Tullius,  Coriolanus,  Cicero,  the 
Caesars — Christianity— Constantine — Alaric  and  Odoacer — Charle- 
magne— Feudalism — Evolution  of  Kingship — The  Crusades — Some 
Intellectual  Kings — The  Louis,  Charleses,  Henrys,  Williams,  Peters, 
and  Georges — Napoleon — American  Type  of  Individualized  Power — 
life  of  Frederick  Billings — Career  in  California — Railway  Building 
and  Financiering — Benefactions 66 

CHAPTER   III. 

DOMINATINQ   INFLUENCES   IN   AMERICA. 

Dawn  of  the  Later  Age— Spain  and  her  History — Potentates  and  Popes 
— Extension  of  Discovery— A  New  World  Found — Hot  and  Cold 
Climates  as  Civilizerii — Indigenous  American  Culture — Spaniards  in 
the  New  World— Kingcraft  and  Priestcraft — The  Middle  Ages  in 
.-  Central  America — Three  Centuries  of  Dead  Activities — Mediaeval 
Mexico — Life  of  Benito  Juarez — Kevolutionary  Period  of  Mexico  and 
Subsequently — The  Indian  Boy  of  Oajaca — Lawyer,  Governor,  Chief 
Justice,  and  President  of  the  Republic — Struggle  for  Incellectua! 
liberty — Pronunciamientos  and  Principles— French  Intervention-^ 
Firnmess  of  Juarez  under  Trials — Failure  and  Death  of  Maximilian 
— ^Later  Measures — Close  of  a  Glorious  Career 148 

(XV) 


O 


( t 


If:'''* 


XVI 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THI  FOWBB  OF  RCLIOION.  PAGE. 

Earopean  Oooapation  of  the  Californiaci— Kino  and  Salvatierra  on  the 
Peninsula— Expalaion  of  the  Jesaita — FranoUcaoB  and  Dominicans 
in  Lower  California — Discovery  and  Exploration  of  Alta  California — 
The  Friars  on  the  Seaboard— Fray  Junlpero  Serra  in  the  Field— His 
Life  and  Works— Mental  and  Physical  Characteristics— Evolution 
of  a  Saint— Voyage  Hither— Mission  Building— Junlpero  in  Mexico 
—At  San  Diego— At  Monterey— At  San  Francisco,  Santa  Barbara, 
and  Elsewhere — ^Incidents  of  his  Death 225 


CHAPTER  V. 

DOKINATINa  INFLUENOKS  IM  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  CALIFOBNIA. 

A  Romantic  Story— The  Reserved  Garden  Spot  of  Civilization— The  Na- 
tive Races— California  Pastoral— The  Missionary  Regime— Discov- 
ery of  Gold — California  Inter  Pocula— Government  and  Society- 
Life  of  William  T.  Coleman— Experiences  East  and  West— Li  the 
Mines— As  a  Merchant — As  a  Revolutionist  and  Savior  of  Society 
—As  Chief  of  Popular  Tribunals 271 

CHAPTER  VI. 

ADVENT  AND  AGENCT  OF  LAW. 

Evolution  of  Self-subordination— Popular  Tribunals  and  Military  Rule 
—Life  of  Stephen  J.  Field,  the  Great  Apostle  of  the  Law — Early 
Experiences — Founding  of  Marysville — Election  as  Alcalde — Contro- 
versies with  Turner  and  Barbour — Course  as  a  Legislator — On  the 
Supreme  Bench  of  California — Associate-justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States — Code  Revision  Committee — Electoral 
Commission — Sharon-Hill-Terry  litigation — Neagle-Terry  Tragedy 
— Lifemal  Machines — Personal  Appearance  and  Traits  392 

CHAPTER  VII. 

AOENOT  OF  INDCSTRT. 

Life  of  Irving  Murray  Scott — His  Appearance  in  San  Francisco  in  1860 
— Ancestry  and  Education — At  the  Donahue  Foundry — Inventions 
and  Improvements — The  Comstock  Lode — The  Union  Iron-works — 
Ship-building — Immigration — The  Moulders'  Union — Opinions  and        \ 
Tastes — Wife  and  Family— Summary  of  Career 440 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

DOMINATING   INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 

A  Region  of  Wealth  and  Fascinations — Power  of  Religion  in  Diven 
Parts — Achievements  of  Science  in  the  Colorado  Country — Life  of 
William  Gilpin — Ancestry  and  Early  Environment — Visit  to  Eng- 
land— In  Oregon  and  Colorado— Mexican  and  Indian  Wars — Gover- 
nor and  Federal  Agent— Cosmopolitan  Railway 494 


CONTENTS. 


XVII 


CHAPTER  IX. 

EARLY  INFLCBNOES  DOMINATING  THE  NORTHWEST.  ^j^^^ 

British  and  American  Occupation— The  Great  Monopoly— Government, 
Society,  and  Progress  of  Oregon— Life  of  William  S.  Ladd— Boy- 
hood and  Education— Early  Struggles— His  Influence  on  the  Des- 
tinies of  Oregon— Marriage— Banking— Stock-raising— Phenomenal 
Snooess— His  Benefactions— William  M.  Ladd— Characteristioa. . . .  567 


i 


I 


LIST  OF  STEEL-PLATE  POETHAITS. 


VOLUME  I. 

PAOI. 

John  Jacob  Astor Frontispiece. 

William  B.  Astok 61 

J.  J.  Astor ^ 

W.  W.  Astor 57 

Frederick  Billings 109 

Bemito  Juarez 165 

JuNiPERO  Serra 225 

William  T.  Coleman 303 

Stephen  J.  Field 393 

Irving  M.  Scott 441 

William  Gilpin  607 

W.  S.  Ladd 585 

W.  M.  Ladd 


CHRONICLES  OF  THE  BUILDERS. 


CHAPTER  I. 


./ 


SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 

Plan  of  the  Work— Man  PreShinbmtlt  Ruler— History  and  Bioo- 
RAPHT — Association  and  Environment — The  Lessons  of  History — 
Attractions  of  the  Western  Wilderness — Myths  and  Mysteries 
—The  Fub  Trade- The  Hudson's  Bay  Company—  Founding  of  As- 
toria— Life  of  John  Jacob  Astor — William  B.  Astor — Life  of 
John  Jacob  Astor  the  Younger- William  Waldorf  Astor— The 
Northwest  Company. 

It  is  my  purpose  to  present  in  these  volumes  the 
biographies  of  some  of  those  who  have  exercised  an 
influence,  for  good  or  evil,  in  shaping  events,  building 
commonwealths,  and  establishing  civilization  and 
society  in  these  later-developed  American  domains. 
And  as  the  personages  with  whom  I  deal  have  been 
or  are  our  real  rulers,  whether  occupying  a  guberna- 
torial chair,  directing  the  flow  of  merchandise,  or  sup- 
plying meat  for  the  millions;  whether  priest,  teacher, 
or  physician ;  whether  manufacturer  or  miner,  cattle- 
raiser  or  railway-builder ;  whether  lawyer,  legislator, 
farmer,  or  mechanic ;  as  they  exercise  in  their  several 
relations  a  paramount  influence  over  each  other  and 
over  the  body  politic,  leading,  directing,  swaying,  and 
controlling  the  affairs  of  individuals,  communities, 
states,  and  nations,  it  is  well  first  of  all  to  inquire 
whence  proceeds  tliis  power,  and  to  examine  some- 
what the  nature  and  action  of  human  potency. 

For  these  our  Builders  of  the  Commonwealth  not 

C.  B.— I.    1 


FT 


t  SOURCES  OP  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 

only  direct,  but  do;  not  only  are  they  rulers,  but 
originators,  establishing  governnients  over  themselves 
and  others,  carving  out  of  blind  fate  their  own  des' 
tiny  and  the  destinies  of  those  around  thera.  All 
that  the  ordinary  or  orthodox  ruler  is  or  does,  they 
are  and  do ;  they  are  the  supreme  intelligence,  the 
supreme  influence,  the  supreme  authority,  in  whom 
vests  every  prerogative  and  all  preponderance,  who, 
in  their  several  spheres,  know  all  that  is  known  and 
can  do  all  that  can  be  done ;  they  are  the  executive 
arm  of  the  natural  and  the  high-priests  of  the  super- 
natural, the  god  of  conventionality  and  the  scourge 
of  the  sinful.  They  are  feared  and  loved ;  yet  not 
loved  from  fear,  but  feared  for  love,  as  Bacon  hath 
it.  Invested  with  unlimited  patronage,  they  carry 
great  responsibilities.  They  bless  and  curse,  and  are 
a  law  unto  themselves,  holding  in  their  hand  the 
power  of  life  and  death,  meting  out  rewards  and  pun- 
ishments with  none  to  question. 

Not  that  all  men  dominate.  The  great  horde  of 
humanity  are  anything  but  noble,  either  in  bearing, 
intelligence,  or  mental  or  moral  qualities;  yet  some 
may  be  lords,  be  the  suzerainty  no  more  than  a  kennel. 
Wherever  the  ruler,  there  must  be  subjects;  there 
must  be  many  subjects  for  every  one  ruler.  From  the 
beginning  man  and  nature  have  been  under  universal 
domination.  Man  regulates  and  is  regulated  by  his 
fellow-man;  nature  teaches  and  governs  man,  and 
may  be  made  in  some  sm&U  degree  subordinate  to 
him.  Some  are  created  to  rule,  others  to  be  ruled; 
for,  as  Carlyle  remarks,  "it  is  the  everlasting  privi- 
lege of  fools  to  be  governed  by  the  wise."  In  the 
earlier  epochs  of  human  development,  men  held 
power  as  heroes  anc  chiefs;  then  as  high-priests, 
barons,  and  kings;  d  later  as  manipulators  of 
power  born  of  free  polit  s,  mind,  and  money.  These 
last  are  our  American  i  lers  of  to-day,  the  line  of 
supremacy  extending  muci  further  than  is  commonly 
brought  within  the  category. 


BUILDERS  AND  RULERS.  t 

Everv  one  of  our  builders  is  a  personage  of  power 
in  one  ciirection  or  another,  power  of  mind  or  money, 
power  of  education,  refinement,  religion,  or  as  a  shining 
tight  of  society  ;  for  mankind  cousists  mainly  of  pup- 
pets, the  wires  of  which  are  worked  bv  the  master- 
hands,  these  being  few.  It  is  well  known  that 
throughout  all  ag^es  and  realms,  in  the  world  of  mat- 
ter and  the  world  of  mind,  in  the  universe  material 
and  the  universe  imj  'alpable,  there  is  one  absolute  and 
eternal  principle  pervading  all — power.  There  is  the 
potency  of  physical  strength,  the  power  of  matter 
over  matter,  and  of  matter  over  mind;  and  the 
potency  of  intellectual  strength,  the  power  of  mind 
over  matter,  and  of  mind  over  mind. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  powers  throughout  this 
universe.  There  are  the  powers  terrestrial  and  the 
powers  celestial,  the  powers  of  light  and  dark- 
ness, of  good  and  evil,  of  life  and  death.  And  there 
are  powers  that  are  no  powers,  only  imaginary  poten- 
cies, springing  from  the  fermentations  of  ignorance  and 
superstition.  And  more  than  any  other,  more  than 
all  others  combined,  of  earth,  or  sea,  or  sky,  save 
those  influences  alone  which  yield  food  and  raiment, 
these  imaginary  powers,  these  hollow  myths  and 
senseless  traditions,  and  the  beliefs,  theories,  doctrines, 
and  dogmas  thereby  engendered,  have  ever  influenced 
man,  urging  him  on  to  bloody  wars,  to  deeds  of  in- 
justice and  infamy,  and  luring  him  in  divers  ways  to 
his  destruction. 

And  not  men  only,  but  beasts,  and  all  inanimate 
nature,  whether  rejoicing  in  a  knowledge  of  it  or  not, 
covet  power;  likewise  deities  and  devils.  It  seems 
somewhat  abnormal  that  a  thing  so  universally  desired, 
so  strenuously  sought  after,  should  be  so  universally 
and  liberally  distributed.  Though  it  is  everywhere, 
illimitable,  omnipotent,  and  eternal,  all  intelligences, 
real  and  imaginary,  material  and  spiritual,  crave  it — 
all  they  can  get  of  it,  each  one  grasping  all  of  it,  were 
that  possible.     Be  it  a  son  of  Adam,  or  be  it  Lucifer, 


SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


he  would  rule  king  of  men ;  he  would  be  possessor  of 
the  world,  of  all  worlds,  of  all  bodies  and  souls,  of  all 
influences  and  entities;  be  it  a  beast,  it  would  rule 
king  of  beasts,  or  chief  of  a  band,  or  master  of  one,  if 
nothing  more ;  or  if  a  reptile  even,  it  would  be  the 
biggest  toad  in  the  puddle. 

The  tendency  of  power  is  to  increase ;  if  it  grows 
not  it  retrogrades  and  dies.  Power  craves  power; 
power  begets  power. 

Power  signifies  possession.  Without  possession 
there  is  no  power.  Possession  is  power.  To  hold  in 
one's  own  keeping  that  which  all  men  desire,  to  have 
under  one's  own  control  that  which  controls  all  men, 
to  be  able  to  influence  that  which  influences  all — this 
is  possession,  power.  This  puissance  may  be  latent 
or  active,  inherent  or  acquired ;  it  may  be  action,  or 
the  ability  to  act,  a  performing,  or  the  faculty  of  per- 
forming, a  controlling  or  suffering,  or  the  capacity  to 
control  or  to  suffer.  It  may  be  a  mental  or  mechani- 
cal agent,  or  the  means  by  which  mental  or  mechani- 
cal force  is  generated. 

Possession  is  occupancy  or  ownfsrship.  It  may  be 
rightful  or  wrongful  holding — it  is  tlie  same,  posses- 
sion, and  consequently  power.  A  country  may  be 
gained  by  conquest,  a  horse  by  theft,  country  and 
horse  are  alike  at  the  service  of  the  possessor  as  long 
as  he  can  hold  them. 

To  be  able  to  do,  to  possess  the  means  or  faculty  of 
doing,  performing,  or  producing  an  effect,  this  is  force. 
There  is  the  power  of  motion,  and  the  power  of  re- 
maining at  rest ;  the  power  of  heat,  steam,  electricity, 
of  attraction  and  repulsion,  and  so  forth.  There  is  a 
passive  strength  in  the  susceptibility  of  being  acted 
upon;  as  Sir  W.  Hamilton  says,  "in  psychology,  we 
may  apply  it  both  to  the  active  faculty  and  to  the 
passive  capacity  of  the  mind";  and  Fleming  remarks, 
"it  is  usual  to  speak  of  a  power  of  resistance  in  matter, 
and  of  a  power  of  endurance  in  mind.  Both  these  are 
passive  power."  <.  • 


POWER  AND  POSSESSION. 


H 


Hence  it  is  that  no  being  or  thing  can  exist  without 
the  possession,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  of  power, 
either  in  the  direction  of  purely  material  or  animal 
strength,  or  in  the  direction  of  mental  force,  as  dis- 
played in  reason  or  the  imagination.  Shakespeare 
speaks  of  the  power  of  fancy,  Dryden  of  the  power  of 
fate,  Shellej'-  of  the  power  of  soul,  Macaulay  of  the 
power  of  language. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  perceive  the  power  of  wealth, 
how  money  commands  all,  buys  the  services  and 
respect  of  others,  and  influences  all  that  most  af- 
fects us.  But  there  is  also  the  power  of  poverty, 
which  is  no  less  easy  of  demonstration.  For  if  there 
were  no  poverty,  there  would  be  no  wealth,  poverty 
being  but  the  absence  of  wealth;  and  if  there  were  no 
poverty,  wealth  would  havt>  no  power.  If  all  were 
equally  rich,  or  equally  poor,  one  would  not  wait  upon 
another,  one  could  not  buy  or  sell  another.  It  is  only 
by  the  unequal  distribution  of  the  gifts  of  the  gods 
that  the  equilibrium  of  progressional  activities  is  pre- 
served ;  were  it  otherwise,  stagnation  and  death  would 
ensue. 

Political  power  may  be  wielded  by  the  persons  in 
office,  or  by  king-makers,  or  politicians  who  place  men 
in  office,  in  which  latter  case  such  power  is  the  power 
behind  the  throne.  A  nation  is  a  power  among  na- 
tions, and  may,  besides,  be  a  great  naval  or  military 
power,  a  moral  power,  a  financial  power. 

What  shall  we  say  of  the  grand  passion,  love? — 
that  power  of  powers,  uniting  the  strongest  appetites 
of  the  flesh  with  the  superlative  sentiments  of  the 
soul.  There  are  the  instincts  of  self-preservation  and 
race-preservation  revealing  themselves  in  a  hunger 
whoso  outward  manifestation  is  the  love  of  woman. 
Powerful,  indeed,  are  the  forces  which  produce  the 
phenomena  of  propagation  and  nourishment.  The 
feeling  within  us  is  wholly  natural,  though  unexplain- 
able,  that  the  brief  period  of  our  life  is  not  complete 
without  children  to  share  it,  offspring  with  their  de- 


M 


6  SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 

pendence  and  trust,  and  to  whom  we  may  bequeath 
some  results  of  our  labors,  and  continue  in  some  small 
degree  the  efforts  of  our  lives  on  this  earth  after  we 
shall  have  left  it. 

Poets  have  written  volumes  on  the  power  of  love, 
and  the  grand  passion  is  presented  in  myriads  of  ro- 
mances, and  Oil  the  boards  of  theatres,  every  day,  the 
world  over.  There  is  no  sentiment  or  principle  which 
so  permeates  the  inner  consciousness  and  heart  of  man, 
which  so  rules  the  daily,  domestic,  and  social  life  of 
man  as  the  family  affections.  Then  there  is  the  form 
of  love  called  lust,  and  illicit  indulgence,  which  is 
scarcely  less  powerful,  though  tending  to  the  degra- 
dation of  the  finer  sensibilities,  and  all  the  nobler  in- 
stincts of  family  and  legitimate  love.  But  within  the 
sacred  precincts  of  the  family  there  is  no  less  dese- 
cration than  elsewhere;  for  marriage  without  love  is 
as  much  prostitution  as  love  without  marriage. 

Iniquity  of  all  kinds  is  a  power — instance  the  mo- 
nopolist, with  his  unjustly  accunmlated  millions,  the 
heartless  speculator,  who  corners  wheat,  sends  up  the 
price  of  food,  and  reduces  the  inhabitants  of  a  district 
to  the  verge  of  starvation.  These  are  not  workers  or 
producers ;  they  are  of  no  value  whatever  to  a  com- 
munity, but  a  curse  to  it;  yet  they  are  a  power,  a 
mighty  power  for  evil,  like  noxious  weeds  or  foul 
beasts  under  the  noses  of  honest  men.  Banditti, 
thieves,  nmrderers,  ballot-box  stuffers,  and  malefactors 
generally  are  a  power,  it  being  for  these  that  govern- 
ments are  organized,  prisons  built,  and  laws  estab- 
lished, with  law  courts,  and  learned  limbs  of  the  law. 

For  the  origin  of  power,  the  scientist  refers  you  to 
nature,  the  religionist  to  Grod.  All  knowledge,  justice, 
goodness,  and  truth,  says  the  latter,  emanate  from  the 
almighty,  the  creator  and  ruler  of  all,  who,  himself 
loving  power  supremely,  and  possessing  supreme  power, 
may  yet  delegate  his  attributes  to  chosen  instruments 
for  administration  among  the  sons  of  men.  And 
herein  is  engendered  a  mighty  power — the  power  of 


DIVERS  PHASES  OF  DOMINATION.  7 

God  on  earth,  which,  whether  fancy  or  terrible  reality, 
is  none  the  less  puissant.  Then,  beginning  with  the 
overawing  demonstrations  bred  by  the  ignorance  of 
early  ages,  change  succeeds  change,  and  yet  there  is 
nothing  lost.  Crusades  for  the  capture  of  a  golden 
fleece,  or  the  rescue  of  a  holy  sepulchre,  have  passed 
away;  but  in  their  place  are  steamships  and  dynamite, 
free  government  and  popular  tribunals. 

As  in  the  material  agencies  of  nature,  so  in  the  im- 
material, there  is  an  eternity  of  force ;  nothing  is  lost, 
no  dropping  out  of  existence  of  any  potential  or  influ- 
ential energy.  There  are  infinite  shiftings  of  positions 
and  changes  of  possessors,  but  visible  or  invisible,  pal- 
pable or  impalpable,  all  might,  mastery,  sovereignty, 
that  ever  has  been  is  now,  and  will  continue.  The 
power  of  religion,  of  superstition,  of  spiritual  ignorance^ 
and  mythical  tradition  has  decreased,  and  is  decreas- 
ing, while  the  power  of  natural  law,  natural  morality, 
of  reason  and  reality,  is  proportionately  enlarging. 
For  the  chivalry  of  the  Middle  Age  we  now  have 
the  humanity  of  a  higher  culture;  and  as  the  heroic 
ardor  of  mediasval  Europe  was  not  a  development 
from  proximate  facts,  an  instantaneous  blending  of 
war  and  religion,  but  rather  an  evolution  of  Germanic 
manners  springing  from  conditions  and  circumstances 
long  before  existing,  so  our  present  higher  humanity 
is  not  the  growth  of  an  hour,  but  a  moral  and  social 
necessity  which  has  been  slowly  forced  upon  us  by 
the  inexorable  law  of  progress  from  the  beginning. 

And  of  all  powers,  this  power  of  progress  is  the 
most  wonderful;  that  is,  the  least  understood  and  the 
least  explainable.  The  forces  of  nature  we  feel,  and 
their  existence  we  know ;  but  what  they  are  or  whence 
derived  we  cannot  tell.  The  might  of  mind,  of  reason, 
consciousness,  and  intellectuality  we  likewise  feel  and 
know,  but  these  are  also  beyond  the  ken  of  human 
understanding.  To  fathom  progress,  we  must  know 
not  only  the  elemental  forces  of  nature,  their  origin 
and  composition,  but  we  nmst  understand  universal 


m  't 


8  SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 

evolution — ^not  only  why  and  how  plants  and  animals 
grow,  but  how  and  why  the  species  constantly  improve ; 
not  only  why  and  how  among  men  is  the  constant  ad- 
vancement in  the  nature  and  quality  of  arts  and  indus- 
tries, but  what  it  is — this  mighty  development  of  the 
human  intellect  called  civilization. 

History  is  but  an  aggregation  of  biographies ;  but 
biography  is  more  than  history.  It  is  impossible 
properly  to  present  the  man  apart  from  his  environ- 
ment,; nothing  can  be  more  suitable  for  our  portraits 
than  a  frame-work  of  history ;  nevertheless,  besides 
the  surroundings  and  outward  appearance  of  the 
person,  the  true  biographer  will  institute  in  every 
case  a  searching  analysis  of  character,  such  as  will 
bring  out  in  bold  relief  quality  and  individuality,  thus 
sometimes  making  the  man  a  marvel  to  himself — for 
among  the  things  of  which  we  know  least  is  our- 
selves. 

The  frame-work  then  in  which  I  propose  to  set 
my  portraits  shall  be  woven  from  a  historic  thread, 
itself  dotted  with  pictures  of  the  men  who  made  the 
history,  together  with  the  conditions  surrounding  or 
affecting  the  individual,  such  as  relate  more  particu- 
larly to  physical  resources  and  development,  with 
something  of  society  and  general  progression. 

But  before  history  and  condition,  even,  it  seems  to 
me  eminently  fitting  to  allow  our  minds  to  dwell  for 
a  moment  on  the  origin  and  nature  of  those  forces 
which  environ  and  govern  man,  and  all  things  else  in 
the  universe,  which  teach  men  to  rule,  and  give  the 
appetite  for  supremacy,  that  we  may  be  the  better 
able,  from  the  cause  and  consequence,  to  explain  the 
nature  of  the  product,  and  compare  and  measure  it 
with  other  results  proceeding  from  other  causes. 

Coeval  with  time,  anterior  to  the  universe,  appears 
domination;  a  phenomenon  inseparably  connected 
with  the  cosmic  germ  noumenon  ;  co-existing  with  the 
first  matter  from  which  evolved  the  world  svstem. 


I 


COSMIC  FORCE. 


9 


I 


Whether  we  accept  a  self-conscious  creator,  or  blind 
chance,  as  presiding  at  the  dawn  of  existence,  the 
mind  perceives  certain  forces  which,  primarily  inter- 
mingling with  chaos,  sped  forth  to  fashion  worlds, 
and  to  set  them  revolving  in  space.  Gravity  draws 
atom  to  atom,  and  each  accession  adds  to  the  power 
and  gyrating  velocity  of  the  mass.  With  the  increase 
of  speed  is  increased  the  resistance  of  non-sympathetic 
elements,  inert  gases,  counter-moving  bodies,  friction, 
which  from  the  ponderous  bulk  segregates  orb  after 
orb,  until  the  excess  is  reduced,  or  until  compactness 
is  complete.  In  this  struggle  for  supremacy,  the 
weakness,  caused  by  extreme  activity,  and  by  disunion, 
yields  the  advantage  to  opposing  forces,  which  vary  in 
degree  with  their  contiguity,  volume,  and  density; 
and  thus  results  a  corresponding  inequality  of  masses, 
and  the  consequent  predominance  of  the  strongest, 
within  certain  bounds. 

Throughout,  gravity  enforces  the  observance  of 
law,  guiding  planets  round  suns,  and  systems  round 
sytems,  in  mazy  paths. 

Here  is  force  impelling  and  controlling  matter ;  soul 
animating  substance;  authority  uniting  a  federation 
of  interdependent  governments.  While  bound  to 
other  systems,  the  sun  regulates  its  own  planets, 
leaving  to  them  the  main  direction  of  their  satellites. 
So  masses  predominate  over  atoms,  atoms  over  mole- 
cules, in  graded  subordination,  although  permeated  by 
the  one  all-potential  pantheistic  spirit. 

Association  becomes  the  vivifying  condition.  The 
atom  by  itself  is  inert,  but  in  the  gravity  and  inter- 
course of  particles  is  born  the  phenomenon  of  force. 
The  struggles  of  cohesion  among  molecules  result  in 
the  domination  of  the  greater  mass,  with  the  reserva- 
tion that  the  drculns  cetenii  motus  marking  universal 
energy  and  action,  in  seeking  to  gather  all  mattei* 
into  one  mass,  which  would  be  equivalent  to  repose  or 
death,  is  counteracted  by  its  redundancy,  its  intensity, 
and  heterogeneity.     Approximate  harmony  becomes 


' 


10 


SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


a  controlling  law,  which  demands  and  enforces  a 
balance  of  power,  as  inst  tnced  in  the  great  principle 
of  duality,  in  positive  and  negative  qualities. 

The  manifestation  of  cosmic  force  in  gravity,  heat, 
electricity,  and  other  mechanical  and  chemical  phases, 
is  revealed  to  us  daily  in  the  formation  and  condensa- 
tion of  ga'^es,  the  dissolution  and  compression  of  earth 
and  rock ;  oceans  are  made  and  dissipated,  mountains 
uplifted  and  leveled,  and  continents  born  and  buried. 
In  minute  details  or  all-embracing  generalities,  the 
process  of  attraction  and  repulsion  goes  on,  binding 
and  balancing,  creating  and  undohig.  Yet  midst  all 
the  seeming  confusion  of  life-giving  and  death-dealing 
forces,  unalterable  laws  prevail,  ranged  in  orderly 
sequence.  From  the  same  causes  are  produced  simi- 
lar effects  under  Uke  conditions.  Dive  :ity  merges 
into  uniformity,  change  into  constancy,  sunshine,  rain, 
and  wind  succeed  each  other  ;  heat  and  moisture  start 
vegetation.  Inorganic  matter  assimilates,  and  out  of 
it  spring  organic  substances.  Inferior  elements  feed 
the  superior,  until  is  evolved  a  vast  system  of  trans- 
formations, with  an  attendant  metempsychosis  from 
minute  atom  into  infinite  nirvana. 

The  struggle  for  domination  is  more  conspicuous  in 
organic  life.  Cells  decomp>se  and  renew,  instinct  is 
arrayed  against  instinct,  elements  and  qualities  against 
each  other.  The  hardy  weed  will  overrun  the  field 
and  garden,  and  exterminate  the  feebler  cultivated 
plant;  by  absorbing  moisture  and  sunshine  the  tree 
will  kill  or  dwarf  the  minor  vegetation  within  the 
limits  of  its  spreading  roots  or  shadow.  So  beasts 
prey  on  beasts,  assisted  by  muscular  strength,  subtlety 
of  instinct,  and  developed  cunning,  from  which  the 
weaker  save  themselves  by  watchfulness,  advantages 
of  environment,  flight,  and  other  precautions.  The 
survival  of  the  fittest  is  here  attained  less  by  the  phy- 
sical advantage  of  massiveness  and  strength,  which 
predominate  in  organic  and  inorganic  matter,  than  by 


MAN,   HEAD  OVER  ALL. 


11 


( 


brain  power,  as  shown  by  the  supremacy  of  man. 

The  inequality  which  hes  at  the  foundation  of 
domination  throughout  nature  is  strikingly  exhibited 
in  that  intimate  attendant  on  man,  the  dog.  It 
ranges  in  the  variety  of  size  and  traits,  from  the  fierce 
mastiff,  the  noble  St.  Bernard,  and  the  fleet  grey- 
hound, to  the  docile  poodle,  the  intelligent  and  cour- 
ageous terrier,  and  the  puny  lap  spaniel.  Among 
men  the  difference  in  stature  is  less  than  the  differ- 
ence in  mental  and  moral  qualities.  This  intellectual 
difference  appears  the  greater  when  we  consider  the 
helplessness  of  the  infant  as  compared  with  the  young 
of  most  animals,  and  the  inferiority  of  brutes  to  adult 
human  beings. 

Man's  advance  in  domination  is  slow.  Life  is  a 
series  of  experiments.  He  wills,  and  nerves  and 
muscles  perform  the  bidding;  but  their  power  is 
limited,  and  the  directing  mind  is  restrained  by  the 
effect  of  its  own  over-exertion.  He  then  becomes 
prudent  and  acquires  skill.  Perceiving  his  danger 
and  the  limit  of  his  capabilities,  he  learns  to  ward  off 
the  one,  and  to  extend  the  other  by  subordinating 
fresh  forces.     He  multiplies  himself 

His  ascendency  over  nature  was  achieved  by  means 
of  implements,  and  an  intelligent  combination  of 
hands  and  heads  for  defence  or  onslaught.  He 
hunted  and  fished ;  he  seized  a  stick  to  strike  down 
the  forest  beasts,  and  constructed  a  snare  with  which 
to  entrap  the  wild  fowl.  In  due  time  stone,  club, 
and  spear  develf)ped  into  sword,  bow,  and  boomerang ; 
the  boat  appeared,  to  be  supplied  in  due  time  with 
sails  and  rudder.  Thus  he  harnessed  the  wind  and 
rode  the  wave.  Yet  how  slow  the  fashioning  of  the 
tools  for  even  this  poor  subordination  of  nature  1 
The  capabilities  of  the  sail  were  not  understood  until 
far  into  the  middle  ages.  The  tempering  of  bronze 
and  iron  came  about  very  gradually.  Earlier  even 
than  the  primitive  sail  dates  the  taming  of  the  ele- 
phant and  the  horse  ;  and  in  mounting  these  mighty 


iv. 


(  ^ 


12 


SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


animals  the  rider  received  an  ineffaceable  impress  of 
dignity  as  the  lord  of  creation.  It  was  an  epoch  in 
the  history  of  sovereignty.  It  was  a  culminating 
feature  in  nomad  life,  which,  by  a  peculiar  exercise 
of  courage  and  skill,  and  by  the  exhilaration  of  speed, 
fed  the  pride  of  mastery,  extended  man's  vision  be- 
yond the  hitherto  limited  horizon,  stirred  curiosity 
and  thirst  for  acquisition,  and  gave  new  life  to 
migration  and  conquest.  The  grassy  hills  and  fertile 
valleys  tempted  others  to  a  pastoral  or  an  agricultural 
life. 

The  predilection  for  special  food,  drinks,  and  trink- 
ets stimulated  workeis  to  greater  exertion  and  skill, 
and  the  superior  taste  developed  by  settled  life  de- 
manded improved  shelter;  the  cultivation  of  fields  was 
attended  by  the  leveling  of  forests;  solar  heat  was 
used  to  bake  bricks,  and,  subsequently,  fire  to  tem- 
per them.  Love  of  ornament,  whether  emanating 
from  vanity  or  a  Platonic  striving  for  the  beautiful, 
fostered  a  desire  for  finer  clothing,  which,  moreover, 
presented  one  of  the  best  mediums  for  the  use,  dis- 
play, and  investment  of  wealth.  Appetite  and  am- 
bition led  to  rivalry  and  feuds,  which  developed  the 
strength  and  ability  to  achieve  distinction. 

The  change  of  seasons,  with  the  attendant  fluctua- 
tion in  supplies,  forced  upon  the  mind  the  necessity  of 
accumulation,  which  constitutes  so  essential  an  ele- 
ment in  progress,  as  illustrated  by  the  greater  ad- 
vance in  temperate  than  in  tropic  zones,  in  accumula- 
tion, industry  presented  itself  as  one  important  factor 
in  the  acquisition  of  such  power  over  the  less  fortu- 
nate as  lay  in  wealth.  •  ^ 

Man  is  a  social  being.  Intercourse  leads  in  him, 
as  among  the  cosmic  masses,  to  the  unfolding  of  be- 
neficent forces,  to  language,  to  exchange  of  ideas,  to 
progress.  This  finds  illustration  around  us  in  the  de- 
velopment of  helpless  infancy  into  vivacious  youth 
and   strong   manhood;    in  historic   expansion,  as   of 


THE  SOCIAL  INSTINCT. 


18 


Greece,  under  the  stimulating  Olympic  gatherings, 
from  barbarism  into  the  most  prosperous  and  enlight- 
ened among  states;  in  the  fruitful  results  of  commer- 
cial intercourse  alike  among  the  Phoenicians  and 
among  the  distant  nations  which  they  visited. 

The  social  instinct  is  prompted  by  the  necessity  for 
mutual  aid,  for  the  division  of  labor,  for  organized  as- 
sociation. This  growing  mutual  dependence  is  most 
evident  in  war,  in  attack  and  defence.  Tempted  by 
the  possessions  of  their  prosperous  neighbors,  the 
stronger  tribes  will  attack  and  plunder  them.  The 
mountaineers,  for  instance,  make  raids  upon  the  occu- 
pants of  the  plain;  the  roaming  nomads  upon  the 
valley  settlers.  Very  early  in  the  history  of  men 
combinations  are  made  to  preserve  the  balance  of 
power.  Atomic  combinations  and  balanced  masses 
prevail  throughout  nature.  Individuality  is  a  confed- 
eracy of  the  elements  and  organs  composing  the  body; 
nationality  of  those  composing  the  state. 

Thus  we  see  two  ruling  sentiments  which  crop  out 
in  man  at  every  turn :  love  of  liberty,  and  a  spiric  of 
determination  to  follow  his  own  will  and  impose  it 
upon  others.  As  all  are  similarly  actuated,  resistance 
interposes  a  check  to  otherwise  unrestrained  inclina- 
tion, and  demands  a  respect  for  individual  rights. 
These  are  subordinate  to  might,  however,  especially 
in  savage  times ;  and  as  in  nature  volume  and  activity 
control  all,  in  man  muscle  and  mind  are  influential. 
The  bent  for  ruling  is  fostered  in  the  family,  where 
the  male  prevails  over  the  weaker  female  and  chil- 
dren, and  where  is  established  a  semi-slavery,  in  patri- 
archal form,  over  the  gradually  increasing  dependents. 
The  consequent  leisure  of  the  master  gives  the  op- 
portunity for  the  practice  of  arts  conducive  to  the  ex- 
tension of  authority,  as  oratory,  whereby  wisdom  is  in- 
culcated and  enthusiasm  aroused ;  also  athletic  feats, 
and  impressive  display  in  costly  attire  and  dignified 
bearing.  So  strives  the  bird  to  please  its  mate,  and 
surpass  its  rival  in  song  and  plumage. 


1 


'm 


I 


14 


SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


The  doctrine  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest  finds  its 
most  conspicuous  illustration  in  the  rise  of  a  leader, 
a  strong  man  who,  perceiving  the  emergency,  seizes 
the  opportunity  to  lift  himself  by  aiding  others.  He 
thus  sways  those  about  him  through  their  deference 
for  skill  and  courage,  as  bombast,  hypocrisy,  and  craft 
may  prevail  in  other  fields.  Leadership  gives  the 
seal  to  tribal  union  or  nationality.  It  unfurls  the 
standard  which  kindles  or  inspires  men's  national 
pride.  Instance  Cyaxares,by  whom  the  Medes  were 
raised  to  temporary  greatness;  Jenghis  Khan  and 
Timour,  who  transformed  hordes  into  conquerors; 
Cyrus,  who  created  an  enduring  empire ;  Peter  the 
Great,  who  started  the  progressive  march  of  the 
Kussians. 

Harmonious  association  depending  on  the  observ- 
ance of  the  tacit  or  formal  agreement  which  binds 
it,  a  guardian  superv'ision  became  necessary  to  watch 
over  its  fulfilment  and  over  particular  rights.  Capacity 
for  participation  in  the  government  being  scant  in  early 
times,  the  tendency  was  naturally  to  monarchy. 
The  primitive  patriarchal  rule  being  autocratic,  the 
comparatively  lawless  condition  of  the  people  de- 
manded a  similarly'  strong  authority  when  circum- 
stances called  for  a  head.  Fierce  elements  require 
a  strong  hand,  like  the  wild  horse,  which,  after 
roaming  unrestrained  over  the  steppes,  must  be  curbed 
by  severe  treatment  and  held  firmly  in  hand,  yet  soon 
obeying  the  lightest  rein.  The  despot  serves  to  disci- 
pUne  the  lawless,  to  guide  the  childhood  of  the  nation. 
He  becomes  obnoxious  only  when  culture  has  im- 
posed upon  the  people  a  healthful  self-restraint. 
Even  now  the  turbulent  Mexicans  require  a  military 
head,  practically  a  dictator,  to  control  them  for  their 
weal,  while  the  people  of  the  adjoining  United  States 
are  able  to  govern  themselves  with  the  merest  effigy 
as  administrator. 

Round  the  autocrat  prominent  families  and  officials 
rally,  with  the  conservative  instincts  centring  in  pos- 


i 


■A 


EVOLUTION  OF  GOVERNMENT. 


16 


sessions  and  inherited  privileges,  and  with  a  sym- 
pathetic desire  to  share  in  and  sustain  domination. 
As  aggression  calls  for  troops,  so  conquest  gives  the 
pretence  for  maintaining  standing  armies,  and  their 
dependence  upon  the  leader  for  spoils  and  pay  forms 
a  bond  between  them.  The  latter  naturally  gives  his 
supporters  the  preference  in  distributing  offices  and 
lands ;  the  conquered  people  being  ofttimes  assigned 
in  bondage  to  the  conquerers,  though  in  small  ap- 
portionments, for  their  better  supervision  and  control 
by  the  chief  authority.  Thus  with  every  act  of 
robbery  and  injustice  is  added  another  link  to  the 
chain,  while  superstition  is  invoked  to  weld  it  firmer 
and  firmer.  The  ruler  is  installed  with  religious  rites 
and  oracular  designations;  apotheosis  frequently  fol- 
lows. As  late  as  the  time  of  Alexander  divine 
paternity  was  alleged,  and  to-day  in  some  quarters 
the  divine  right  of  kings  is  still  unblushingly  pro- 
claimed. Sanctified  tradition  is  upheld  by  complex 
ceremonials  and  splendor  of  attire  and  abode,  all  serv- 
ing to  impress  the  unleavened  masses  with  the  desired 
awe,  and  fascinate  and  fetter  all  those  who  are  per- 
mitted to  walk  in  such  radiant  paths.  Yet  tradi- 
tions and  conventionalities,  especially  when  permeated 
by  religion,  as  in  Egypt,  are  safeguards  for  those 
whom  they  aim  to  overwhelm,  as  they  constrain  the 
monarch  to  his  observance  of  accepted  rules  and  duty. 

Unfortunately  the  religious  regulations  were  too 
protective,  primarily  for  the  controlling  powers,  and 
for  the  other  classes  successively,  according  to  their 
several  relations  to  the  former.  Castes,  enslavement 
of  men,  bodily  and  mental,  industrial  stagnation, 
and  other  evils  resulted  from  the  protraction  of  this 
leading-string  system,  which,  as  in  childhood,  is  bene- 
ficial only  in  limited  and  temporary  form. 

Domination  and  rule  were  evolved  not  alone  through 
the  necessity  of  assuring  to  the  people  their  safety 
and  rights,  nor  by  causes  incidental  to  a  division  of 
labor,  nor  to  correct  the  abuses  arising  from  the  ine- 


' 


10 


SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


quality  of  the  subjects ;  but  they  arose  also  from  im- 
perfection of  mind  and  matter,  stamped  in  those 
mequalities  and  wants,  and  in  the  circumscribed  limits 
to  all  efforts.  Our  understanding  loses  itself  in  roam- 
ing beyond  the  bounds  of  the  tangible  and  finite,  and 
rarely  grasps  even  such  distinctions  as  the  relative  and 
positive  qualities  of  good  and  evil,  virtue  and  vice, 
the  one  being  the  insufficiency  or  excess  of  the  other,  a 
warning  to  enforce  the  rational  and  proper  enjoyment 
of  what  will  in  the  end  prove  the  best. 

The  defects  of  our  mind,  tending  to  magnifj'-  the 
mysterious,  readily  conjure  up  phantoms,  connected  at 
first  with  the  startling  phenomena  of  nature,  and 
then,  as  these  become  understood,  with  the  more 
abstruse  cosmic  operations  and  the  inconceivable  infi- 
nite. The  rustling  branches  of  the  fruit-bearing 
tree,  the  overflowing  river,  alike  beneficent  and  de- 
structive, the  lurking  life  within  the  seed,  the  phan- 
toms of  dreamland,  all  suggest  more  immediate  causes 
for  good  and  evil,  to  be  invoked  and  appeased,  than 
the  raging  storm,  the  fertilizing  rain,  or  the  warming 
sun.  Yet  these  last  were  first  worshipped.  With 
liberating  knowledge  the  mind  soars  beyond,  into  the 
higher  realms  of  polytheism,  of  loftiest  monotheism , 
and  pantheism;  yet  even  there,  as  in  the  Brahma 
and  Siva,  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman,  it  invests  infinite 
beings  with  a  leveling  personality,  to  bring  them 
within  the  range  of  the  u!i<lerstanding,  only  to  admit 
fresh  superstitions  with  iii;w  corruptions,  and  trans- 
form ministering  angc  ]«  ^o  devils  of  darkness,  and  el* 
evating  rites  to  debasing  idolatry. 

The  chains  which  bind  the  victim  of  transmitted 
slavery  to  the  dominating  supernatural  are  broken 
occasionally  by  the  bold  resolution  of  innate  strength 
and  superiority,  amounting  to  inspiration  or  genius. 
Juarez  and  Lerdo  de  Tejada  in  Mexico  are  fair  exam- 
ples of  this  species  of  self-emancipation  and  eraancipa- 
tion  of  country.  But  it  is  usually  through  the  reason 
and  reflection  arising  from  an  increase  of  knowledge 


SPRINGS  OF  ACTION. 


17 


that  the  fetters  of  the  mind  arc  broken.  And  to  the 
lover  of  truth,  the  thouglit  is  most  refreshing  that 
the  time  will  come  when  all  mists  will  be  dissipated, 
mysticism  thrown  out  of  the  categoiy  of  knowledge, 
men  knowing  what  they  believe  apu  believing  only 
what  they  know.  We  have  the  pledge  and  guarantee 
of  progress  that  in  the  end  only  real  and  tangible 
truth  shall  remain.  At  the  present  time  tliere  are 
those  who,  being  able  to  command  both  fear  and 
learning,  take  care  to  secure  command  of  the  main- 
springs of  action,  and  play  upon  them  to  their  own 
purposes.  They  play  upon  superstition,  conjure  up 
mirages  of  brighter  days  and  the  bliss  of  futurity,  and 
employ  the  illusive  arguments  of  asceticism  to  com- 
mend poverty  and  ignorance,  which,  hostile  to  progress, 
are  nevertheless  favorable  to  the  ambitious  aims  of 
the  leaders  of  mankind.  Then,  hastening  to  secure 
the  substance  so  foolishly  abandoned  by  their  dupes 
for  the  shadow,  they  strengthen  themselves  with  the 
monopoly  of  knowledge  and  wealth,  blinding  their 
subjects  to  the  trickery  by  the  glitter  of  pageantry 
and  pomp,  and  by  the  soothing  counsels  and  fascinat- 
ing hopes  poured  forth  in  fiery  eloquence.  Thus  dare 
chicanery  and  cunning  to  enlist  even  incomprehensible 
divinity,  unfathomable  infinity,  to  serve  their  base 
purposes. 

The  springs  of  human  action  may  be  played  upon 
with  intentions  good  or  evil,  frequently  with  equal 
ultimate  good  or  evil  results.  Contentment  often 
leads  to  inaction,  stagnation,  decline ;  luxury  to  dissi- 
pation, undermining  health  and  squandering  property. 
Thus  we  see  fanaticism  and  greed  serving  as  stimulants 
to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  and  to  progress.  War 
has  its  value  in  enforcinaj  association,  wherein  lies 
all  true  and  great  development.  Excess,  never- 
theless, in  this  and  other  things  may  result  in  such 
desolation  as  to  wither  all  elements  conducive  to 
growth.  The  predominance  of  evil,  to  the  pessimist, 
is  owing  U)  the  lack  of  proper  efforts  to  check  extrav- 


V.  a.— I. 


>K 


!    I 


li 


18 


SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


lit 


agance.  In  activity,  or  speed,  as  in  passiveness,  suc- 
cess depends  on  the  relative  proportion  of  different 
qualities  or  elements. 

As  in  the  celestial  sphere  excess  of  material  leads 
to  dismemberment,  so  in  the  political  universe.  The 
cohesion  of  vast  empires  of  heterogeneous  composition 
is  not  common;  even  though  Iranians,  Quirites,  and 
Saracens  introduced  methods  and  ideas  which  upheld 
their  sway  for  centuries.  Disruption  was  brought 
about  by  means  similar  to  those  employed  for  acquisi- 
tion by  invasion,  and  conquest,  as  instanced  by  the  rise 
and  fall  of  Rome ;  also  by  that  feature,  conservative 
of  both  supremacy  and  equality,  inheritance,  as 
shown  by  the  fate  of  Charlemagne's  empire ;  and 
further,  by  civil  dissension,  due  less  to  ambitious  hi- 
trigues  than  to  corruption  on  the  part  of  the  prince, 
as  Montesquieu  declares.  The  rallying-cries  of  rights 
and  principles,  raised  by  remonstrating  factions,  find 
an  echo  beyond  the  physical  dividing  lines  which 
rise  as  natural  barriers  between  races.  Resolution 
creates  resources  for  the  struggle  ;  the  selfish  interests 
of  neighbors  prompt  them  to  aid  in  the  dismemberment 
of  powerful  rivals,  and  perseverance  brings  success. 
The  histories  of  Greece  and  England  reveal  how  emer- 
gencies are  seized  by  the  people  for  obtaining  a  share 
in  the  government,  and  limiting  the  authority  of  rulers, 
and  how  the  king  and  aristocracy  strive  to  regain  the 
concession.  The  training  acquired  by  participation  in 
the  government,  and  in  local  administration,  serves  to 
instU  into  the  minds  of  men  the  self-control  and  respect 
for  rights  and  laws  which  make  possible  the  light  rule 
of  modern  republics,  and  incite  elsewhere  a  healthy 
aspiration  among  the  masses  and  an  abatement  of  au- 
tocracy. 

The  inherent  sovereignty  of  civilization  over  sav- 
agism  is  like  the  sovereignty  of  God  over  man,  or  of 
man  over  nature.  It  is  one  with  the  universal  dom- 
ination of  the  powers  of  progress,  resulting  in  the 


ATTRACTIONS  OF  THE  WESTERN  WILDERNESS. 


19 


i 


supremacy  of  the  fittest.  It  is  a  sovereignty  pre- 
determined and  inexorable.  The  merciless  law  of 
evolution  knows  no  distinction  between  right  and 
wrong,  good  and  evil,  justice  and  injustice.  It  is 
absolute,  omnipotent,  and  takes  no  notice  of  the  laws 
of  man.  Right  and  righteousness  are  on  the  side  of 
the  strongest,  who,  whether  or  not,  from  a  moral 
point  of  view,  they  deserve  to  survive,  as  a  matter  of 
fact  do  survive,  and  overawe  and  subdue  all  the  rest. 
Under  the  wheels  of  the  great  juggernaut  car  of 
progress,  desti.iy  is  ever  flinging  the  weak,  the  timid,, 
the  simple,  whose  bones  with  grim  satisfaction  it  grinds 
to  powder.  Wherever  savagism  encounters  civiliza- 
tion, whether  in  the  garb  of  kindness  or  cruelty, 
whether  in  the  form  of  soldier,  priest,  or  trader,  the 
former  must  give  way.     It  is  so  written  in  the  law. 

In  the  westward  advance  of  the  Aryans  in  Amer- 
ica from  the  Antilles  into  the  southern  and  central 
parts  of  the  continent,  and  from  the  eastern  seaboard 
inward,  the  farthest  northwest  was  among  the  last 
regions  to  be  entered.  This  long  abandonment  to 
primeval  isolation  was  less  due  to  its  remoteness  from 
the  line  of  march  than  to  the  absence  of  those  treas- 
ures or  flourishing  native  cities,  which  alone  could 
have  tempted  adventurers  beyond  the  limits  of  method- 
ical development.  The  Spaniards  were  accordingly 
confined  for  over  two  centuries  within  the  more  south- 
ern latitudes,  while  the  French  and  Anglo-Saxons 
spread  slowly  northward  along  the  eastern  coast,  bat- 
tling  with  adversity,  and  Ihnited  at  the  first  to  a 
narrow  strip  of  seaboard  by  the  forbidding  interior, 
with  its  hardships  and  hostile  savages. 

Nevertheless,  there  were  attractions  in  this  western 
wilderness  which  in  due  time  drew  men  thither. 
Furs  abounded  beyond  the  range  of  settlement,  which 
in  some  respects  gave  returns  as  liberal  as  mines  of 
precious  metal.  A  nother  less  tangible  attraction  to 
the  explorer  was  the  elusive  vision  of  a  strait,  which 
gradually  chan;^ed  to  that  of  a  northwest   passage, 


Wi 


i 


i 


20 


SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


and  later  induced  many  an  enthusiast  to  voyage  in 
quest  of  the  north  pole.  It  was  a  fancy  cherished 
since  the  days  of  Prince  Henry  the  navigator,  even 
then  figuring  as  a  sea  route  to  the  Indies.  With  the 
discovery  that  America  blocked  the  way,  it  reduced 
itself  to  the  slender  confines  of  a  channel  through 
the  supposed  island  group  or  southeastern  projection 
of  Asia.  The  disclosures  made  by  isthmian  coastings 
and  expeditions,  and  the  first  circumnavigation  by 
Magellan,  revealing  a  vast  continent,  the  search 
turned  with  the  compass  northward  through  the 
northeastern  projection  of  the  oriental  continent. 
The  finding  of  such  a  passage  would  have  led  to  the 
establishment  of  forts  and  settlements  along  its  sii  j  ^/  a? 
for  guarding  the  transit  to  the  spice  islands,  and 
for  supplying  and  trading  with  passing  fleets  ;  and 
from  so  profitable  a  nucleus  would  have  sprung  wide- 
spread colonization,  es])ecially  toward  tie  south. 

It  was  a  prize  worth  contending  for,  with  fame  for 
the  discoverer  and  substantial  benefits  for  the  nation; 
and  the  appetite  of  both  was  sharpened  by  the  hope 
of  stumbling  upon  mines  and  peoples  as  rich  as  those 
which  had  tempted  the  Spaniards  in  the  son-th.  The 
wonders  and  mysteries  of  the  remote  and  hidden  had 
their  special  fascinations,  and  men  were  not  lacking 
whose  vivid  imagin/ition  conjured  up  great  cities  and 
golden  mountains  from  vague  rumor,  or  well-defined 
straits  from  the  faint  indication  of  some  inlet,  which 
storms,  sickness,  or  other  obstacles  had  prevented 
them  from  entering.  Others  raised  similar  reports  on 
mere  assumption,  to  secure  a  share  in  the  prospective 
glory  of  the  real  discoverer,  or  to  obtain  temporary 
gain  as  leader's,  pilots,  or  contractors.  Indeed,  men- 
dacity here  assumes  the  heroic.  Thus  conquerors 
thirsting  for  lands,  wealth,  and  offices,  and  friars  for 
souls  and  ecclesiastic  rule,  stood  ready  to  enter  the 
paths  to  be  opened  by  explorers. 

The  Atlantic  side  was  diligently  examiix^d  under 
Spani£)h  auspice ij  from  South  Ameri'-i*  to  Florida  and 


BALBOA,   CORTES,   AND  CABRILLO. 


21 


beyond,  under  Columbus,  Ojeda,  Nicuesa,  Cordova, 
Narvaez,  Soto,  and  others.  Soto,  moreover,  pene- 
trated inland  for  150  miles  along  a  range  extend- 
ing from  the  present  state  of  Texas,  through  Arkan- 
sas to  Georgia,  while  Cabeza  de  Vaca  crossed  from 
Texas  through  Chihuahua  to  Sonora,  and  gave  the 
incentive  for  Coronado's  expedition  through  Arizona 
and  New  Mexico  into  Kansas,  which  reduced  the 
rumored  gilded  cities  to  wigwam  villages.  English, 
Portuguese,  and  French  joined  in  the  search  for  a 
route,  under  Cabot,  the  Cortereals,  and  Cartier,  the 
last  penetrating  far  up  the  St  Lawrence  to  the  falls 
of  St  Louis,  Thus  by  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century  the  eastern  coast  had  been  explored  as  far  as 
Hudson  strait. 

On  the  Pacific  side  Balboa  led  the  way  to  similar 
exploration  along  the  shores  disclosed  by  him  and 
opened  the  path  for  conquerors,  who  within  a  decade 
overran  Central  America  and  Mexico.  Cortes  ex- 
tended the  knowledge  of  this  coast  to  both  sides  of 
Lower  California,  and  Cabrillo  beyond  the  34th  par- 
allel, perhaps  to  Oregon's  southern  line,  which  re- 
mained practically  the  limit  of  north-western  explora- 
tion for  two  centuries,  owing  to  the  discouraging 
revelation  that  in  this  direction  there  were  no  regions 
worthy  of  conquest.  The  hope  of  finding  a  passage 
had  also  been  disappointed  by  the  presumption  that 
it  could  not  be  expected  to  exist  south  of  latitude  60°. 

Nevertheless  speculation  revived  in  time,  and  not 
alone  Hudson  strait  but  the  river  St  Lawrence  were 
soon  afterward  assumed  to  be  the  mouths  of  a  channel 
which,  under  the  fanciful  name  of  Anian,  should  con- 
nect with  the  Pacific  somewhere  above  the  present 
California  line.  In  support  of  this  theory  navigators 
were  named  who  had  either  heard  of  or  sailed  through 
that  canal.  Sufficient  doubt  certainly  remained  to 
warrant  further  search.  Frobisher  found  wide  open- 
ings west  of  Greenland,  and  John  David  in  1585-7 
applied  his  name  to  a  wide  strait  in  latitude  72°.     In 


V  I  i 


i   f  ' 


22 


SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


1610  Henry  Hudson  created  a  flutter  of  expectation 
by  sailing  into  the  great  bay  named  after  him,  and 
where  his  cowardly  crew  cast  him  adrift  to  die.  Six 
years  later  Baflin  immortalized  himself  by  reaching 
latitude  78°,  and  upholding  the  reputation  of  the 
English  as  the  foremost  of  Arctic  explorers. 

About  the  same  time  the  British  established  per- ' 
manent  colonies  along  the  coast  from  Virginia  to 
Massachusetts;  and  the  French,  who  had  in  1562-5 
made  ti;  \r  entry  into  Canada,  resumed  the  occupa- 
tion of  tit  ouvelle  France,  and  took  the  lead  in 
daring  expiv  tions  by  land.  Nicolet  had  by  1650 
reached  the  shores  of  Lake  Huron.  Soon  afterward 
trappers  and  missionaries  arrived  and  penetrated  to 
Hudson's  bay,  and  in  1678  a  fort  was  planted  at  Lake 
Superior.  In  1673  Joliet  and  Marquette  descended 
the  Mississippi,  ascertaining  its  course  to  be  toward 
the  Atlantic,  and  that  a  wide  tributary  slope  must  lie 
west  of  it.  A  few  years  later  Pere  Hennepin  trav- 
elled up  the  Mississippi  to  the  falls  of  St  Anthony, 
while  his  chief.  La  Salle,  floated  down  the  father  of 
rivers  to  the  gulf  This  achievement  obtained  for 
him  the  grant  of  Louisiana,  and  furnished  material 
for  the  fictitious  expedition  of  Bnron  La  Hontan. 
His  misguided  efl*ort  to  found  colonies  within  the 
grant  resulted  before  the  close  of  the  century  in  per- 
manent settlements,  whence  explorers  and  fur-traders 
pushed  inward  to  connect  with  the  line  of  forts 
planted  by  Canadian  trappers  from  Hudson's  bay  down 
the  banks  of  the  Mississippi.  On  the  Missouri  the 
first  fort  was  built  in  1727,  and  during  the  following 
decade  the  Vdrendrye  expended  a  fortune  in  estab- 
lishing a  line  of  posts  from  Manitoba  to  the  eastern 
base  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  with  the  intention  of 
extending  it  to  the  Pacific ;  but  the  plan  was  more 
than  they  could  accomplish,  and  mercenary  intriguers 
interfered  to  despoil  them  of  the  fruits  of  their  labors. 
Marquette  had  already  heard  of  a  river  flowing  west- 
ward, beyond  the  dividing  range,  and  a  Missouri  In- 


oSate's  expeditions. 


23 


diaii,  named  Moncacht  Ape,  related  to  the  French 
savant,  La  Page  du  Pratz,  that  he  had  descended 
that  stream  to  the  Pacific  between  1745  and  1752. 
Captain  J.  Carver,  who  visited  the  upper  Mississippi 
in  the  sixties,  heard  of  this  river  of  the  West,  and 
applied  to  it  the  name  of  Oregon,  to  which  appella- 
tion the  poet  Bryant  gave  permanence  in  his  Thana- 
topsis.  Thus  inland  travellers,  with  the  testimony  of 
the  savages,  and  the  course  and  size  of  the  streams, 
had  by  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  pushed 
the  mystic  strait  far  into  the  Arctic,  and  opened  to 
the  view  of  the  world  a  vast  area  abounding  in  furs, 
mines,  and  products  of  the  soil. 

Onate's  expeditions  in  New  Mexico  after  1598  met 
with  many  tantalizing  rumors  of  the  interior.  The 
friar  navigator,  Urdaneta,  had  in  1565  opened  the 
north  sea  route  from  the  spice  islands  to  Mexico,  and 
among  those  who  followed  it,  Gali  skirted  the  coast 
for  a  certain  distance,  from  latitude  57°,  as  some  will 
have  it,  although  this  should  undoubtedly  read  37°. 
Vizcaino  reached  in  1602-3  the  4 2d  parallel,  and 
Drake  in  1579  claimed  a  latitude  fully  as  high.  Their 
failure  to  ascertain  anything  of  the  coast  beyond  left 
room  for  the  fictitious  voyages  of  Juan  de  Fuca, 
whose  happy  guess  at  a  strait  in  latitude  48°  procured 
so  wide  a  belief  in  his  veracity  that  his  name  was 
applied  to  the  inlet;  of  Maldonado,  who  in  1588 
claimed  to  have  sailed  through  the  straits  of  Anian 
from  ocean  to  ocean,  from  latitude  60°  to  75°,  and 
toward  the  end  of  the  last  century  was  believed  by 
many  to  have  passed  through  Bering  strait ;  and  of 
Admiral  Fonte's  similar  achievement,  so  utterly  at  vari- 
ance with  facts  as  to  be  stamped  as  a  hoax.  The 
vagueness  of  geographic  knowledge,  as  to  this  coast,  is 
illustrated  by  the  delineation  of  Lower  California, 
which  was  displayed  on  the  maps  first  as  a  peninsula, 
afterward  as  an  island,  and  so  remained  far  into  the 
eighteenth  century. 


ES9Z 


m 


m 


24  SOURCES  OF   POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 

The  solution  came  in  time,  however.  In  1770 
Hearne  followed  the  Coppermine  river  to  the  Arctic 
sea,  and  fur  stations  rose  on  Athabasca  and  Peace 
rivers,  facilitating  expeditions  to  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains. In  1789  Alexander  Mackenzie  reached  the 
same  ocean  by  descending  the  great  river  bearing  his 
name.  Inspired  by  the  result,  three  years  later  he 
crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains  along  Peace  river,  and 
after  wintering  at  Fork  fort,  he  reached  the  Fraser, 
and  striking  across  the  continent  beheld  the  Pacific  at 
Bentinck  north  arm,  on  July  20,  1793,  thus  per- 
forming the  first  authentic  passage  of  this  slope  in  the 
north.  It  was  an  achievement  to  be  expected  from 
the  advance  of  the  fur-traders,  but  its  early  and 
happy  accomplishment  was  due  to  the  energy  and 
reasoning  power,  the  skill  and  determined  courage  of 
this  hardy  trader,  who  opened  the  way  in  the  face  of 
many  dangers,  through  these  unknown  regions. 

In  the  south  the  Spaniards  had  by  this  time  occu- 

Sied  California,  and  made  explorations  from  New 
lexico  to  Great  Salt  lake.  In  the  extreme  north- 
west the  Russian  fur-hunters,  after  a  century-march 
across  Siberia,  had  learned  vaguely  of  a  land  beyond 
the  sea.  In  1728  Vitus  Bering  discovered  the  divid- 
ing strait  named  after  him,  and  thirteen  years  later, 
in  company  with  Chirikof,  his  expedition  discovered 
Alaska,  whose  wealth  in  furs  quickly  lured  the  Mus- 
covites to  occupy  the  country. 

Their  advance  along  the  continent  becoming  known, 
jealousy  roused  the  long  slumbering  Spaniards  to 
fresh  explorations,  to  secure  the  strait  if  such  ex- 
isted, and  to  anticipate  the  intruders  in  their  claims 
upon  the  coast,  by  discovery  if  not  by  occupation. 
Perez  sailed  in  1774  from  New  Spain  to  latitude  55°, 
taking  possession,  and  assisting  in  the  following  year 
the  larger  expedition  under  Heceta  and  Cuaclra  to 
examine  the  coast  more  closely  as  far  as  latitude  57°, 
especially  from  Nf)otka  southward,  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia  being   partially  explored.     Cuadra  joined 


MARTINEZ  AND  HARO. 


25 


! 


Arteage  shortly  afterward  in  an  exploration  of  Alaska. 
These  voyages  were  not  published,  so  that  the  names 
applied  were  replaced  by  subsequent,  but  better  known 
English  nomenclature.  The  first  real  explorer  in 
these  waters  from  England  was  James  Cook,  who,  in 
seeking  the  strait  in  1778,  examined  the  coast  from 
latitude  43°,  northward,  and  more  particularly  beyond 
latitude  49°,  and  spread  such  information  concerning 
its  wealth  in  furs  as  to  induce  a  number  of  trading 
vessels  to  visit  that  region. 

This  further  influx  of  foreigners  alarmed  Spain 
anew ;  and  in  1788-9  Martinez  and  Haro  were  sent 
to  assert  her  claims  to  this  refj;ion,  on  the  ground  of 
prior  discovery,  by  establishing  a  fort  at  Nootka,  on 
Vancouver  island,  and  by  seizing  English  vessels. 
The  result  was  a  threatening  dispute  between  th(^  re- 
spective governments.  England  pointed  out  that  as 
Spain  had  failed  to  take  advur^tage  of  her  discoveries 
by  actual  occupation,  her  own  explorations  and  acts 
of  taking  posses. -«ion,  under  Drake,  Cook,  and  other 
captains  bore  with  them  rights,  to  which  an  indisputa- 
ble value  had  been  imparted  by  actual  commercial 
intercourse  with  tlie  natives,  and  the  establishment  of 
camps  and  ship-yards,  as  well  as  the  proclaimed  pur- 
chase of  large  tracts  from  the  aborigines.  The  ob- 
stinate Englishman  would,  no  doubt,  have  wrested 
the  advantage  from  the  feeble  Spaniard,  but  for  the 
partiality  of  France  for  the  latter.  As  it  was,  Spain 
consented  to  let  the  English  share  with  her  in  trade, 
navigation,  and  settlement  on  the  coast,  above  San 
Francisco,  although  she  claimed  that  all  territory 
south  of  Fuca  strait  should  be  recognized  as  hers. 
She  offered  this,  in  fact,  as  a  limit ;  but  the  British 
commissioners  sent  out  to  verify  the  agreement,  hav- 
ing no  power  to  treat  of  boundaries,  the  restitution  of 
confiscated  property  was  alone  secured.  Spain  soon 
afterward,  in  1795,  abandoned  her  fort  at  Nootka, 
and  took  no  further  steps  to  assert  her  rights  above 
California,  and  the  English  government  being  equally 


i  II 


26 


SOURCES  OP  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


indifferent,  the  coast  was  left  open  to  other  nation- 
alities. 

Before  the  final  adjustment  of  the  Nootka  affair 
Spanish  explorers  under  Elisa,  Fidalgo,  Quimper, 
Casmano  Malaspina,  and  notably  Galiano  and  Valdis, 
examined  closely  the  region  between  Puget  sound 
and  Queen  Charlotte  island,  the  last  in  conjunction 
with  the  English  official  Expedition  under  Vancouver. 
The  elaborate  reports  of  these  captains  being  more 
promptly  published  and  circulated,  the  English  gained 
the  adoption  of  their  nomenclature,  and  the  chief 
credit  for  the  discoveries  made,  which  resulted  in  the 
mapping  of  Puget  sound  and  the  British  Columbian 
coast,  in  proving  that  Vancouver  was  an  island,  and 
in  showing  that  Bering  strait  was  the  only  one  that 
existed.  To  Captain  Gray,  of  the  United  States 
trading  vessel  Columhki  was,  however,  awarded  the 
honor  of  first  entering  and  naming  the  great  river  of 
this  region. 

The  main  incentive  for  exploration  in  the  north- 
west, with  the  attendant  claims  to  possession  lay  evi- 
dently in  its  fur  resources,  as  shown  by  the  approach 
of  the  Russians,  of  Mackenzie,  and  the  different 
merchant  vessels,  which  roused  Spanish  and  English 
official  interference.  Northern  Europe  had  presented 
similar  attractions  to  the  roaming  Phcenicians  and  their 
successors  in  commercial  supremacy.  Among  them 
was  England,  which  opened  ports  on  the  White  sea, 
and  impelled  the  Russians  to  extend  tlieir  search  for 
peltry  into  Siberia.  In  America,  France  was  the  first 
to  open  this  trade  and  to  give  it  a  hitherto  unparalleled 
magnitude.  Her  fishermen  sought  the  Newfoundland 
banks  early  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  guided  by 
the  explorations  of  Verrazano  and  Cartier  they  began 
in  1578  to  venture  up  the  St  Lawrence  to  barter  with 
the  natives,  and  as  pioneers  to  lift  the  veil  from  this 
Ultima  Thule. 

The  expense  connected  with  a  profitable  pursuit  of 


TRENCH,   ENGLISH,   AND  RUSSIANS. 


27 


the  business,  and  the  plea  of  suppressing  the  outrages 
upon  the  natives  that  attended  unhcensed  trading, 
were  sufficient  reasons  for  granting  it  in  monopoly  to 
strong  companies,  which  would,  moreover,  ensure  to 
the  crown  a  certain  revenue,  and  the  proper  manage- 
ment and  expansion  of  its  colonial  possessions.  It 
was  not  easy  to  check  encroachments  on  the  part  of 
existing  traders,  or  of  new  parties,  tempted  by  the 
enormous  profits,  and  by  the  immunity  afforded  by 
pathless  wilds  adjoining  foreign  borders  and  peopled 
by  friendly  Indians.  Opponents,  besides,  secured  at 
times  influential  advocates  at  court,  who  procured 
frequent  restrictions  upon  the  monopoly,  and  occa- 
sional suppressions.  The  result  was  largely  to  appease 
such  pretenders  with  contracts  for  limited  districts, 
or  with  factory  licenses,  and  to  leave  them  free  to 
deal  with  natives  as  they  chose — a  course  accompanied 
with  no  little  extortion  and  abuse,  under  the  cover  of 
fire-arms  and  fire-water.  The  influx  and  advance  of 
trader's  fostered  colonization,  and  religious  zeal  joined 
in  bringing  tribes  into  subjection,  and  in  pioneering 
and  protecting  settlements,  Until  a  series  of  forts 
stretched  from  Hudson's  bay  down  the  Mississippi  to 
the  colonies  inaugurated  by  La  Salle  in  Louisiana. 
By  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  France 
claimed  as  her  domain  nearly  all  of  the  present  Brit- 
ish America  and  the  United  States,  leaving  to  other 
European  powers  only  narrow  strips  along  Hudson's 
bay  and  the  seaboard. 

Although  by  no  means  judicious  in  her  manage- 
ment of  colonies  and  her  interference  with  commerce, 
which  thrives  best  when  left  to  its  own  course,  her 
fur  trade  excelled  in  its  earlier  days  that  of  other 
nations,  owing  to  the  hardihood  of  French  coureurs 
des  bois,  and  their  tact  in  winning  favor  with  the 
savages.  They  adapted  themselves  only  too  readily 
to  the  habits  and  vagabond  life  of  the  Indians,  with 
alternate  inaction  in  winter  and  carousing  in  summer, 
and  formed  in  their  marriage  ties  and  half-breed  oflf- 


28 


SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND   INFLUENCE. 


*  '  I! ! 
.  Ill 


il 


spring  fresh  claims  upon  their  sympathies.  But  this 
adaptabihty  to  circumstances  did  not  extend  to  the 
loftier  requirements  of  colonization,  with  its  plodding 
patience  and  provident  restraint,  its  exclusiveness, 
organization,  and  enterprise. 

The  spirit  of  colonization,  as  unfolded  by  the 
Aryans  among  the  ancient  Mediterranean  trading 
nations,  yielded  during  the  middle  ages  to  one  of 
migratory  conquest  by  less  cultivated  peoples;  by 
Teutonic  and  Turanic  hordes  over  civilized  Rome  and 
her  semi-civilized  ex-provinces  in  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa.  This  was  due  partly  to  the  lack  of  suitable 
unoccupied  tracts,  and  to  the  absence,  as  yet,  among 
these  invaders,  of  the  self-restraint  and  cultured  self- 
reliance  required  for  the  development  of  nature's  re- 
sources and  the  building  up  of  settlements.  The  dis- 
covery of  America  supplied  the  field  for  practical 
adventures,  but  time  must  elapse  before  mcTi  would 
venture  upon  such  novel  undertakings.  Spanish  col- 
onization, so-called,  depended  largely  upon  the  enslave- 
ment of  Indians,  or  upon  the  enforced  requirements 
of  trade  and  mining  and  frontier  defence.  The  Anglo- 
Saxons  began  witli  agricultural  settlements,  estab- 
lished and  maintained  purely  by  their  own  people. 

The  first  permanent  English  colonies  were  formed 
along  the  coast  from  Massachusetts  to  Virginia,  al- 
though not  until  the  beginnuig  of  the  seventeenth 
century;  but  once  rooted  they  spread  surely  if  not 
rapidly.  Once  upon  the  ground  their  keen  commer- 
cial insthict  quickly  discovered  the  source  of  the  rich 
traffic  secured  by  the  French,  and  monopolies  obtained 
grants  to  the  same  end.  The  concessions  were  made 
in  latitudinal  strips  extending  indefinitely  from  the 
coast  inward,  there  to  settle  upon  boundary  lines  with 
earlier  Gallic  occupants.  Henry  Hudson  opened  at 
the  same  time  the  way  for  British  trade  along  Green- 
land, and  then  into  Hudson's  bay,  for  which  region  a 
special  company  was  formed.  It  was  not  long  ere 
the  two  nationalities  collided.     The  autayronism  in- 


<i 


TRADERS  AND  TRAPPERS. 


29 


stilled  upon  European  battle-fields  gave  zest  to  the 
hostility  here  roused  by  conflicting  interests,  even 
among  rivals  of  the  same  race.  Forts  were  captured 
and  retaken  ;  expeditions  were  waylaid  and  despoiled ; 
Indian  hunters  were  bribed  and  overawed,  and  tribes 
were  arrayed  against  tribes  or  as  allies  against  the 
white  men.  The  French  seized  upon  the  Ohio  valley, 
only  to  be  overwhelmed  in  Acadia,  and  so  the  advantage 
alternated.  In  1697  all  the  Hudson's  bay  territories 
were  conceded  to  France,  but  in  1713  several  large 
slices  along  the  ocean  and  bay  were  transferred  to 
England.  By  1759  the  persevering  Britons  had 
massed  50,000  for  the  fight  against  7,000  opponents, 
and  the  result  was  that  by  the  treaty  of  1763  France 
surrendered  all  of  her  North  American  possessions, 
her  insular  rival  obtaining  everything  east  of  the 
Mississippi,  while  to  Spahi  was  granted  the  region 
west  of  it. 

Tlie  Dutch  had  also  shared  in  the  fur  traffic  from 
their  centre  upon  Hudson's  river,  with  attendant  mo- 
nopoly and  colonization,  upon  a  scale  which  required 
a  fleet  of  fifty  ships.  Renegades  from  their  ranks 
assisted  the  Swedes  to  a  portion  of  the  lucrative  busi- 
ness. The  Puritans  and  Virginians,  although  bent 
on  state  building,  joined  likewise  in  some  degree  in 
the  pursuit ;  but  the  continent  south  of  the  49th 
parallel  was  fitted  rather  for  settlements,  which  cir- 
cumstance, together  with  the  prevailinor  disputes, 
drove  hunters  rapidly  westward  to  t'-  -j  Mississippi, 
and  then  to  the  Platte  and  Red  rivrt-s,  the  people  of 
New  England  origin  establishing  forts  to  protect  their 
interests  against  the  encroaching  Canadians,  and 
opening  headquarters  for  the  trade  at  New  Orleans 
and  then  at  St  Louis.  Later,  Independence  and  St 
Joseph  becoming  conspicuous,  under  the  stimulus  im- 
parted by  trade,  occupation  pushed  onward,  after  in- 
dependence was  secured,  to  and  beyond  the  Rocky 
mountains.  It  was  a  motley  crowd,  however,  that 
inhabited  these  regions  of  Anglo-Americans,  mixed 


n 


m-''-mm 


80 


SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


IM 


!l 


on  one  side  with  Canadian  half-breeda,  on  the  other 
with  Spanish  types,  and  with  their  attention  divided 
by  varied  interests,  which  southward  embraced  the 
imposing  Santa  Fe  caravan  trade. 

A  number  of  the  leading  Frenchmen  and  Spaniards 
combined  with  Americans  to  form  the  Missouri  Fur 
company,  with  the  intention  of  securing  the  lion's 
share  of  the  peltry  business,  especially  along  the 
Rocky  mountains.  Henry,  one  of  the  partners, 
crossed  this  dividing  range  in  1808  and  built  a  fort 
on  Snake  river,  which  was  maintained  for  only  two 
years.  The  firm  sufl^ered  from  competition  on  the 
part  of  the  Canadians,  and  erelong  a  more  formi- 
dable rival  appeared  in  the  person  of  John  Jacob 
Astor,  one  of  the  shrewdest  and  most  enterprising 
of  New  York  merchants,  by  whom  was  founded  in 
1809  the  American  Fur  company,  with  a  capital  o*" 
$1,000,000.  In  this  was  soon  afterward  merged  tb 
Canadian  association,  and  when,  after  the  war  with 
England,  foreign  traders  were  excluded  from  the 
United  States,  Astor  bought  at  his  own  price  all 
British  posts  within  the  United  States.  Still  later 
he  acquired  the  interests  of  Ashley  of  Utah  fame, 
and  assumed  the  supremacy  in  the  northern  interior. 
In  1834  he  sold  his  western  interests  to  a  St  Louis 
firm,  which  had  absorbed  the  Rocky  Mountain  com- 
pany, and  soon  controlled  nearly  all  the  fur  business 
on  the  Atlantic  slope,  as  well  as  the  Santa  F^  trade. 
Among  the  connections  and  rivals  of  Ashley  were 
Smith,  Jackson,  and  Sublette,  who,  buying  some  of 
his  establishments,  including  those  in  Utah  and 
Idaho,  explored  westward  as  far  as  San  Francisco, 
made  the  circuit  throuofh  Oregon  to  Montana,  and 
brought  the  first  wagons  to  the  Rocky  mountains. 

The  annual  rendezvous  for  these  and  other  trappers 
was  usually  near  the  South  pass  of  the  great  dividing 
range,  where  they  gathered  from  every  quarter  hun- 
dreds of  miles  away,  their  numbers  swelled  with  In- 
dians of  every  grade,  from  the  aVjased  Shoshone  and 


CARSON,  MEEK,  AND  BECKWOURTH. 


31 


crafty  Blackfoot  to  the  dashing  Crow  and  the  Nez 
Perce  cavaher ;  with  half-breeds  admired  by  tlie  sav- 
ages by  reason  of  a  superior  intelhgence  and  appear- 
ance, but  despised  by  others  for  their  blood ;  with 
strutting  Mexicans  of  pretentious  air  and  dress  little 
in  accord  with  their  degraded  position ;  with  half-ef- 
feminate and  half-hardy  voyageurs;  and  preeminent 
the  free  trapper,  strong  in  the  possession  of  his  horse 
and  rifle,  and  delighting  in  the  roaming  mountain  life, 
yet  enslaved  by  extravagant  habits,  and  dependent 
upon  or  forced  to  enlist  under  more  prudent  and  enter- 
prising leaders. 

Among  the  ideal  trappers  and  mountaineers  were 
Kit  Carson,  celebrated  as  an  Indian  fighter  and  guide 
to  Frdmontand  other  so  callc^d  pathfinders;  Jo  Meek, 
the  favorite  of  Oregon,  where  he  figured  in  the  legis- 
lature and  on  government  commissions ;  and  James 
P.  Beckwourth,  whose  mulatto  hue,  keenness,  and 
courage  won  for  him  the  chieftainship  of  the  Crows. 

The  regions  south  of  Oregon  were  not  rich  in  furs. 
California  was  remote,  and  largely  absorbed  by  the 
Hudson's  Bay  company,  which  practically  swept  all 
the  country  northward.  Hence  the  United  States 
trappers  found  little  inducement  on  the  western  slope, 
and  confined  their  efforts  more  and  more  to  the  afflu- 
ents of  the  Missouri,  upon  which  Aster's  successors 
maintained  a  line  of  forts,  supplied  by  a  specitl  steam- 
boat, the  only  one  upon  the  upper  waters  till  1864. 
Monopoly  was  secured  by  purchasing  or  outbidding 
rivals,  and  revenue  was  increased  by  smuggling  oper- 
ations with  the  Red  river  settlers.  Notwithstanding 
the  efforts  of  New  York  and  St  Louis,  England  re- 
mained the  great  emporium  for  peltry,  and  only  a  few 
shipments  found  their  way  direct  to  Canton,  Ham- 
burg, and  other  cities. 

The  expedition  of  Captain  Cook  had  a  most  im- 
portant influence  on  the  occupation  of  the  northwest 
coast.     It  brought  to  public  notice  the  abundance  of 


i 


i 

11 


32 


SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


sea-otters,  which  offer  the  most  precious  of  all  peltry, 
and  the  high  prices  paid  for  the  skin   in  the  Chinese 
markets.     This  was  confirmed  by  a  venture  in  1780, 
which  showed  that  although  the  Russians  had  long 
profited  by  the  traffic,  they  did  so  at  a  disadvantage. 
The  first  regular  trader  in  the  new  field  was  the 
Englishman,  Captain  James  Hanna,  who  in   1875-6 
made  a  trip  to  the  Vancouver   island   region    from 
China,  probably  under  Portugese  colors,  with  a  view 
to  circumvent  the  monopoly  held  by  the  East  India 
company    against  British  rivals.     He  was  followed 
by  a  number  of  others  from  Asia  and  England,  some 
provided  with   licenses.     Among  them  was  Meares 
from  Bengal,  who  wintered  here  in  1786-7,  and  built 
at  Nootka  the  first  vessel  in  these  waters ;  he  pub- 
lished an  account  of  the  voyage,  and  of  the  losses  in- 
flicted upon  him  by  Spanish  seizures.     Portlock  and 
Dixon  arrived  from  England  with  a  trading  charter 
the  same  years,  and  on  their  return  likewise  printed 
a   book   filled   with   fresh    information.     Colnett   in 
1789-90  was  arrested  by  a  Spanish  expedition,  and 
Barclay  sailed  from  Belgium  under  the  Austrian  flag. 
All  added  to  geographic  knowledge  by  communicating 
their  discoveries.     French  explorers  and  traders,  in 
the  persons  of  La  Perouse  and   Marchand,  learned 
enough  to  induce  a  French  firm  to  enter  the  business ; 
but  the  attempt  proved  a  failure,  owing  to  the  sudden 
closing  of  Chinese  ports. 

Citizens  of  the  United  States  were  early  directed 
to  this  new  field  for  commerce  by  John  Ledyard,  who 
had  served  under  Cook,  and  although  his  own  efforts 
were  unsuccessful,  several  firms  were  induced  to  enter 
it.  The  first  to  arrive  in  1788  were  captains  Hend- 
rick  and  Gray,  the  latter  being  also  the  first  to  enter 
the  Columbia  river,  named  after  his  ship,  and  com- 
pleting on  his  return  the  first  circumnavigation  of 
the  globe  by  a  United  States  vessel.  The  English 
suffered  here  under  two  disadvantages,  the  hostility 
of  Spain  and  the  moropoly  of  the  East  India  and 


(i 


A  GAME  PRESERVE. 


k30uth  Sea  companies.  The  Americans  were  free 
from  both,  and  made  good  use  of  their  opportunity 
by  opening  up  a  trade  with  the  Spaniards,  and  secur- 
ing contracts  for  th^  shipment  of  their  peltry  to 
China.  In  1792  twenty-eight  vessels  are  known  to 
have  touched  there,  most  of  them  American,  and 
more  than  half  of  them  engaged  in  fur-trading.  The 
Otter  in  1796  was  the  first  United  States  vessel  to 
anchor  in  Califoriiia;  the  Boston  was  destroyed  in 
1803,  and  the  crew  massacred,  sa\  3  two,  who  were 
rescued  three  years  later ;  the  Tonquin  suffered  a  sim- 
ilar fate  in  1811.  During  the  war  between  England 
and  the  United  States,  traders  of  both  nationalities 
held  aloof,  and  after  its  close  the  measures  adopted  by 
the  Russian  and  British  compaaies,  whose  agents 
were  constantly  on  the  spot,  made  such  ventures  too 
liazardous,  and  their  visits  became  less  frequent. 

In  those  ventures  the  Americans  after  the  first  few 
years  acquired  the  lead,  and  maintained  it  during  the 
decline  of  the  fur-trade,  often  with  ruinous  competi- 
tion among  themselves,  though  aided  by  other  traffic 
on  adjoining  coasts.  Of  the  vessels  that  arrived  be- 
tween 1790  and  1818  over  one  hundred  were  Amer- 
ican, against  twenty-two  English,  three  French,  and 
two  Portugese.  The  first  named  usually  hailed  from 
Boston,  whence  the  distinctive  appellation  used  by 
Indians  to  distinguish  them  from  those  of  King 
George.  In  the  beginning  of  this  century  they  also 
joined  with  the  Russians  in  hunting  expeditions  to 
the  lower  coast,  shared  in  the  carrying  trade  of 
Alaska,  smuggled  in  California,  and  carried  home  val- 
uable cargoes  from  China  and  the  Pacific  islands. 

The  restrictions  upon  English  ships  applied  in  a 
measure  also  to  California,  where  the  Spaniards  neg- 
lected both  the  peltry  and  supply  trade,  while  im- 
posing almost  absolute  prohibition  on  foreigners. 
Necessity  compelled  officials  as  well  as  settlers  to 
ignore  the  restrictive  measures  of  Spain,  and  Mexico 
as  a  republic  was  powerless  to  enforce  then.. 

f,  li.-I.     3 


i 


(T- 


wmm 


m 


84 


SOURCES  01'  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


'Mi 


ri  1. 


Superior  organization  and  perseverance  had  obtained 
for  the  British  the  control  of  the  fur-trade  on  both 
slopes,  against  the  experienced  coureurs  des  hois  and 
the  cunning  Yankee  trappers  on  one  side,  and  the 
nimble  and  unscrupulous  Boston  captains  on  the 
other.  Their  chief  advantage  lay,  however,  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  northern  latitudes,  whicl^  formed  the 
fur  region  proper.  The  north-west  pi.  ised,  like  the 
interior  of  Canada,  long  to  remain  a  mere  game 
preserve,  a  hunter's  paradise,  rugged  and  forbidding 
enough  to  prevent  its  occupation  for  purposes  of 
settlement. 

The  control  of  this  vast  region,  consisting  of  half  a 
continent,  and  extending  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific  fell  in  its  resources  and  management  to  ono 
great  corporation,  into  whose  hands  it  had  come  tfter 
long  and  fierce  struggles  with  foreign  and  native 
rivals.  This  body,  the  Hudson's  Bay  company,  liad 
been  chartered  in  1670,  under  high  auspices,  as  The 
Company  of  Adventurers  of  England  trading  into 
Hudson's  Bay,  with  Prince  Rupert  as  its  governor ,  and 
a  train  of  leading  noblemen  as  shareholders.  Ix  was 
'granted  the  privilege  for  two  hundred  years  of  the 
sole  trade  of  Hudson  strait  and  ba\',  with  permanent 
proprietorship  of  Rupert  land,  and  power  to  govern 
and  to  issue  laws  and  land  grants.  This  commercial 
sovereignty  the  company  continued  to  enjoy  for  its 
term  of  two  centuries,  notwithstanding  that  the  lands 
which  they  bestowed  on  others  never  belonged  even 
to  themselves,  and  that  parliament  never  confirmed 
the  charter.  French  parties  claimed  the  same  terri- 
tory, and  many  a  bloody  buttle,  with  alternate  seizure 
and  reprisal,  took  {)lace  before  the  men  of  Great 
Britain  gained  possession.  These  and  other  obstacles 
restricted  the  company's  occupancy  during  the  first 
century  of  its  existence  to  less  than  400  miles  inland, 
and  every  care  was  taken  to  keep  secret  all  resources, 
and  t«)  retard  exploration,  partly  lest  the  discovery  of 
a  passage  to  the  Atlantic  should  disturb  their  cher- 


\4 


THE  HUDSON'S  BAY  COMPANY. 


35 


ished  seclusion,  and  attract,  especially  French  in- 
truders. After  the  the  cession  of  all  North  America 
to  England,  the  company,  relieved  of  its  apprehen- 
sions, and  with  its  posts  increased  by  the  transfer, 
hastened  to  widen  its  domain  in  anticipation  of  the 
rivalry  threatened  by  their  own  countrymen,  until  the 
territorial  limits  exceeded  the  wildest  dreams  of  its 
managers,  spreading  northward  and  westward,  cover- 
ing the  entire  width  of  the  continent,  touching  at 
once  three  great  oceans,  and  rendering  hundreds  of 
native  tribes  subject  to  its  domination. 

With  enlarged  experience,  and  the  selection  of  a 
corps  of  skilful  hunters  and  traders,  operations  were 
thoroughly  systematized,  and  efficient  service  was  main- 
tained by  the  admission  as  partners  of  leading  officials, 
who  exercised  personal  supervision  in  enforcing  discip- 
line, economy,  and  strict  attention  to  duty.  The  ter- 
ritory was  in  time  divided  into  four  departments :  the 
northern,  belting  the  frozen  sea;  the  southern,  ex- 
tending from  Rupert  river  to  the  Rocky  mountains  ; 
the  Montreal,  stretching  over  the  north-east;  and 
the  Columbia,  comprising  all  of  the  Pacific  domain, 
the  latter  being  subsequently  further  divided.  Aside 
from  the  governor  and  directors  at  London,  there 
were  nine  grades  of  officials  and  servants,  headed  by 
a  local  governor  for  all  the  American  establish- 
ments, and  residing  at  a  central  point.  Next  to  him 
were  chief  factors  and  shareholders,  in  charge  of  de- 
partments, or  factories  with  their  subordinate  posts ; 
chief  traders  or  half  shareholders  usually  in  com- 
mand of  leading  posts :  chief  clerks,  in  charge  of 
expeditions  or  minor  stations;  apprenticed  clerks, 
postmasters,  promoted  from  the  ranks ;  interpreters, 
voyageurs  'or  boatmen  ;  and  laborers.  The  servants, 
including  apprentices  and  officials  of  higher  grade, 
were,  for  the  most  part,  hardy  Scotch  highlanders  or 
Orkney  men,  and  the  ranks  of  the  voyageurs  and  la- 
borers were  largely  recruited  from  French  Canadians 
and  half-breeds.     The  latter  received  on  an  average 


I 


SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


;  :(i 


i  I) 

.fel 


£17  a  year  in  wages;  apprentices  began  with  a  trifle, 
but  were  paid  £100  or  more  when  promoted  to  clerk- 
ships. Besides  a  general  council  of  chief  factors,  local 
councils  met  annually  at  the  principal  stations  to  de- 
termine appointments,  duties,  wages,  vacations,  rules, 
and  methoas.  Thus  the  company  held  feudal  sway  as 
absolute  as  that  of  any  mediseval  baron.  Its  capital 
swelled  from  the  original  £10,500  to  £200,000  in 
1821 ;  then  the  value  of  the  Northwest  company's 
stock,  acquired  by  consolidation,  raised  the  amount  to 
£400,000,  and  in  1863  it  was  further  increased  to 
£2,000,000.  The  number  of  employes  rose  from  315 
in  1789  to  513  articled  men  and  55  officers  in  1846. 
In  1856  the  152  establishments  employed  a  force  of 
3,000,  whereof  fully  200  were  postmasters  and  other 
officials ;  one  third  were  stationed  on  the  Pacific  slope. 

Trade  was  conducted  solely  by  barter,  and  with 
every  conceivable  class  of  goods  that  could  tempt  the 
fancy  of  the  Indian.  Arms  were  freely  issued,  but 
as  spirituous  liquors  rendered  quarrelsome  both  white 
men  and  red,  and  less  efficient  for  work,  they  were 
prohibited.  The  price  of  goods  was  usually  fixed,  but 
under  competition  large  commissions  were  made  to 
drive  away  intruders. 

Special  trapping  expeditions  were  despatched  from 
the  leadinty  stations  in  the  autumn,  to  return  the  fol- 
lowing  spring  or  summer;  among  the  largest  were 
those  from  Fort  Vancouver  to  the  head- waters  of  the 
Columbia  and  the  Colorado,  and  into  California, 
where  latterly  a  tax  was  paid  to  the  authorities. 
Their  outfits, were  advanced  on  credit.  Parties,  com- 
posed chiefly  of  boatmen  under  a  few  officers,  were 
employed  to  carry  supplies  to  the  posts  from  such 
central  depots  as  Fort  Vancouver,  and  bring  back  the 
collected  peltry.  This  duty  was  largely  performed 
by  the  great  annual  brigade  which  maintained  com- 
munication between  the  Columbia  and  the  Atlantic 
shipping  station.  The  trip  involved  no  little  hard- 
ship, with  rough  fare  and  exposures,   facing  storms 


SIGNIFICANCE  OF  THE  FUR  TRADE. 


37 


'I 


and  floods,  climbing  mountains  while  laden  with  heavy 
burdens,  burrowing  through  snow-drifts,  forcing  boats 
up  stream  and  g'liding  them  through  rapids  where  a 
single  slip  or  deviation  meant  disaster  or  death.  But 
the  men  were  trained  and  hardy,  brave  and  merry, 
cheerfully  encountering  toil  and  privation,  banishing 
fear  with  a  joke,  or  perchance  with  a  sign  of  the 
cross.  These  brigades  were  greatly  relieved  by  the 
direct  sea  shipments  to  and  from  the  Columbia, 
whence  fast  vessels  and  latterly  steamers  were  regu- 
larly despatched  to  the  coast  forts. 

Pack  trains  with  horses  were  attached  to  certain 
districts  and  portages,  and  at  times  two  hundred  ani- 
mals could  be  seen  defiling  along  some  mountain  pass, 
each  with  two  packages  of  furs.  Dog-sledges  were  a 
feature  rather  of  the  eastern  slope.  This  traffic  per- 
tained also  to  the  birch  bark  canoe,  with  its  resined 
seams,  for  the  men  of  the  Pacific  coast  used  the  keel- 
less  board  bateau,  propelled  by  oar  or  paddle  to  the 
song  led  by  the  steersman,  the  crew  joining  in  the 
chorus,  and  showing  the  effect  in  steadier  and  more 
powerful  strokes. 

United  States  traders  usually  dispensed  with  costly 
establishments,  by  appointing  every  year  a  rendezvous 
where  trappers  could  meet  them  for  traffic,  and  for 
recreation  in  the  shajie  of  carousals  and  boisterous 
games.  But  organizations  like  the  Hudson's  Bay 
company,  with  rich  territories  and  regular  routes,  pre- 
ferred the  convenience  and  security  of  stations.  In 
determining  to  erect  a  post,  the  resources  of  a  district 
gave  the  incentive,  while  accessibility  and  the  supply 
of  wood  and  water  guided  the  selection  of  a  site.  The 
term  fort  was  applied  indiscriminately  to  all  perma- 
nent fur-trading  establishments,  whether  a  bastioned 
fortress  of  stone,  as  preferred  during  the  troublous 
times  of  Anglo-French  wrangling  in  Canada,  or  a 
square  stockade,  palisade,  or  picketed  enclosure,  a 
block-house  of  squared  logs  with  apertures,  or  at 
times  only  a  common  log  cabin.     The  posts  on  the 


38 


SOURCES  OF  POWEn   AND  INFLUENCE. 


i;  li!  li 


11!  i 


! 


:  V 


Pacific  were  much  alike,  forming  usually  a  palisade  of 
one  hundred  yards  square.  The  pickets  consisted  of 
poles  or  logs  sunk  in  the  ground  and  rising  fifteen  or 
twenty  feet  above  it.  Sometimes  split  slabs  were 
used  instead  of  round  poles.  At  two  corners,  diago- 
nally opposite,  two  bastions  commanded  the  approach, 
each  provided  with  from  two  to  six  guns,  and  guarded 
with  sentinels,  the  ground  floor  serving  as  a  maga- 
zine. Within  the  pickets  were  the  necessary  ware- 
houses, sheds,  workshops,  and  dwellings ;  the  officers' 
quarters  and  the  bachelor's  hall,  for  convivial  gath- 
erings, being  conspioi  jus  in  the  centre,  together  with 
the  chief  storehouse,  while  around  them  were  dwell- 
ings for  inferior  employes.  Near  by  was  usually  a 
garden  patch,  and  sometimes  a  grain-field.  Indian 
chiefs  were  won  by  special  privileges  and  favors  to 
curb  the  unruly  among  their  tribe,  and  thus  add  to 
the  feeling  of  security. 

Life  differed  widely  at  the  posts,  from  the  pomp  and 
discipline  at  Fort  Vancouver,  with  its  frequent  visitors 
and  well-appointed  dwellings  and  tables,  to  the  primi- 
tive simplicity  at  the  log  cabin  with  its  solitary  occu- 
pant, the  exile  of  the  latter  rarely  lasting  more  than 
a  single  season.  At  the  larger  stations  the  bell  rang 
at  dawn  for  the  laborers  to  begin  their  toil,  at  eight  or 
nine  for  breakfast,  at  one  for  dinner,  and  at  six  for 
supper  when  work  was  over.  Separate  tables  were 
provided  for  officers,  the  laborers  taking  rations  to 
their  cabins  kept  by  Indian  wives.  The  arrival  of 
important  visitors,  and  of  brigades  with  attendant 
chieftains,  called  for  pomp  and  display ;  perhaps  with 
salvos,  grave  smoking  of  the  calumet,  and  speeches 
to  propitiate  some  haughty  savage  or  prepare  the  way 
for  bargains.  Usually  trading  was  carried  on  in  a 
special  room,  to  which  only  a  few  natives  were  ad- 
mitted at  a  time,  the  fort  gates  being  closed  to  guard 
against  illicit  traffic  and  surprise. 

On  the  Sabbath  there  were  religious  services  and 
rest  from  labor,  a  Saturday  half-holiday  being  de- 


FUR  COMPANY  ROUTINE. 


39 


voted  to  recreation.  For  pastime,  story-tellmg  took 
the  lead,  with  smoking  and  perhaps  a  jinghng  of 
glasses.  Notwithstanding  the  absence  of  luxuries 
and  of  women,  feasting  and  dancing  were  not  infre- 
quent, yet  the  fondest  anticipations  were  for  the 
nights  of  drunkenness,  which  were  considered  insep- 
arable from  certain  important  occasions,  and  from  lead- 
ing festivals. 

Intercourse  between  officer  and  subordinate  was 
stamped  by  strict  formality,  and  often  by  sternness, 
blows  being  frequently  administered.  Canadian  habi- 
tants must,  like  the  English  laborer,  remain  inferior, 
partly  owing  to  the  absence  of  the  selfish  exclusive- 
ness  which  made  the  Briton  feared  and  respected  by 
the  Indians,  while  the  Frenchmen  won  their  sympa- 
thy and  fellowship  by  his  suavity,  light-heartedness, 
and  sociability.  The  last  of  these  traits,  together 
with  a  certain  adaptability,  made  the  Gaul  too  ready 
to  conform  to  native  habits,  to  cast  aside  civilization, 
and  to  become  the  coureur  des  bois,  or  forest  peddler, 
so  famed  in  former  days,  but  of  late  degenerated  into 
the  humble  voyageur  or  boatman.  He  goes  hand-in- 
hand  with  the  despised  half-breed,  in  whom  Aryan 
intelligence  combines  with  savage  cunning  and  in- 
stinct, yet  with  a  lack  of  *^^amina  revealed  in  ill-sus- 
tained efforts  at  agriculture  and  other  feeble  attempts 
at  settlement.  The  Anglo-American  wood-ranger 
may  have  become  sufficiently  demoralized  in  his  inti- 
macy with  redskins,  and  have  displayed  great  coarse- 
ness and  brutality ;  yet  he  never  became  so  much 
akin  to  the  savage  as  the  other.  In  the  acute  intel- 
lect and  tall,  spare,  tough  frame  of  the  United  States 
frontiersman  united  subtlety  and  sagacity  behind  feat- 
ures of  childlike  simplicity,  which,  when  aroused, 
change  to  a  look  of  fierce  determination.  While 
yielding  to  impulses,  and  adapting  himself  to  circum- 
stances, he  never  wholly  abandons  the  sound  sense 
and  practical  prudence  of  his  race. 


40 


SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


! 


itf 


■  ill  ill 


There  was  a  strong  fascination  in  this  forest  life, 
and  once  within  its  influence,  few  were  content  to  re- 
turn to  the  stifling  atmosphere  of  conventionalism. 
Yet  it  was  full  not  alone  of  danger,  but  of  toil  and 
privations,  far  beyond  the  miner's  life.  The  latter 
carried  with  it  possibilities  of  a  fortune,  while  the 
slow  and  hazardous  accumulations  of  the  other  could 
never  reach  even  a  competency,  for  with  reckless  ex- 
travagance the  hunter  squandered  in  a  few  nights  of 
dissipation  the  earnings  of  an  entire  year.  The  en 
gagement  of  voyageurs  and  trappers  was  consequently 
like  hiring  penniless  sailors  for  a  voyage,  with  ad- 
vances for  outfit,  the  discharge  of  debts,  and  the  part- 
ing carouse  with  friends.  The  free  trappers,  who 
hunted  singly  or  in  small  parties  of  their  own,  were 
often  kept  in  debt  bondage  by  the  calculating  trader. 
Of  the  thousands  who  launched  forth  into  the 
wilderness,  not  one  in  ten  was  ever  heard  of  again. 
Numbers  perished  from  hunger  and  exposure,  from 
sickness  or  accident,  from  wild  beasts  or  from  the 
scalping  knife ;  others  discarded  all  connection  with 
the  past  and  buried  themselves  in  the  wilds.  An  old 
trader  declared  that  after  a  term  of  three  years,  only 
forty  out  of  two  hundred  who  entered  the  wilder- 
ness would  be  known  to  have  survived. 

Their  haven  of  rest  or  relaxation  was  seldom  the 
town,  but  rather  the  annual  rendezvous  of  the  Ameri- 
cans, or  the  entrepot  fort  of  the  companies ;  but  respite 
was  also  aftbrded  at  the  wintering  ground  selected  by 
various  parties,  as  in  the  bend  of  the  Yellowstone, 
with  its  mild  climate  and  abundance  of  grass  and 
game.  Here  the  Indian  housewife  would  soon  raise 
the  tent  of  her  lord,  enclosing  with  its  eight  or  twelve 
poles,  covered  with  buffalo  skins,  a  circle  of  about  ten 
feet  in  diameter.  Without,  the  men  were  unloading 
the  animals,  foiling  trees  for  barricades,  or  bringing 
in  game  for  the  repast.  After  supper  the  blazing 
camp-fire  threw  its  ruddy  glow  upon  the  reclining 
group,  while  humorous  chat,  or  song  or  story  passed 


|il 


SCOTCH  AND  ENGLISH. 


41 


the  hours  until  the  decaying  embers  signalled  to 
repose. 

The  picturesque  in  nature  was  reflected  uncon- 
sciously in  the  life  and  garb  of  her  children.  The 
long-haired  hunter  delighted  in  fanciful  costumes  and 
trappings,  with  an  abundance  of  finery.  The  ordi- 
nary dress  of  the  French  and  Scotch  consisted  of  a 
striped  or  colored  cotton  shirt,  open  in  front,  or  held 
loosely  by  a  gay  handkerchief,  leathern,  woollen,  or 
corduroy  trousers,  often  protected  with  leggings,  and 
a  blue  cloth  or  blanket  or  skin  capote,  with  a  hood 
serving  for  cloak  and  cap,  and  strapped  to  the  body 
by  a  scarlet  vest,  lining  and  fur-edging  being  added 
for  warmth.  The  pantaloons  were  tied  at  the  knee 
with  bead  gaiters.  When  not  wearing  the  capote, 
some  had  woollen  caps  or  turbans  of  colored  hand- 
kerchiefs, while  the  more  foppish  indulged  in  beaver 
hats  or  coverings  almost  hidden  under  feathers,  tinsel, 
and  tassels.  Ornamental  moccasins  covered  the  feet, 
and  scarlet  belts  encircled  the  waist,  holding  the  knife 
and  tobacco  pouch.  The  voyagers  delighted  in  varie- 
gated ribbons.  The  American  hunter  preferred  deer- 
skin trousers  and  an  outer  shirt  of  leather  or  flannel, 
while  leather  fringes,  occasionally  dyed,  and  adorned 
with  porcupine  quills,  took  the  place  of  other  finery. 

The  rifle  was  the  main  dependence  for  food,  and  the 
diet  was  therefore  principally  of  meat,  fresh  or  dried, 
varied  with  fish,  berries,  and  roots.  Bread,  salt,  and 
vegetables  were  rarities,  except  at  larger  stations. 
Even  here  rations  were  scant  in  quantity  as  well  as 
variety.  The  staple  was  peniican,  or  dried,  pulverized 
meat,  valued  for  its  condensed  form  and  nourishing- 
qualities,  whether  eaten  raw  or  cooked.  It  was  widely 
stored  in  cache,  together  with  furs  and  other  property 
not  convenient  to  carry. 

The  transfer  of  the  Franco- American  possessions  to 
England  gave  a  stimulus  to  British  enterprise,  which 
was  marlied  in  1766  by  the  entry  of  Scotch  traders 


I 


11 


llll 

I 

flli 


ill 


42  SOURCES  OF  I'OWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 

in  rivalry  with  the  Hudson's  Bay  company,  assisted 
by  former  French  employes.  Their  starting-point 
was  Michilimackinac,  whence  they  spread  in  all  direc- 
tions, spurred  by  competition.  Their  success  led,  in 
1783-4,  to  the  formation  by  the  more  prominent,  in 
association  with  Montreal  merchants,  of  the  North- 
west company,  which  was  obliged  to  admit  several 
powerful  opponents.  Profiting  by  the  methods  adopted 
by  the  existing  corporation,  and  by  the  zeal  evoked 
under  more  liberal  concessions  to  servants,  the  new 
organization  was  prepared  to  contest  the  field  in  eager 
rivalry.  Indeed,  of  all  fur-trading  associations  the 
North  we  ?c  company  was  the  most  audacious,  and 
ultimately  the  most  successful.  From  their  head- 
quarters at  Grand  Portage,  on  Lake  Superior,  they 
directed  the  shipment  of  supplies  from  England,  and 
of  furs,  through  the  Montreal  agents,  who  advanced 
the  necessary  capital,  while  the  other  proprietors  fur- 
nished the  ability  aad  energy,  and  passed  their  time 
m  the  Indian  country.  Shares  were  sold  only  to  ser- 
vants, whose  admission  as  partners  was  secured  by 
vote,  depending  upon  merit  alone.  This  judicious 
policy  raised  the  gross  profits  from  £40,000  in  1788 
to  treble  that  amount  within  eleven  years.  But  the 
risk  and  delay  in  realizing  were  great,  and  the  agents 
were  not  reimbursed  for  their  outlay  for  two  years. 
The  first  partnership  ended  in  1790,  with  a  dissension 
among  the  members,  which  was  ended  by  a  new  coali- 
tion ill  1805 

Infusing  into  their  traffic  the  spirit  of  enterprise, 
they  pushed  adventure  beyond  Lake  Superior  into  the 
(Jnitcd  States,  but  more  especially  to  Winnipeg,  Sas- 
katchewan, and  Athabasca,  overspreading  finally  the 
then  unexplored  northwest.  They  discovered  the 
river  Mackenzie,  and  followed  it  to  the  frozen  sea ; 
ascended  Peace  river;  crossed  the  Rocky  mountains, 
traviT.sed  the  country  to  the  Pacific,  and  took  posses- 
sion of  the  Northwest  coast,  extending  southward  to 


\        ! 


UNITED  STATES  EXPLORATIONS. 


the  Columbia,  and  becoming  most  formidable  rivals 
of  the  adventurers  of  England. 

They  ignored  the  charter,  policy,  and  claims  of  the 
Hudson's  Bay  company,  and  when  the  latter  began  to 
build  a  line  of  forts  along  their  path,  and  contest  their 
advance  by  force  and  by  outbidding  them,  they  strainec 
every  nerve  for  the  contest.  The  result  was  a  relent- 
less feud,  carried  on  in  some  quarters  with  strategy  and 
tactics,  in  others  with  ruinous  competition  and  demoral- 
izing liquor  traffic,  and  in  many  instances  with  scuffles, 
duels,  and  raids,  attended  by  the  seizure  of  goods  and 
burning  of  stations,  and  the  enrolment  of  savages  for 
bloody  campaigns.  The  Northwest  company  gained 
the  advantage,  and  by  1804  proposed  to  buy  the 
Hudson's  Bay  company's  interests  for  the  face  figure 
of  the  capital  stock,  pointing  out  that  its  charter, 
owing  to  non-fulfilled  conditions,  amounted  only  to  a 
claim  of  prior  possession.  The  offer  was  of  course 
declined. 

The  Northwest  company  now  hastened  to  occupy 
the  Pacific  slope,  and  in  1805  James  McDougall 
erected  a  fort  on  McLeod  lake,  the  first  in  the  North- 
west. In  the  following  years  several  additional  posts 
were  founded  in  the  Frazer  basin,  and  one  in  1810 
upon  the  Spokane,  and  upon  other  branches  of  the 
Columbia,  the  intermediate  regions  being  meanwhile 
explored  by  the  traders,  in  some  directions  as  far  as 
the  coast.  This  advance  into  the  Oregon  country 
brought  them  face  to  face  with  rivals  from  the  United 
States. 

The  attention  of  the  United  States  had  been 
attracted  to  this  coast  by  the  reports  of  traders,  by 
the  enthusiastic  schemes  of  Ledyard,  and  by  the  ac- 
quisition of  Louisiana,  which  was  vaguely  assumed  to 
extend  indefinitely  westward.  President  Jefferson 
was  greatly  impressed  by  the  importance  of  the  trans- 
montane  slope,  and  obtained  congressional  assent  to 
an  exploring  expedition.  The  command  was  given 
to  Captain  Lewis,  his  private  secretary,  associated 


I: 


;'   ■ 


44 


SOURCKS  OF  POWER   AND  INFLUENCE. 


i\  I 


with  Lieutenant  Clarke,  with  instructions  to  examine 
especially   the  geographic  and  commercial   features. 
The  party,  thirty-two  in  number,  left  Pittsburg  in 
May  1804,  and  after  wintering  among  the  Mandans, 
under  protection  of  an  escort,  proceeded  up  the  Mis- 
souri and  along  Jefferson  and  Salmon  rivers,  crossing 
thence  to  Lewis  or  Snake  river.     It  skirted  the  Rocky 
mountains  to  Clarke  fork,    reached  the  junction  of 
the  last  two  rivers,  and  on  November  7,  1805,  sighted 
the  Pacific  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia.     Here  the 
winter  was  passed  in  tlie  Clatsop  country,  and  the  re- 
turn safely  effected    in  the   following   year,  notwith- 
standing that  they  were  compelled  to  subsist  entirely 
on   game.     It    was    an    ably    conducted    expedition, 
opening  a  broad  field  fi^r  enteqorise,  and  rewards  came 
in  land-grants  and  promotions.      Clarke  became  gen- 
eral of  militia,  and  subsequently  go^-'^rnor  of  Missouri, 
and  superintendent  of  Indian  afl:airs.     Lewis,  to  whose 
zjal  and  courage  was  mainly  due  the  success  of  the 
enterprise,  was  made  governor  of  Louisiana,  in  which 
position  he  died  by  his  own  hand,  while  suffering  from 
hypochondria,  due  partly  to  the  strain  of  his  arduous 
trip. 

A  striking  illustration  of  the  power  of  intelligence 
and  skill  iniierent  in  the  individual  in  certain  hi- 
stances,  and  the  effect  of  its  action,  not  only  on  the 
fortunes  of  the  possessor  and  his  family  throug^h  sue 
ccssive  generations,  but  upon  the  nation  1  he 
national  domain  throuifhout  all  time,  ma^  mnd 

m  that  part  of  the  early  history  of  Europei.  'ccupn- 
tion  in  our  north  Pacific  seaboard,  which  relates  U) 
the  founding  of  Astoria. 

i^'ollowing  the  voyage  of  Mackenzie  down  the 
Fraser  river  in  1793,  and  the  government  explora- 
tions of  Lewis  and  Clarke  down  the  Columbia  in 
1805,  came  two  expeditions  to  the  Oregon  country 
in  1811,  one  by  land  and  the  other  by  water,  both 


FOUNDING  OF  ASTORIA. 


4ft 


being  despatched  by  the  same  man.  The  whole  re- 
gion north  of  Mexico  and  west  of  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains was  at  that  time  in  an  absolute  state  of  nature. 
The  Franciscans  hud,  indeed,  planted  a  line  of  their 
missions  along  tlie  coast  from  San  Diego  to  San 
Francisco  bays;  there  were,  as  we  have  seen,  a  few 
Russian  fur-hunters  in  Alaska,  and  Scotchmen  from 
Montreal  were  cautiously  pioneering  their  way  into 
New  Caledonia  from  the  Peace  river  pass,  ^vhile 
American  trappers  were  percolating  through  the 
mountains  westward  from  St  Louis.  Further  than 
this,  throughout  these  vast  solitudes  there  was  not  a 
soul  who  knew  aught  of  what  existed  beyond  his 
horizon,  aught  of  Europe  or  the  progress  of  man- 
kind therein,  aught  of  Mexico  or  Peru  with  their 
indigenous  progress,  or  anything  else,  save  what  was 
visible  to  the  inhabitants  amid  their  narrow  environ- 
ment. North  of  San  Francisco  bay  all  was  primeval 
wilderness,  inhabited  only  by  wild  men  and  wild 
beasts,  and  the  few  scattered  Europeans  who  em- 
ployed the  one  to  hunt  the  other. 

The  breaking  of  this  stillness,  and  the  letting  in  of 
light  destined  to  shine  wi„h  ever-increasing  brilliancy, 
was  largely  due  to  the  members  of  the  Pacific  Fur 
company,  organized  in  New  York  by  John  Jacob 
Astor,  who  furnished  all  the  capital,  one  million  of 
dollars,  and  assumed  all  the  risk  and  responsibility  of 
the  venture.  The  plan  v/us  to  establifn  a  line  of  forts 
betv^cen  the  Missouri  river  and  the  Pacific,  enter  into 
traffic  with  the  natives,  establish  a  post  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia,  and  thence  send  furs  to  China,  to  be 
exchanged  for  teas  and  silks  for  New  York,  returning 
with  Indian  supplies  to  Astoria. 

To  Wilson  P.  Hunt,  of  New  Jersey,  was  given 
charge  of  affairs  on  the  Pacific,  Duncan  McDougall 
being  chief  in  his  absence.  With  a  number  of 
Scotchmen  from  Montreal,  formerly  members  of  the 
Northwest  company,  and  now  partners  in  the  Pa- 
cific  company,   McDougall  sailed   from  New  York 


1 


IP 


46 


SOURCES  OP  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


>!iiiii 


in  the  ship  Tonquin,  Jonathan  Thorn,  lieutenant  in 
the  United  States  navy,  commander.  The  vessel 
reached  her  destination  in  safety,  though  not  with- 
out loss  of  life.  After  discharging  passengers  and 
cargo,  she  coasted  northward  for  furs,  and  was  cap- 
tured by  the  natives  at  Nootka  sound,  nearly  all  on 
board  being  killed.  Hunt,  with  a  party  of  sixty, 
passed  up  the  Missouri,  and  descending  the  Colum- 
bia, joined  his  associates  at  Astoria. 

The  American  flag  was  raised  none  too  soon  at 
Fort  Astoria  to  secure  the  great  Oregon  country  to 
the  United  States.  For  already  the  men  from  Mon- 
treal were  hastening  thither  to  seize  the  prize;  but 
they  were  too  late.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  had  not 
Mr  Astor  moved  in  this  matter  as  he  did,  had  his 
plans  been  frustrated  or  his  purpose  delayed,  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  United  States  might  to- 
day be  the  forty-second  parallel  of  latitude.  Thus 
we  see  the  momentous  siurnificance  of  this  movement, 
which,  though  resulting  disastrously  to  the  projector, 
was  pregnant  with  the  most  beneficial  results  to  the 
nation. 

True,  the  post  was  lost  for  a  time,  passing  into  the 
hands  of  the  British  and  the  Northwest  company 
during  the  war  of  1812,  but  the  final  effect  was  the 
same  as  if  possession  had  been  continuous.  I  do  not, 
of  course,  affirm  that  the  founding  of  this  fort  was 
alone  sufficient  to  institute  a  valid  claim  to  the  Co- 
lumbia river  country,  while  David  Thompson  and 
his  men  of  the  Northwest  company  were  at  the  same 
moment  trading  on  the  head- waters  of  its  tributaries. 
But  in  so  evenly  balanced  a  scale  as  that  which 
weighed  the  delicate  differences  in  the  Oregon  ques- 
tion, there  is  no  doubt  but  that  even  a  lesser  fact 
than  the  establishment  of  Fort  Astoria  would  have 
been  sufficient  to  turn  it. 

And  in  the  fulfilment  of  the  purpose  of  this  work, 
here  l)elongs  the  rMne  complete  characterization  of 
the  founder  of  the  i.stor  family  and  his  successors. 


JOHN  JACOB  ASTOR. 


47 


John  Jacob  Astor,  the  elder,  was  born  July  17, 
1763  in  the  village  of  Waldorf,  near  Heidelberg,  in 
the  grand  duchy  of  Baden.  He  was  the  youngest 
son  of  Johann  Jacob  Astor,  a  poor  peasant,  whose 
father  had  been  in  better  circumstances. 

The  first  years  of  his  life  were  passed  in  poverty 
and  privation,  and  at  the  age  of  sixteen  he  left  his 
father's  occupation  and  joined  an  elder  brother  who 
had  settled  some  years  before  in  London,  and  who 
subsequently  became  the  head  of  the  musical  instru- 
ment warehouse  of  Astor  &  Broadwood.  He  set  out 
on  foot  for  the  Rhine,  and  resting  under  a  tree  while 
still  in  sight  of  his  native  village,  formed  three 
resolves,  to  which  he  adhered  through  life — to  be 
honest,  to  be  industrious,  and  never  to  gamble.  He 
worked  his  passage  down  the  Bhine  on  a  timber  raft, 
and  on  arriving  in  London  received  employment  at 
his  brother's  factory.  Here  he  remained  three  years, 
acquiring  the  English  language,  and  putting  by  some 
scanty  savings  for  the  time  when  he  should  be  able 
to  realize  the  project  upon  which  his  thoughts  were 
fixed,  of  removing  to  America,  where  he  had  a  pre- 
sentiment of  attaining  great  riches.  In  his  later 
period  of  prosperity  he  often  referred  to  these  years 
as  having  been  among  the  happiest  of  his  life.  In 
November,  1783  he  embarked  at  Southampton,  taking 
a  stock  of  flutes  and  other  musical  instruments  which 
were  to  be  sold  at  a  profit.  Upon  arriving  in  New 
York  he  found  his  brother  Henry  Astor  in  possession 
of  a  considerable  fortune,  acquired  by  supplying  at 
first  the  British  garrison,  and  afterward  the  meat 
dealers  of  the  citv,  with  cattle  which  he  bouijht  in 
herds  in  the  interior. 

John  Jacob  Astor  soon  busied  himself  in  the  fur 
trade,  to  which  his  attention  had  been  called  by  a 
fellow-countryman,  and  in  which  large  fortunes  were 
being  amassed.  He  entered  upon  this  new  occupa- 
tion with  unremitting  vigor,  and  at  the  end  of  ten 
years  had  diverted  the  most  profitable  markets  from 


it"'':  I, 


4S 


SOURCES  OF  POAVER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


ill 


'I 


!}li 


^i! 


his  competitors,  and  was  at  the  head  of  a  business 
branching  to  Albany,  Buffalo,  Plattsburgh,  and 
Detroit.  Finding  that  London  was  a  better  market 
for  furs  than  New  York,  he  chartered  a  vessel,  put 
his  brother-in-law  William  Whetten,  a  ship  captain, 
in  command,  sold  the  cargo  to  great  advantage,  and 
returned  with  Astor  and  Broadwood  instruments, 
which  from  their  excellence  were  held  in  high  repu- 
tation. Taught  by  this  experience  he  bought  ships 
and  engaged  in  the  lucrative  China  trade,  sending 
vessels  round  the  world  on  each  cruise,  carrying  furs 
to  England,  English  manufactures  to  Canton,  and 
thence  returning  to  New  York  with  tea.  His  busi- 
ness increased  immensely,  but  he  superintended  all 
parts  of  it  personally  and  gave  attention  to  the 
minutest  details.  His  letters  of  instruction  to  his 
agents  were  written  with  extraordinary  comprehen- 
siveness and  accuracy.  It  was  his  maxim,  "  If  you 
wish  a  thing  done,  get  some  one  to  do  it  for  you; 
but  if  you  wish  it  done  well,  do  it  yourself"  He 
meditated  long  before  acting,  but  a  resolve  once  taken 
it  was  executed  without  hesitation. 

His  greatest  enterprise  was  the  settlement  of 
Astoria,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  river,  which 
is  the  subject  of  Washington  Irving's  volume  of  that 
name.  After  the  famous  journey  of  Lewis  and  Clarke 
across  the  continent,  he  dispatched  traders  and  buyers 
to  the  Indian  tribes  of  Oregon  and  Dakota  and  the 
great  lakes.  The  British  Northwest  fur  company 
opposed  him  to  the  utmost,  driving  away  his  agents 
and  voyageurs,  and  claiming  exclusive  rights  to  the 
fur  trade  of  the  Pacific.  In  the  face  of  great  diffi- 
culty tlie  station  of  Astoria  was  maintained  for  four 
years,  and  a  treaty  was  signed  by  his  agent  and  son- 
in-law  Bentzon  with  Count  Baranoff  on  behalf  of  the 
Russian  government  in  Kamtchatka  and  Alaska.  In 
dealing  with  the  Indians,  and  in  his  instructions  to 
his  captains  relative  to  their  intercourse  with  the 
savages,  Mr   Astor   was  wise,  humane,  and   liberal. 


JOHN  JACOB  ASTOR. 


49 


A  significant  corroboration  to  this  statement  is  found 
in  the  conduct  of  Comcomly,  the  chief  of  the  native 
Chinook s,  who  upon  the  approach  of  a  British  sloop 
of  war  in  December,  1814,  offered  to  defend  Astoria 
with  his  warriors,  promising  to  inflict  a  sanguinary 
repulse  upon  the  enemy.  But  unfortunately  Mr 
Astor  had  erred  for  once  in  his  judgment  of  human 
nature,  and  had  entrusted  Astoria  with  its  fort,  its 
magazines,  and  its  accumulation  of  valuable  furs  to 
the  renegade  Scotchman,  Duncan  McDougall,  who, 
for  a  bribe  from  the  British  Northwest  company, 
bade  Comcomly  dismiss  his  braves,  and  hoisted  the 
Union  Jack  almost  before  he  could  be  summoned  to 
surrender. 

In  this  remarkable  enterprise  Mr  Astor  was  actu- 
ated less  by  considerations  of  pecuniary  profit  than 
by  the  zest  of  a  vast  design  which  had  gradually 
developed  in  his  mind,  and  which  aimed  at  the  explo- 
ration and  civilization  of  the  Pacific  coast,  through 
the  medium  of  conmierce  and  colonization.  The 
magnitude  of  his  financial  relations,  and  the  vigor  and 
breadth  of  his  self-trained  intellect,  brought  him  into 
frequent  correspondence  upon  the  establishment  and 
maintenance  of  Astoria  with  the  leading  American 
statesmen  of  the  time  but  the  government  gave  no 
further  encouragement  or  protection  than  its  acquies- 
cence in  projects  which  were  evidently  to  be  so 
greatly  to  its  advantage. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  present  century  Mr 
Astor  began  investing  the  profits  of  commercial  vent- 
ures in  real  estate  upon  Manhattan  island,  whose 
immense  future  value  he  was  one  of  the  first  to  fore- 
see. He  bought  meadows  and  farms  in  the  track 
which  the  growth  of  the  city  would  follow,  trusting 
to  time  to  multiply  their  worth.  His  rise  to  fortune 
was  due  to  none  of  the  curious  windfalls  and  favoring 
chances  which  are  popularly  associated  with  his  early 
years;  the  first  half  of  his  life  was  an  arduous  strug- 
gle  in    which   adversity   and    disappointment   only 


C.  B.-  1. 


)j|t;| , 

iiii 

ill!!  J! 


ml 


I  M 


50 


SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


stimulated  him  to  further  self-improvement  and  to  a 
broader  and  profounder  study  of  the  world.  The 
practical  cast  of  his  character,  and  the  principles  of 
frugality  and  labor  which  his  experience  had  instilled, 
made  him  impatient  of  indolence  and  sham  and  men- 
dicancy. But  he  knew  the  value  of  wise  benefaction, 
and  by  his  will  established  the  library  which  bears 
his  name,  and  which  his  son  and  grandson  have  aug- 
mented till  their  united  gift  to  the  city  represents  a 
million  and  a  half  of  dollars. 

Mr  Astor  was  a  self-educated  man,  and  his  desire 
for  useful  information  was  a  constant  habit  of  the 
mind  and  marked  every  period  of  life.  He  delighted 
in  the  society  of  men  of  letters  and  accomplishments. 
One  of  his  most  intimate  friends,  dating  from  the 
days  of  their  service  as  directors  of  the  bank  of  the 
United  States,  was  Albert  Gallatin,  and  his  fre- 
quent companion,  and  one  who  at  a  later  period  lived 
with  him  for  several  years,  was  Washington  Irving. 
Through  business  relations  he  was  interested  in  the 
chief  banking  institutions  of  the  city,  and  in  1834, 
when  the  New  York  Life  Insurance  and  Trust  com- 
pany was  robbed  by  its  cashier  of  its  entire  surplus, 
amounting  to  a  quarter  of  a  million,  Mr  Astor  saved 
the  company  from  an  inevitable  suspension,  which  hi 
those  days  meant  disgrace,  by  the  gratuitous  loan  of 
an  amount  sufficient  to  meet  its  innnediate  needs. 

After  his  retirement  from  active  business  in  1822 
he  made  several  visits  to  Europe,  residing  on  the 
continent  in  all  nearly  ten  years.  He  acquired  the 
French  language,  which  he  learned  to  speak  and 
write  fluently,  was  presented  at  the  court  of  Charles 
the  tenth,  and  devoted  parts  of  two  winters  to  the 
galleries  and  museums  of  Italy ;  the  summers  abroad 
were  passed  at  a  villa  he  owned  on  the  lake  of  Geneva, 
which  he  afterward  gave  to  his  son-in-law,  Vincent 
Rumpff,  then  minister  of  the  Hanseatic  league  at 
Paris. 

Mr  Astor  s  last  years  were  spent  in  repose  and 


if'ti' 


1^: 


t 

i    : 


^■y'liy  ■iJ'f:^.!:    .:.   .■■ 


WII,J,)AM    J<    ASTOR. 


m 


rctirofiient.  in  t;.<  ^uiH-rvi'sion  t>riainlixl  interests,  and 
in  rhc  .soiiety  «»f  a,  hihuU  eiroU^  of  riv^n  of  uttciinnitnts. 

Hi'»  8trouji:''«t  tniit  Wiis  intri<rity;  hi.s  private  life 
wa.s  Ma)»)el«»8s:  lii^  tiii"f  pKvisurc  was  in  tJie  simple 
recroatitins  of  lii«  .'ountrv  home;  1  -  the  force  of  his 
mihuucii  and  example  he  in.'ljHd  to  give  eliuraeter  to 
the  society  of  his  time. 

In  old  aije,  surrounded  hv  overv  luxury  and  look- 
ing  i)ack  aeross  an  evenlful  <  ureer,  hi.s  thoiK^Uts 
reverted  to  the  h(»me  of  Jiis  boyhood  in  tin.'  huntbla 
litth;  villao;e  of  Wahjorf ;  and  by  his  will  In*  made 
provision  for  tin-  establishment  there  of  an  asylum 
for  the  siok  and  inhiin,  whieh,  since  its  creation  in 
1854,  ha3  alh'viated  sufferinu:,  and  stood  as  a  memorial 
of  the  love  its  founder  retained  to  the  last  f.)r  his 
German  fatherland. 


il 


j  ' 


William  i>.  A-tor  succeeded  to  hi.<  father's  estate 
at  the  air«^  of  fifty -six  vear>.  JSorn  on  the  19th  day 
of  September.  I7i'2,  he  completed  hi.s  education  at 
the  university  of  <  iottin^-eu  in  IHI-J  IM,  and  durin^- 
that  sojourn  abroad  saw  the  dej)arturc  of  Napokon'.s 
army  for  the  invasioti  of  Ku.ssia,  and  witnessed  the 
(jrennan  uprising  that  folloW'  d  the  reverses  of  that 
eampai»jfn. 

in  iSlH,  he  married  Marjfaret  Kebecca,  dauirhter 
of  (General  JoI;n  Armstrone',  author  of  the  Nevvburg 
letters,  minister  ironi  the  United  States  at  the  court 
of  the  fir.st  French  cnipii-e.  United  States  senator 
and  secretary  of  war. 

At  the  age  of  twenty-eight  Ih:"  entered  Ids  fnther's 
•^M3f>tiiig  house,  in  which  at  that  tinn'  was  .'onductod 
a  rTjftfvantdi'  business  that  encircled  th«'  gt«W)e.  Be- 
?.»■*¥«>  tJw  years  1820  and  IH^.^  these  commercial 
V  -7^11*%^  vt^*'  reduced,  and  rt|)laced  by  simph-r  and 
>*t<^>  :iAmr»it«t>  Mi^4-rests,  At  that  period  New  York 
fiAtU'ry,  and  liere  Mr  Astor  lived,  f>ass- 
*.,  '^v  u  Ariifr  ii..»nths  with  hi-;  family  at  his  father's 
i*!>t!>«t-?y-^at  ?t^   H.'l!  <Jat.-.      In  tl,o.se  earh  da\slife 


1 


,  -I 


'^'■//c^r^K- 


J 


WILLIAM  B.  ASTOR. 


01 


retirement,  in  the  supervision  of  landed  interests,  and 
in  the  society  of  a  small  circle  of  men  of  attainments. 

His  strongest  trait  was  integrity;  his  private  life 
was  blameless;  his  chief  pleasure  was  in  the  simple 
recreations  of  his  country  home ;  by  the  force  of  his 
influence  and  example  he  helped  to  give  character  to 
the  society  of  his  time. 

In  old  age,  surrounded  by  every  luxury  and  look- 
ing back  across  an  eventful  career,  his  thoughts 
reverted  to  the  home  of  his  boyhood  in  the  humble 
little  village  of  Waldorf;  and  by  his  will  he  made 
provision  for  the  establishment  there  of  an  asylum 
for  the  sick  and  infirm,  which,  since  its  creation  in 
1854,  has  alleviated  suffering,  and  stood  as  a  memorial 
of  the  love  its  founder  retained  to  the  last  for  his 
German  fatherland. 


'% 


!i   I 


William  B.  Astor  succeeded  to  his  father's  estate 
at  the  age  of  fifty-six  years.  Born  on  the  19th  day 
of  September,  1792,  he  completed  his  education  at 
the  university  of  Gottingen  in  1812-13,  and  during 
that  sojourn  abroad  saw  the  departure  of  Napoleon's 
army  for  the  invasion  of  Russia,  and  witnessed  the 
German  uprising  that  followed  the  reverses  of  that 
campaign. 

In  1818,  he  married  Margaret  Rebecca,  daughter 
of  General  John  Armstrong,  author  of  the  Newburg 
letters,  minister  from  the  United  States  at  the  court 
of  the  first  French  empire,  United  States  senator 
and  secretary  of  war. 

At  the  age  of  twenty-eight  he  entered  his  father's 
counting-house,  in  which  at  that  time  was  conducted 
a  mercantile  business  that  encircled  the  globe.  Be- 
tween the  vears  1820  and  1825  these  commercial 
ventures  were  reduced,  and  replaced  by  simpler  and 
less  hazardous  interests.  At  that  period  New  York 
fronted  the  battery,  and  here  Mr  Astor  lived,  pass- 
ing the  summer  months  with  his  family  at  his  father's 
country-seat  at  Hell  Gate.     In  those  early  days  life 


I'i 


52 


SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


was  without  the  luxuries  that  wealth  and  travel  and 
leisure  have  brought,  and  amid  the  simple  habits  of 
the  time  Mr  Aster's  character  was  shaped  in  abstemi- 
ous, methodical,  self-reliant  ways.  His  youth  was  un- 
spoiled by  the  world,  and  he  knew  neither  affectation 
nor  vanity.  All  his  life  he  was  regular  in  outdoor 
exercise,  riding  on  horseback  until  the  age  of  seventy- 
five,  and  walking  several  miles  daily,  whatever  the 
weather.  Those  who  knew  him  only  in  old  age — a 
man  of  iron  constitution  and  rugged  health  and  in- 
flexible purpose — could  with  difficulty  have  imagined 
him  in  early  manhood  fond  of  sport,  an  expert  fencer, 
taking  pleasure  in  dancing  and  in  ladies'  society. 

From  thirty  to  the  age  of  fifty  he  was  personally 
interested  in  various  corporations,  from  which  he 
withdrew  as  responsibilities  increased.  In  common 
with  all  men  of  his  position  in  New  York,  he  held 
aloof  from  public  affairs,  regarding  the  city  govern- 
ment and  the  ways  of  politicians  with  aversion.  His 
days  were  passed  according  to  a  fixed  routine,  which 
continued  almost  unchanfjed  to  the  last.  He  rose 
betimes,  breakfasted  frugally,  and  devoted  six  hours 
of  the  day  to  jiis  affairs,  supervising  details,  directing 
the  work  of  the  clerks,  and  visiting  the  office  of  his 
solicitor  three  or  four  times  a  week.  In  appearance 
he  was  large  and  tall,  of  grave  countenance,  and  kind 
and  courtly  in  manner  to  the  humblest.  Under  the 
impulse  of  his  meditative  and  forecasting  mind,  the 
management  of  the  Astor  estate  was  moulded  to  a 
precise  and  undeviating  system.  In  1824  the  office 
was  removed  from  Vesey  street  to  Prince  street, 
where  a  diminutive  building  was  erected  for  its  ac- 
commodation. This,  in  1850,  was  converted  to  a 
vault  or  strong-room,  and  the  counting-house  was 
transferred  to  the  adjoining  premises,  No.  85,  where 
it  remained  for  thirty  years.  Here  business  was 
conducted  under  Mr  Aster's  [)crsonal  supervision 
and  that  of  his  eldest  son,  John  Jacob,  with  sim- 
plicity and  directness,  and  in  almost  unbroken  still- 


JOHN  JACOB  ASTOU  THE  YOUNGER. 


53 


ness,  father  and  son  and  book-keeper  occupying  the 
rear  room,  while  in  front  sat  a  younger  son,  William, 
and  tw(  >  clerks.  The  Astors  have  never  speculated, 
and  the  popular  fancy  which  supposes  them  continu- 
ally foreclosing  mortgages  and  driving  unfortunate 
bemgs  to  despair  is  groundless.  Irrespective  of  a 
natural  and  humane  indulgence  f<n'  the  mortgagor,  to 
foreclose  is  a  troublesome  and  costly  procedure,  and 
is  resorted  to  only  in  rare  and  unavoidable  cases.  In 
all  his  affairs,  which  brought  him  in  contact  with 
many  people,  Mr  Astor  showed  an  invariably  mod- 
est, reserved  disposition,  and  none  ever  heard  from 
him  the  slightest  allusion  to  his  wealth.  The  ruling 
principle  of  his  life  was  a  faithful  discharge  of  every 
duty,  and  he  followed  it  with  a  constancy  that 
neither  the  weight  of  responsibility,  nor  the  weari- 
ness of  age,  nor  the  thousand  petty  annoyances  that 
attend  the  rich  man's  way,  could  alter. 

With  advancing  years  he  withdrew  from  the  world ; 
his  appearances  in  society  became  less  frequent,  and 
of  the  entertainments  at  his  Lafayette  place  resi- 
dence few  remained  but  the  formal  New  Year's  day 
family  dinner,  to  which  all  his  children  and  grand- 
children, and  half  a  dozen  particular  friends,  were 
bidden,  and  which  were  stately  entertainments  of  an 
old-fashioned  type. 

After  his  wife's  death,  February  15,  1872,  he  re- 
moved to  No.  372  Fifth  avenue,  passing  the  summers 
at  his  country-seat,  Rokeby  on  the  Hudson.  His 
devotion  to  business  continued,  but  otherwise  he 
lived  in  great  seclusion,  receiving  few  visitors  be- 
yond an  intimate  circle,  and  devoting  his  leisure  to 
the  readinij  of  French  and  Enjjlish  classical  litera- 
ture,  which  had  always  been  his  favorite  relaxation. 
His  long  life  ended  peacefully  on  the  24th  day  of 
November,  1875. 


John  Jacob  Astor,  the  second  of  the  name,  was 
born  in  New  York,  June  10,  1822.    His  parents  were 


:   It- 


V 


S4 


SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


William  B.  Aster,  son  of  the  founder  of  the  family, 
and  Margaret  Rebecca,  daughter  and  granddaughter 
of  the  Armstrongs  of  revolutionary  honor. 

After  graduatmg  from  Columbia  college  he  was 
sent  to  the  university  of  Gottingen,  where,  thirty 
years  earlier,  his  father  had  studied  and  formed 
friendships  with  the  men  who  were  destined  to  pre- 
pare the  mind  of  Germany  for  national  unity.  When 
to  this  had  been  added  the  diploma  of  Harvard  law 
school,  and  a  year's  practice  with  a  law  firm,  he 
passed,  at  the  age  of  twenty-five,  to  the  office  of  the 
estate  of  joiii.  Jacob  Astor. 

■  On  the  9th  of  December  1846  he  married  Char- 
lotte Augusta  Gibbes,  whose  father  had  removed 
from  South  Carolina  at  an  early  age.  Their  acquaint- 
ance began  as  children,  and  was,  for  both,  a  first  and 
lifelong  and  unwavering  attachment.  To  his  wife  he 
owed  the  example  of  her  own  high  ideals,  and  the 
habitual  practice  of  a  broad  and  generous  sympathy 
with  all  classes.  Her  influence  sprang  from  the  daily 
self-sacrifice  of  her  life,  which  was  exemplified  when, 
after  the  first  federal  reverses  of  the  civil  war,  she 
accepted  without  murmur  his  determination  to  serve 
in  the  field  in  the  cause  of  the  nation. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  century,  fortunes  were 
easily  made  in  New  York,  and  in  many  cases  were 
still  more  quickly  lost.  A  spendthrift  or  incompetent 
son  wrecked  in  a  year  what  the  skill  of  the  father 
had  achieved  in  a  lifetime.  Hence  the  elder  Astor 
early  associated  his  son  with  him  in  the  care  of  his 

{)roperty,  interesting  him  in  its  management  by  a 
arge  share  of  responsibility,  and  instructing  him  in 
those  wise  principles  by  which  it  was  to  be  preserved. 
And  similarly  the  subject  of  this  sketch  was  trained 
by  his  father,  not  for  sordid  acquisition,  but  in  recog- 
nition of  the  duty  the  heir  owes  to  the  ancestor  to 
maintain  and  enhance  the  fortune  from  which  all  the 
honors  and  advantages  and  pleasures  of  life  are 
directly  or  indirectly  derived. 


!-  If 


•  it 


T r 


"^''h,  EP.'^.n  5;  :j-i''--' 


,]0U:\   ,1AC0R   ASTOR  THE   YOUNUKll. 


5S 


Mr  Asfor^  natural  qualities  wrro  such  as  made 
liim  responsive  t<>  ovtry  .such  ajsj-ca].  An  intuitive 
love  <»i  justice,  an  lum- ,j»t  t?^  v  >rifii\  t**  the  liglft,  a 
severe  f?atistaftion  in  tl  i  f|^it^lmry#  of  duty, 

underlay  all  tli«  ^Kkiiti  ;       ;  i    ^j  awl  trnvtil  and 

experieiiet.      \IW  rastoa  weri>  ?.un(>i»\  &in]  uith  rip*;^- 
vears  thf  s<  .'lon.s  uloaeuros  oC  his  ycnith  (^oiitiuued  to 

k.  L  «■ 

deliiriit  !i:in  In  ttu  ^'tinu' of  hk-  h-  |k>sho;ss»m1  great 
viu^or,  .tiKi  ins  favrite  rolaxatKMis  \\>-rr  u  walk 
throuudi  t]i(^  woods,  or  an  afternoon  in  lii?s  rowhoat, 
or  a  ionjj:  ride  on  horsehat^k.  This  zest  for  outdoor 
exercise  developed  a  vivid  appreciation  of  the  beauties 
of  rural  scenerv.  He  delio-hte<l  in  the  blossoniino- 
expansion  of  si'rint^',  and  in  the  rev(Ties  that  sunnner 
llelds  and  lieetitii,;'  clou<ls  and  leiuj,thening  shadows 
sugo'est.  'J'he  tints  of  aunnnn,  and  the  sparkling 
vista  of  tlie  rivtn-,  and  tlie  eloquent  silence  of  star- 
light nights  Bpak*'  to  him  in  a  hingnage  he  grew  to 
understand  and  to  love. 

Few  ricii  men  hear  responsihlllty  st)  widely,  or  walk 
so  far  al>ove  tlie  eornnion  teni].tati<n)s  of  «\'ea1th.  Of 
a  singularly  modest  aiitl  unsf-itisli  <'.haraclor,  h*-  applied 
to  the  tasks  and  rluties  inqx>s<.Ml  by  association  with 
bone.olent  institutions  the  thoughfnl  earnestness  that 
i'len  usually  give  only  t-o  their  personal  affai*-  His 
greatest  delight — aft(  r  the  services  oF  i]\v  church — 
was  in  personally  assisting  the  very  pooi,  an<l  in  the 
satisfaction  olwitnessing  tin  ir  instant  relief'.  "  For- 
asnmciu"  the  Master  says,  "'as  ye  have  done  it  unto 
one  of  the  least  of  these,  ve  have;  done  it  unto  me." 

.Much  of  Mr  Aster's  can-er  was  jiass'  d  in  witv's 
withdrawn  from  general  ni>tic'',  and  frorii^  i.is  pr^Hlts- 
position  to  retirement,  it  might  i^  interred  that  he 
sought  rather  the  a.ssuf-iation  of  ''ui.uhar  ]'laces  than 
the  eonijifriionship  of  men.  'V\\(^  rontuie  of  niethod- 
i<'ul  indnscry  and  fiduciary  service  was  lighte»ied  by 
frecjueiit  visits  t()  Furope,  by  tiie  constant  study  of 
books,  aru!  !)y  the  t^ocijd  plejisures  of  a  few  eherished 
friendsl.'ips.      h'(>r  iorty  vfars  hi'  served  a>  a  trustee 


(.:.   P' 


I 


i 


# 


w 


«.^' 


JOHN  JACOB  ASTOR  THE  YOUNGER. 


Mr  Astor's  natural  qualities  were  such  as  made 
him  responsive  to  every  such  appeal.  An  intuitive 
love  of  justice,  an  honest  devotion  to  the  right,  a 
severe  satisfaction  in  the  faithful  discharge  of  duty, 
underlay  all  the  additions  of  reading  and  travel  and 
experience.  His  tastes  were  simple,  and  with  riper 
years  the  serious  pleasures  of  his  youth  continued  to 
delight  him.  In  the  prime  of  life  he  possessed  great 
viofor,  and  his  favorite  relaxations  were  a  walk 
through  the  woods,  or  an  afternoon  in  his  rowboat, 
or  a  long  ride  on  horseback.  This  zest  for  outdoor 
exercise  developed  a  vivid  appreciation  of  the  beauties 
of  rural  scenery.  He  delighted  in  the  blossoming 
expansion  of  spring,  and  in  the  reveries  that  summer 
fields  and  fleeting  clouds  and  lengthening  shadows 
suggest.  The  tints  of  autumn,  and  the  sparkling 
vista  of  the  river,  and  the  eloquent  silence  of  star- 
light nights  spoke  to  him  in  a  language  he  grew  to 
understand  and  to  love. 

Few  rich  men  bear  responsibility  so  wisely,  or  walk 
so  far  above  the  common  temptations  of  wealth.  Of 
a  singularly  modest  and  unselfish  cliaracter,  he  applied 
to  the  tasks  and  duties  imposed  by  association  with 
benevolent  institutions  the  thoughful  earnestness  that 
men  usually  give  only  to  their  personal  affairs.  His 
oreatest  delisfht — after  the  services  of  the  church — 
was  in  personally  assisting  the  very  poor,  and  in  the 
satisfaction  of  witnessiuij  their  instant  relief,  "For- 
asinuch,"  the  Master  says,  "us  ye  have  done  it  unto 
one  of  the  least  of  these,  ye  have  done  it  unto  me." 

Much  of  ^Ir  Astor's  carter  was  passed  in  ways 
withdrawn  from  general  notice,  and  from  his  predis- 
position to  retirement,  it  might  be  inferred  that  he 
sought  rather  the  association  of  familiar  places  than 
the  companionshl})  of  men.  The  routine  of  method- 
ical industry  and  fiduciary  service  was  lightened  by 
frequent  visits  to  Europe,  by  the  constant  study  of 
books,  and  by  the  social  pleasures  of  a  few  cherished 
friendships.     For  forty  years  he  served  as  a  trustee 


56 


SOURCES  OF   POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


of  the  Astor  library,  and  witnessed  its  growth  from 
the  inception  of  its  founder's  design  to  its  successive 
enlargements  by  his  father  and  by  himself.  Once 
only  he  felt  tempted  to  enter  the  public  service  by 
an  offer  from  President  Hayes  in  December  1879  of 
the  mission  to  England — a  position  for  which  his 
practical  judgment  and  knowledge  of  society  qualified 
him,  but  which  his  habitual  modesty  bade  him  de- 
cline. 

Of  all  his  memories  of  a  long  and  active  life,  the 
one  to  which  he  reverted  with  the  greatest  satisfac- 
tion was  his  service  in  the  field  in  1862  with  the 
army  of  the  Potomac.  The  remembrance  of  the 
patriotic  ardor  of  the  troops,  of  their  jubilant  confi- 
dence in  McClellan,  of  the  privations  of  the  bivouac, 
of  the  exposures  and  dangers  of  the  seven  days' 
battles,  of  the  forlorn  appearance  and  redoubtable 
qualities  of  the  enemy — all  these  and  many  more  he 
cherished  with  an  interest  akin  to  the  attachment 
with  which  his  thoughts  ever  after  followed  the  offi- 
cers who  had  been  his  companions  in  those  stirring 
and  memorable  scenes. 

Besides  the  respect  of  the  community,  which  the 
example  of  his  pure  and  useful  life  commanded,  his 
kindly  words,  his  cordial  and  unassuming  manner,  his 
keen  sense  of  humor,  his  ready  facility  of  expression, 
and  his  wide  information,  attached  to  him  a  group  of 
friends  who  knew  hiu)  well  and  loved  him.  But 
chiefly  his  loss  fell  upon  his  son,  to  whom,  through 
long  years  of  mutual  confidence,  he  gave  the  teach- 
ings and  experience  of  his  life. 

In  his  quiet  library,  surrounded  by  the  volumes 
which,  as  years  [)asscd  and  other  friends  were  taken, 
had  become  his  favorite  companions,  death- — swift 
and  almost  painless — touched  liim;  and  on  the  22d 
day  of  February  1890,  in  the  sixty-eighth  year  of  his 
ago,  he  left  this  world  without  regret,  and  with  his 
last  conscious  thoughts  fixed  uik)U  the  better  world 
to  come. 


!i 


(1 


I   I 


f    :'  t 


\ViJJ.I\M    WALDORF    AS'JOlt. 


« 


':i 


Williaiu  \Vaki.>il  Astor,  the  tburtii  in  line,  and  at 
present  ]joa<l  <4'  xAk^  Astor  fainily,  was  born  in  New 
York,  Mar-'h  .il,  IH4H.  Hi?  rurvntB  wmv  John 
Jacob  Ast<»r  !i.  aad  Cbttrl«ttt<.   Asj^iiistia  ^i-iUU/s. 

His  eduwAiHjn  was  .  in-  1y  dirt^eted  hv  t'it«»r.s,  and 
wu-  cornpi'-icd  at  Iiuiue  bv  a  prnfiMiiMwr  wf  *«.«<  Gonnati 
ui)ivt;r.^>iy  of  Ma»bnrtr.  Tiii^  '^arly  iavfiHruiion  .van, 
howfiver,  the  least  iuiportaui  part  nt'  his  traininjL;,  its, 
more  valuable  portion  rcsultinjj;  iVom  the  conipanii>u- 
ship  and  iaflueuces  of  his  home  lite.  From  his 
fathci-  he  ac(|iured  the  example  of  integrity  whieh  ■ 
has  Ix'corne  s\'nonvm<)Us  with  the  name,  and  tlie  ct)n- 
gervativo  principles  and  industrious  wa\\s  tliat  nuirlo.Hi 
the  earlier  i>>.!ncrations.  Froui  hi*  niotlier  ht;  received 
an  ideal  convevtid  in  manv  varied  lessons,  to  derive 
the  utmost  goo< J  from  life. 

H«^  entcri.'d  the  ortiee  at  tlie  ago  of  twenty-three, 
earlicn-  than  edher  h>->  father  or  jjjrandfather,  and  was 
practici>]iy  tauofht  the  duties  of  each  ch'rical  depart- 
ment. FccliuL;  his  want  of"  legal  inforti.ation  a  seri- 
ous deficiency,  lie  passed  two  years  at  Columbia 
(College  law  vsrliooi,  and  upt-n  being  admitted  to  the 
bar,  servod  an  apprenti<'eship  of  one  year  with  the 
firm  of  Ford.  I);iv,  &  Lord.  His  grau<lfather  namt^d 
him  one  of  liis  executors,  and  one  of  the  trustees  of  a 
large  portion  of  iiis  })roperty  to  be  held  \u  trust  for 
Ills  sons.  Upon  John  Jact>b  Aster's  succeeding  to 
the  estate,  he  gavi^  his  son  a  power  of  attorney,  put- 
ting him  in  his  own  place,  iind  giving  liim  absolute 
autl)ority  over  all  his  proj>crty. 

With  the  \  iew  of  acquiring  a  broader  knowledge 
of  men  and  afiairs  than  the  routine  of  the  ofhce  prom- 
ised. Mr  .V.-tor  served  three  y.  urs  in  Ht.  New  Y-^rk 
state  }i  gislature,  v.liere  he  found  a  vai'ud.ih;  oprn-r- 
tmiity  f>r  the  studv  of  human  rtACif>-  rmd  pu.»lic 
bu.sines>.  AjiMunttxl  l)y  Fresidcui  Vrthur  to  the 
ItaUAii  m4#»i«iot;.  he  resided  for  tiir«e  wmt/ers  lu  Ko  le, 
a  citv  w.fh  wliuii  earlr  travel  had  already  aiade  I  uu 
famihar       !fis  otH:.'i;.l  duties  beinv:  inconsiderable,  be 


:( 


i 


« 


V. 


WILLIAM   WALDORF  ASTOU. 


67 


William  Waldorf  Astor,  the  fourth  in  line,  and  at 
present  head  of  the  Astor  family,  was  born  in  New 
York,  March  31,  1848.  His  parents  were  John 
Jacob  Astor  II.  and  Charlotte  Augusta  Gibbes. 

His  education  was  chiefly  directed  by  tutors,  and 
was  completed  at  home  by  a  professor  of  the  German 
university  of  Marburg.  This  early  preparation  was, 
however,  the  least  important  part  of  his  training,  its 
more  valuable  portion  resulting  from  the  companion- 
ship and  influences  of  his  home  life.  From  his 
father  he  acquired  the  example  of  integrity  which 
has  become  synonymous  with  the  name,  and  the  con- 
servative principles  and  industrious  ways  that  marked 
the  earlier  generations.  From  his  mother  he  received 
an  ideal  conveyed  in  many  varied  lessons,  to  derive 
the  utmost  good  from  life. 

He  entered  the  office  at  the  age  of  twenty-three, 
earlier  than  either  his  father  or  grandfather,  and  was 
practically  taught  the  duties  of  each  clerical  depart- 
ment. Feeling  his  want  of  legal  information  a  seri- 
ous deficiency,  he  passed  two  years  at  Columbia 
College  law  school,  and  upon  being  admitted  to  the 
bar,  served  an  apprenticeship  of  one  year  with  the 
firm  of  Lord,  Day,  &  Lord.  His  grandfather  named 
him  one  of  his  executors,  and  one  of  the  trustees  of  a 
large  portion  of  his  property  to  be  held  in  trust  for 
his  sons.  Upon  John  Jacob  Astor's  succeeding  to 
the  estate,  he  gave  his  son  a  power  of  attorney,  put- 
ting him  in  his  own  place,  and  giving  him  absolute 
autiiority  over  all  his  property. 

With  the  view  of  acquiring  a  broader  knowledge 
of  men  and  affairs  than  the  routine  of  the  office  prom- 
ised, Mr  Astor  served  three  years  in  the  New  York 
state  legislature,  where  he  found  a  valuable  oppor- 
tunity for  the  study  of  human  nature  and  public 
business.  Appointed  by  President  Arthur  to  the 
Italian  mission,  he  resided  for  three  winters  in  Rome, 
a  city  with  which  early  travel  had  already  made  him 
familiar.     His  official  duties  being  inconsiderable,  he 


I  i 


iM 


Si 


08 


SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


busied  himself  with  the  examination  of  obscure  pas- 
sages in  Italian  niedisBval  annals.  His  stories,  Val- 
entino and  S/orza,  are  in  part  the  result  of  these 
researches. 

Mr  Astor  is  a  man  of  strong  physique,  a  great 
lover  of  nature,  and  devoted  to  outdoor  exercise. 
He  rides  much  on  horseback,  fences,  and  in  his 
youth  was  a  good  boxer.  He  is  industrious,  tena- 
cious of  purpose,  and  methodical  in  his  ways.  In 
1878,  he  married  Mary  Dahlgren  Paul,  a  Phila- 
delphia beauty,  by  whom  he  has  three  children, — 
Waldorf,  born  May  19,  1879;  Pauline,  born  Septem- 
ber 24,  1880;  and  John  Jacob,  born  May  19,  1886. 

As  residuary  legatee,  Mr  Astor  recently  succeeded 
to  his  father's  property,  in  the  management  of  which 
he  has  made  but  few  changes,  and  these  only  with 
the  purpose  of  simplifying  the  administration  of  the 
office,  which  he  designates  the  Estate  of  John  Jacob 
Astor,  his  great-grandfather. 

After  the  acquisition  of  5  ort  Astoria,  the  North- 
west company,  now  sole  potentates  on  the  Northwest 
coast,  hastened  to  make  good  their  possession  be- 
fore their  only  formidable  rival,  the  Hudson's  Bay 
company,  should  enter  in  force.  One  measure  was 
to  repress  certain  Indian  tribes,  particularly  those 
along  the  Columbia,  which  had  taken  advantage  of 
the  late  competition  to  commit  robberies  and  other 
outrages.  Stolen  goods  were  recovered  by  the  arrest 
of  their  leaders,  and  their  turbulent  spirit  was  over- 
awed by  discharges  of  cannon,  while  good  behavior 
was  rewarded  with  presents,  and  honorary  appoint- 
ments for  influential  chieftains,  and  misconduct  met 
with  certain  punisliment. 

Tiie  compatiy  determined  to  direct  its  efforts  to 
trade  rather  than  to  hunting,  and  more  by  means  of 
active  operations  than  the  mere  maintenance  of  sta- 
tions. To  this  end  the  field  was  divided  into  an 
interior  and  a  coast  district,  the  latter  intrusted  to 


/   ■   ':V 


THE  NORTHWEST  COMPANY. 


8» 


swift  vessels,  which  should  also  supply  goods  for  Cal- 
ifornia. This  reorganization  was  effected  by  D.  Mc- 
Tavish,  one  of  the  oldest  partners,  assisted  by  D. 
McKenzie,  as  manager  of  the  interior,  who  subse- 
quently became  governor  of  the  Red  River  colony. 
By  1817  the  company  had  more  than  300  Canadians 
in  its  service  on  this  slope,  and  three  ships  for 
carrying  supplies.  Additional  forts  had  also  been 
established,  and  the  plan  for  occupation  so  thor- 
oughly systematized  that  there  was  little  prospect 
for  successful  competition  by  the  Hudson's  Bay 
rival,  although  the  latter  had  set  aside  a  sinking- 
fund  for  carrying  on  the  struggle  in  this  quarter. 

The  Hudson's  Bay  company  had  sought  to  inter- 
pose a  barrier  in  their  path  from  the  northwest  by 
causing  the  establishment  of  the  Red  River  colony, 
and  so  obliging  them  to  make  a  wide  and  costly  de- 
tour. But  the  Northwest  company  answered  the 
challenge  by  raids  with  torch  and  sword,  by  cutting 
off  supplies,  and  by  a  persistent  molestation,  which 
so  exhausted  and  terrified  the  settlers  as  to  cause  their 
withdrawal.  The  justice  demanded  upon  the  aggres- 
sors was  foiled  by  intrigue  and  bribery,  but  the  in- 
vestigation enforced  upon  the  government  led  to 
mediation  and  compromise,  by  which  the  two  com- 
panies were  in  1821  united  under  one  head,  on  equal 
terms,  under  the  name  of  the  older  association.  Each 
contributed  £200,000  in  stock,  in  one  hundred  shares, 
of  which  forty  were  held  by  active  workers.  The 
selection  of  twenty- five  chief  factors  and  twenty- 
eight  chief  traders  was  made  from  the  servants  of 
each,  alternately. 

On  December  21,  1821,  the  government  granted 
to  the  consolidation  an  exclusive  trade  license  for 
twenty-one  years  over  all  parts  of  Britisli  North 
America  not  already  conceded  to  the  old  company, 
the  crown  reserving  the  right  to  appoint  magistrates, 
although  the  selection  was  naturally  made  among  the 
fur-traders.     Before  the  expiration  of  the  term  the 


' 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


1.1 


11.25 


150     ""^^        WKW^^ 

Ui  lii    12.2 


^       140 


1 


2.0 


U    11.6 


^ 


^ 


'/ 


Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


33  WIST  m/»:n  strut 

,»ltfaTm>.Y.  14510 
(716)t73-4S03 


9 


^\-i 


^ 


60 


SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


progress  of  exploration  and  settlements  alarmed  the 
monopoly,  and  it  seized  an  opportune  moment  to  sur- 
render the  license,  in  order  to  obtain  in  1838  a 
renewal  for  another  series  of  twenty -one  years. 

The  Pacific  slope  had  meanwhile  entered  upon  a 
new  political  phase.  By  treaty  of  1814,  England 
offered  to  restore  the  captured  forts  to  the  United 
States,  although  it  was  not  until  four  years  later 
that  the  American  flag  was  again  raised  over  As- 
toria. By  convention  of  1818  it  was  further  agreed 
that  both  nationalities  should  have  unrestricted  access 
to  the  Northwest  coast  for  ten  years,  without  prejudice 
to  a  later  adjustment  of  title;  yet  it  was  well  enough 
understood  that  the  Americans  intended  to  assert 
their  rights  as  far  as  latitude  49°,  or  even  54°  40', 
while  the  English  aimed  to  secure  the  Columbia  for 
their  southern  boundary. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  British  association 
resolved  to  concentrate  its  best  resources  and  posses- 
sions on  the  northern  side  of  the  Columbia.  It  was 
also  decided  to  select  for  an  entrep6t  a  point  combin- 
ing agricultural  and  other  advantages,  tending  in  later 
times  to  assure  its  position  as  a  metropolis.  A  more 
central  and  convenient  point  on  the  river  was  selected, 
near  the  head  of  ocean  navigation,  and  almost  opposite 
the  great  Willamette  tributary.  Here  Fort  Vancou- 
ver was  founded,  in  1825,  and  soon  grew  into  a  solid 
establishment,  with  warehouses,  workshops,  dwellings, 
and  halls,  enclosed  within  a  fortified  picket  wall  750 
feet  long  by  450  in  width,  surrounded  by  gardens, 
orchards,  fields,  and  pastures,  and  supplemented  in 
time  by  a  village  containing  servants,  natives,  and  half- 
breeds,  the  nucleus  of  the  present  flourishing  town. 
It  became  the  main  depot  for  all  the  Pacific  trading 
posts,  sending  supplies,  partly  by  ships,  but  chiefly 
by  boats,  to  the  upper  Columbia,  and  other  points, 
where  pack-trains  made  the  necessary  continuations. 

In  1824  Fraser  river,  tlie  second  great  canoe  route 
of  the  coast,  was  explored  from  the  sea,  and  here  soon 


FORTS  AND  AGENCIES. 


61 


afterward  rose  Fort  Langley,  which  in  time  became 
an  entrep6t  even  for  the  upper  Columbia.  The  inter- 
course between  this  post  and  Vancouver,  partly  over- 
land, led  to  the  founding  of  Fort  Nisqually,  on  Puget 
sound,  which  in  the  following  decade  was  made  the 
shipping-place,  owing  to  the  dangers  of  the  Columbia 
bar,  marked  by  more  than  one  disastrous  wreck. 

Agriculture  had  thus  far  been  neglected  under  the 
pressure  of  fur-gathering,  but  now  farmers  with  seed 
and  cattle  Were  introduced  from  California  and  the 
east,  and  furnished  staple  necessaries,  and  even  car- 
goes for  export.  To  this  end  special  farms  were 
opened,  notably  on  the  Cowlitz  prairie,  and  north 
of  this  the  Puget  Sound  company's  establishments, 
formed  by  the  Hudson's  Bay  company's  shareholders, 
although  a  distinct  association. 

The  visit  of  inspection  in  1828-9,  repeated  in  1841 
by  Governor  Simpson,  the  resident  American  man- 
ager of  the  monopoly,  gave  rise  to  several  additional 
measures.  An  agency  was  opened  at  the  Hawaiian 
islands,  to  obtain  an  outlet  for  the  surplus  flour,  fish, 
and  lumber,  and  where  might  be  obtained  coffee, 
sugar,  salt,  and  other  articles.  In  the  forties  a  simi- 
lar branch  was  formed  at  San  Francisco  bay,  where 
European  goods  might  be  exchanged  for  peltry,  hides, 
tallow,  and  cattle,  but  it  was  closed  shortly  prior  to 
the  gold  discovery,  thus  missing  that  rare  opportunity 
for  money -making. 

Forts  were  gradually  established  along  the  Rocky 
mountains  as  far  south  as  Fort  Hall  on  Snake  river, 
and  as  far  north  as  Fort  Connolly  on  Peace  river, 
not  counting  the  stations  on  the  Mackenzie,  which 
extended  to  the  Arctic  sea.  Nearer  the  coast  they 
had  been  carried  through  Oregon  to  Umpqua  river 
in  1832,  in  the  face  of  hostile  Indians,  and  about  the 
same  time  the  Alaskan  frontier  was  approached. 

By  treaty  of  1825  England  had  agreed  with  Russia 
upon  latitude  54"  40'  as  the  dividing  line,  which  was 
recognized  also  by  the  United  States,  and  upon  a 


K 


V 


62 


SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 


shore  line  northward  of  ten  leagues,  and  including  all 
that  lay  west  of  longitude  141°,  British  traders  being 
allowed  free  admission  for  a  decade.  In  1831  Fort 
Simpson  was  founded,  on  Naso  river,  and  three  years 
later  an  attempt  was  made  to  pass  through  Russian 
territory,  and  establish  a  post  on  the  Stikeen ;  but  the 
Muscovites  objected,  and  incited  the  Indians  against 
the  proposed  intruders.  The  Hudson's  Bay  company 
protested,  and  obtained  not  only  damages,  but  a  ten 
years'  lease  of  the  shore  strip,  including  two  statious, 
to  which  two  others  were  immediately  added.  The 
primary  object  was  to  obtain  colonial  trade,  but  the 
fur  business  itself  proved  more  profitable  than  under 
the  less  energetic  and  methodical  Russians,  so  much 
so  that  a  renewal  of  the  lease  was  procured  until  the 
sixties.  This  traffic  was  facilitated  by  the  introduc- 
tion, in  1836,  of  a  steamer,  named  the  Beaver,  the 
first  to  appear  in  North  Pacific  waters.  Sixteen 
years  later  the  enlarged  traffic  demanded  another 
vessel,  and  the  steamer  Otter  was  placed  in  service. 

The  consolidation,  together  with  the  able  adminis- 
tration of  George  Simpson  as  general  manager,  and 
of  John  McLoughlin  on  the  Pacific  slope,  had  proved 
beneficial  no  less  to  the  company  than  to  the  country 
and  its  inhabitants,  partly  %  insuring  order,  partly 
by  elevating  the  moral  tone  among  traders  and  In- 
dians, as  in  the  restriction  on  liquor  traffic,  and  the 
promotion  of  harmonious  intercourse,  and  again  by 
improving  the  financial  condition  of  pII.  During  the 
period  from  1690  to  1800,  the  Hudson's  Bay  company, 
for  instance,  had  been  paying  between  sixty  and  sev- 
enty per  cent  aniiually  in  dividends  on  its  capital  of 
about  £100,000.  Then,  under  bitter  competition  with 
the  Northwest  company,  as  also  during  the  struggle 
with  France,  profits  fell  sometimes  to  nothing.  After 
1821,  with  a  consolidated  and  watered  capital  of 
j£400,000,  and  with  shatcs  selling  at  over  two  hun- 
dred per  cent  premium,  the  dividends  ranged  for  the 
most  part  between  ten  and  twenty  per  cent,  while  in 


THE  NOOTKA  CONVENTION. 


«S 


1863  the  subscriptions,  invited  in  order  to  issue  the 
capital  stock  at  par,  raised  the  nominal  amount  to 
£2,000,000.  In  1846  the  lands  and  buildings  around 
Vancouver  alone  were  valued  at  nearly  $1,000,000, 
and  the  balance  sheet  of  the  Pacific  coast  business 
showed  a  profit  of  from  £25,000  to  £35,000  per  an- 
num, that  for  the  region  south  of  the  49th  parallel 
being  only  £7,000. 

So  far  the  Northwest  coast  had  been  used  as  a 
mere  game  preserve;  but  the  reports  of  flourishing 
agricultural  tracts  from  California  northward,  of 
stately  forests,  rich  fisheries,  fine  harbors,  and  many 
other  resources,  together  with  a  favorable  climate, 
began  to  receive  attention.  The  statements  of  re- 
turned trappers  and  captains  were  confirmed  by  such 
travellers  and  explorers  as  Kelley,  Wyeth,  Bonne- 
ville, Slacum,  Farnham,  and  Belcher,  in  the  thirties, 
and  by  Mofras,  Wilkes,  and  Fremont  early  in  the 
following  decade.  Hall  J.  Kelley  especially  had 
extolled  the  advantages  of  the  Columbia  region 
in  the  self-assumed  character  of  its  apostle,  since 
1827,  with  articles  and  pamphlets,  lectures  and  con- 
gressional petitions,  as  well  as  with  efforts  during  a 
period  of  fifteen  years  to  establish  a  colony. 

The  government  at  Washington  had  early  been 
impressed  with  the  value  of  the  fur  trade,  and  the  ac- 
quisition of  Louisiana,  with  its  undefined  limits  west- 
ward, had  given  a  meaning  to  the  vague  wording  of 
the  treaty  of  independence  concerning  the  northern 
boundary,  which  in  1806-7  was  fixed  at  latitude  49 
as  far  as  the  Rocky  mountains.  Henceforth  the  pro- 
longation of  this  line  to  the  Pacific,  partly  on  the 
ground  of  contiguity,  became  a  fixed  project  with 
the  Americans.  The  only  question  was,  whether  it 
should  be  carried  northward  or  at  an  angle.  The  re- 
sult of  the  Nootka  convention  was  to  leave  the  coast 
open  to  foreigners.  Citizens  of  the  United  States 
accordingly  gained  the  privilege  of  first  entering  and 


m 


i 


••  SOURCES  OF  POWER  AND  INFLUENCE. 

naming  the  Columbia  river.  They  also  made  the 
first  formal  exploration  of  the  interior  of  Oregon, 
unJer  Lewis  and  Clarke,  and  the  first  settlements, 
under  Winship  and  Astor.  After  the  possession  of 
Astoria  was  conceded  to  the  United  States,  in  1818, 
England  offered  to  accept  the  Columbia  as  a  boun- 
dary; but,  the  former  objecting,  an  arrangement  sim- 
ilar to  the  Nootka  treaty  was  agreed  upon,  namely, 
free  admission  for  both  to  the  entii  3  coast.  England 
gained  by  temporizing  the  profitable  enjoyment  of  the 
entire  game  preserve,  while  the  other  hoped  finally 
to  obtain  the  advantage  through  the  inevitable  influx 
of  her  pioneers.  In  1819  Spain  transferred  to  the 
Washington  authorities  her  title  to  the  coast  above 
latitude  42°,  based  upon  an  undisputed  priority  of 
discovery,  and  upon  the  formal  and  conceded  occupa- 
tion of  Nootka,  which  was  declared  to  surpass  any 
claim  by  the  British,  founded  on  subsequent  explora- 
tion and  mere  trading  intercourse.  The  Nootka  con- 
vention, while  opening  the  region  to  the  latter,  left  the 
Spanish  claim  intact.  Now  the  United  States  vaguely 
extended  her  line  to  the  parallel  of  54°  40',  which 
Russia  accepted  as  her  Alaskan  border.  During  the 
thirties  United  States  missionaries  and  settlers  en- 
tered this  region,  though  somewhat  tardily,  and  began 
to  urge  congress  to  take  formal  possession.  In  the 
following  decade  the  agitation  rose  indeed  to  fever 
hes  t  among  both  nationalities,  and  the  government  at 
Washington  early  in  1846  demanded  a  settlement  of 
the  question.  Impressed  by  the  war  feeling  in  the 
states,  with  the  popular  cry  of  "54°  40'  or  fight," 
England  thought  it  best  to  yield  the  Columbia  line 
and  offer  the  prolongation  of  the  eastern  49th  parallel, 
yet  with  free  navigation  of  the  Columbia  and  posses- 
sory rights  of  estate  held  by  British  companies.  The 
occupation  of  the  country  north  of  latitude  49°,  by 
forts,  traders,  and  explorers,  was  of  a  nature  to  secure 
for  it  a  title  equal  io  that  under  which  the  United 
States  had  been  claiming  Oregon.    This  was  recog- 


SETTLEMENT. 


es 


nized  in  congress,  and  as  the  straight  line  along  the 
49th  parallel  and  the  fine  harbors  of  Puget  sound 
were  tlie  main  otgects,  the  offer  was  accepted. 


C.B.-L    6 


■    J 


1  ilV 


in 


I  I 


it 


V 


CHAPTER  11. 

CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 

Illustrations  from  History— Themistocles,  Efaminondas,  Philip  or 
Macedon,  Alexander  the  Great — Servius  Tullius,  Coriolanus, 
Cicero,  the  Caesars — Christianity— Const  antinb — Alaric  and 
OooACER — Charlemagne — Feudalism — Evolution  of  Kinqship — The 
Crusades — Some  Intellectual  Kings — The  Louis,  Charleses, 
Henrys,  Williams,  Peters,  and  Georges — Napoleon — American 
Type  of  Individualized  Power — Life  of  Frederick  Billings — 
Career  in  California — Railway  Building  and  Financiering — 
Benefactions. 

We  have  seen  that  strength  is  with  the  cultured, 
among  both  individuals  and  nations.  It  is  the  intel- 
lect that  finally  dominates,  not  physical  force.  To 
this  rule  there  may  be  exceptions  arising  from  ex- 
traordinary strength  of  character,  resulting  in  an  in- 
tensity of  ideas  and  action.  Compact  masses  of  men, 
coming  swiftly  upon  nations  enervated  by  luxury,  may 
subjugate  them,  as  in  the  case  of  the  roaming  Tartars, 
the  marauding  Goths,  or  the  fanatic  Moslems.  In 
fighting  qualities  the  Caucasian  race  occupies  the 
front  rank;  in  the  march  of  material  progress  the 
practical  Teuton  steps  in  advance  of  the  less  methodi- 
cal Latin  race.  Asia  presents  in  its  wide  spaces  of 
uniform  climate  favorable  conditions  for  culture,  for 
the  restlessness  and  migration  which  constitute  a 
primary  incentive  and  means  to  progress. 

It  is  but  another  illustration  of  the  force  which  by 
motion  evolves  order  out  of  chaos.  Pastoral  life  im- 
plants a  love  for  adventure,  which  finds  a  fostering 
element  in  the  mastery  and  ownership  of  beasts  of 
burden,  and  in  animal  food,  so  exciting  as  compared 

(66) 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OP  HISTORY. 


87 


with  the  sedative  eifect  noticeable  among  rice-eating 
peoples. 

East  of  China  stretch  vast  plains  held  from  time 
immemorial  by  the  mercurial  Tartars,  who  thence 
detached  conquering  hordes  to  assume  sway  over 
Cathay,  or  to  swoop  westward  upon  the  occupants  of 
Asia  Minor  and  Europe.  Near  them,  on  the  rivers 
Oxus  and  Jaxartes,  lies  the  assigned  home  of  the 
Caucasian  race,  with  its  three  linguistic  branches  of 
practical  Aryans,  who  achieved  the  highest  develop- 
ment; the  meditative  Semites,  who,  while  less  pro- 
gressive, have  stamped  their  influence  on  the  three 
great  monotheistic  religions  of  the  world;  and  the 
conservative  Hamites,  whilom  tutors  of  the  others. 

Impelled  by  the  encroachments  of  the  nomad 
Tartars,  they  set  out  to  seek  another  home.  Some 
descended  into  India,  about  3000  B.  C,  there  to  stag- 
nate under  an  oppressive  sky.  As  conquerors  they 
imposed  upon  the  people  a  system  of  castes,  which 
entwined  them  in  its  meshes,  thwaiting  progres- 
sion. Others  turned  westward.  The  course  was 
natural,  less  because  the  pathway  of  the  revered  sun 
and  stars  turned  the  eyes  of  devotees  in  this  direction, 
as  proverbs  and  poetic  fancies  teach,  than  because  the 
dreaded  foe  and  forbidding  mountain  ranges  barred 
the  way  eastward. 

Such  was  the  beginning  of  the  most  portentous  of 
migrations  for  empire.  Tartar  aggressiveness  has 
been  manifested  not  alone  in  such  conquests  as  Jenghis 
Khan's,  and  Tamerlane's,  which  extended  from  the 
Chinese  Sea  into  Russia,  and  forced  peoples  like  the 
Turks  to  become  invaders,  but  we  behold  their  hordes 
under  Attila  ravage  southern  Europe,  before  they  are 
beaten  back  to  the  confines  of  Hungary.  Many  were 
the  refluxes  of  the  tides.  Pressed  on  the  north  and 
west  by  the  Slavs,  the  Teutons  begin  to  move  south 
early  in  the  Christian  era,  while  the  Goths  erect 
empires  in  the  east  and  west  on  the  crumbling  founda- 
tions of  Rome.     Suevi  and  others  take  possession  of 


Mi 


68 


CENTRALIZATION  OP  POWER. 


Spain,  Vandals  penetrate  into  Africa  and  strike  back 
upon  Italy,  repeating  the  blows  inflicted  by  Carthage. 
The  Semites  swarm  oack  from  their  comer  in  Arabia, 
under  the  fanatic  leadership  of  Mohammed,  spreading 
their  crescents  from  Mecca  to  Delhi  through  Media, 
and  from  C6rdova  to  Constantinople  through  Africa. 
The  counter -movement  of  the  crusaders,  so  costly  in 
lives  and  treasure,  proved  useless,  save  in  bringing 
back  the  seed  for  a  revival  of  culture.  Out  of  this 
intercourse  sprang,  especially  in  Iberia,  that  spirit  of 
adventure  which  opened  the  way  to  new  continents, 
and  for  a  fresh  hegira  westward.  Then  another 
movement  across  the  plains  and  ridges  until  we 
behold  the  full-taught  Aryan,  after  a  wanderjahre 
period  of  nearly  fifty  centuries,  swarming  back  from 
the  west  and  the  east  to  the  ancestral  land.  He 
appears  no  longer  a  barbaric  fugitive,  but  as  sover- 
eign master  and  mighty  magician;  rivalling  the 
thunder  and  lightening  with  his  gunpowder  and  elec- 
tricity; defying  wind  and  wave  with  steam  and 
machinery;  reading  the  rocks  with  their  geologic 
strata;  wrenching  fire  from  the  sun  and  secrets  from 
the  stars  with  chemistry  and  lens,  all  laden  with 
science  and  with  lore. 


The  first  fruitful  halt  of  the  white  migration  is  ex- 
hibited in  the  region  of  the  Euphrates,  whose  fertility 
encouraged  dense  settlement,  and  whose  rivers  and 
adjacent  gulf  facilitated  intercourse  with  India. 
Khammu-Kabi  rises  as  conqueror  to  lift  the  Chaldeans 
into  prominence  as  a  nation.  He  is  also  credited 
with  introducing  the  system  of  irrigation  which  gave 
them  prosperity,  and  fostering  the  pursuit  of  those 
sciences  and  arts  wherein  they  excelled,  such  as 
astronomy,  favored  by  the  clear  serenity  of  their  sky. 
Rivals  appropriate  their  methods  and  use  them  for 
their  subjugation.  Under  Assyrian  rule  Babylon 
declines.  She  revives  once  more  under  the  great 
Nebuchadnezzar,  who  extends  her  arms  to  the  Medi- 


CYAXARES  AND  CYRUS. 


terranean,  promotes  manufactures,  and  by  virtue  of 
her  situation  aids  in  making  her  the  centre  of  trade  for 
the  circle  stretching  from  Phoenicia  to  Arabia,  India, 
and  the  distant  mountains.  The  consequent  accumu- 
lation of  wealth  breeds  enervating  luxury,  and  tempts 
greedy  invaders  to  encompass  her  destruction. 

In  the  Assyrians,  who  first  absorbed  Chaldea,  we 
behold  the  effect  of  a  varied  environment,  with  moun- 
tains, plateaux,  and  valleys,  to  produce  more  manly 
traits,  to  rear  a  race  of  great  muscular  strength, — brave, 
enduring,  and  aggressive.  Like  the  Goths  they 
adopted  the  culture  of  these  subjugated  peoples, 
assisted  by  the  women,  who  here  occupied  a  relatively 
higher  position.  Nineveh  presented  this  combination 
of  culture  in  her  fortified  palaces,  encircled  by  mud 
huts.  The  use  of  the  arch  illustrated  the  bold  and 
less  conventional  type  of  the  people.  The  practical 
prevailed.  Military  organization  enabled  them  to 
acquire  control  over  a  region  extending  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  Armenia,  and  beyond;  and  a  certain 
proficiency  in  political  science,  sustained  by  innate 
craftiness,  tended  to  develop  civil  institutions,  and  hold 
together  for  some  time  a  number  of  loosely  connected 
states.  The  central  figure  of  their  greatness  was  Sen- 
nacherib, the  son  of  a  usurper,  whose  reign  constituted 
the  golden  age  of  this  land.  Afber  him  signs  of  dis- 
solution appeared,  to  tempt  Scythian  and  Median 
invasions. 

The  lever  for  supremacy  in  the  Modes,  who  now 
step  to  the  front,  lay  in  their  cavalry.  As  horsemen 
they  surpassed  all  the  ancients,  and  the  spirit  fostered 
by  this  mastery  over  the  horse,  with  its  exhilarating 
speed,  was  invigorated  by  mountain  life,  and  the  rug- 
gedness  of  their  comparatively  sterile  plateau.  Their 
greatness  is  associated  with  Cyaxares,  who,  learning 
a  lesson  from  defeat  in  the  first  mvasion  of  Assyria,  re- 
organized his  hordes  into  trained  troops,  and  achieved 
his  aim  to  establish  a  wide  empire.  But  the  power 
to  sustain  it  lay  in  him  alone,  and  this  became  evident 


I'  i!'* 


70 


CENTRALIZATION  OP  POWER. 


as  the  barbaric  energy  of  his  followers,  marked  by 
cruelty  and  display,  was  sapped  by  luxury. 

The  virtues  and  defects  of  the  Medes  had  not  es- 
caped the  observant  Cyrus,  who  as  a  prince  of  sub- 
ordinate Persia  was  held  by  them  in  semi-captivity. 
His  penetration  and  foresight  perceived  the  oppor- 
tunity not  alone  for  liberating  his  country,  but  for 
supplanting  them  in  domination  by  improving  upon 
their  methods.  He  raised  Persia  from  a  fief  to  a 
nationality,  with  a  domain  extending  from  the  Indus 
to  the  Danube,  and  from  the  Sahara  to  Caucasia  and 
Arabia.  Aryans  were  lifted  above  the  Semitic  race. 
He  marked  an  epoch  by  introducing  the  first  rational 
system  of  government,  and  Persian  statecraft  is 
demonstrated  by  the  consolidation  and  long  control  of 
so  heterogeneous  an  empire.  Darius,  in  reorganizing 
the  administration,  introduced  satrapies,  regulated 
taxes  and  established  a  military  cordon.  But  the  tall 
and  agile  Iranian  was  vivacious  and  witty  rather  than 
practical,  and  while  attaining  in  the  Orient  the  near- 
est approach  to  European  high -type  civilization,  the 
interval  remained  conspicuous.  The  army  was  sus- 
tained less  by  organization  than  by  the  war  spirit,  fos- 
tered by  the  training  of  children  for  soldiers  and  horse- 
manship, with  a  precautionary  majority  of  Persian  and 
Median  nationality.  Cyrus  stan  J  _.  preeminent  among 
contemporary  rulers  for  foresight  and  judgment,  for 
energy  and  ability,  for  courage  and  humanity.  He 
fell  as  he  rose, — in  battle.  His  innovations  were  per- 
fected by  successors  like  Cainbyses  and  Darius,  and 
the  empire  sustained  itself  in  the  main  until  Alex- 
ander came  to  expose  its  decay.  Among  the  enervating 
causes  were  polygamy,  and  religious  decline  from 
monotheism  to  Zoroasterism,  with  fire-worship,  at- 
tended by  a  degeneration  of  the  early  national  frank- 
ness into  servility  and  deceit. 

Egypt  was  singularly  endowed  with  a  valley 
wherein  the  annual  inundation  of  the  Nile  produced 
unfailing   fertility,   permitting   irrigation    and   other 


INFLUENCE  OF  MATTER  OVER  MIND. 


n 


costly  labor  to  be  dispensed  with,  ensuring  tranquil 
confidence  in  the  harvests,  and  dispensing  a  refresh- 
ing coolness  through  evaporation.  Such  bounty 
favored  wealth  and  leisure,  which  always  promote 
civilization  to  a  certain  degree.  This  was  a  little  in 
advance  of  the  culture  brought  by  Hamite  immigrants 
from  Chaldea;  the  influence  of  the  river  undermined 
vigorous  self-reliance  and  salutary  forethought,  and 
stagnation  ensued.  The  monotonous  recurrence  of 
natural  phenomena  impressed  itself  upon  the  people 
in  listless,  impassive,  and  saturnine  ' .-its.  They  fell 
into  grooves,  to  which  fault  conqueiivs  added  the 
system  of  castes,  and  a  rigid  conventionalism  assumed 
sway,  circumscribing  every  effc  ^ ,  rebtrictir^  class 
trar.sition,  stunting  aspiration  among  tlie  lowly,  and 
shackling  the  free  spirit  and  soarinpf  imagination  even 
in  sculpture  and  exoteric  "/riting — to  the  confusion  of 
progress.  Aided  by  priests  and  the  doldiery  the 
ruler  held  the  people  in  serfdom  by  controlling  the 
land  which  he  shared  with  these  two  allies  alone. 
The  constant  temptation  presented  in  the  valley  re- 
sources to  surrounding  marauders  sustained  military 
influence.  Ecclesiastic  power  rested  upon  the  mys- 
terious actions  of  nature, — notably  the  Nile  inundation, 
which  was  attributed  to  the  propitiated  good-will  of 
deities, — upon  the  shrewd  reservation  of  all  advanced 
knowledge,  and  up^n  a  strict  adherence  to  the  tradi- 
tional form  taught  by  nature  itself  To  this  observ- 
ance of  rule  even  the  sovereign  bends  subserviently. 
The  number  and  grandeur  of  architectural  relics  point 
to  the  predominance  of  religion,  and  the  pyramids  to 
confined  ideas,  illustrating  also  the  serfdom  without 
which  they  never  could  have  risen.  Slavish  tasks 
deadened  the  recollection  of  lost  liberty,  while  instill- 
ing awe  for  the  commemv  rating  object. 

The  period  of  pyramid  building  yields,  under  the 
sixth  dynasty,  to  a  spirit  of  conquest,  during  which 
the  military  rise  to  prominence,  and  emphasize  it  by 
shifting  the  seat  of  sovereignty   from   Memphis   to 


72 


CENTRALIZATION  OP  POWER. 


h      ;  ! 


! 

!  t 

I!      ^t 


1^ 


li  !l 


il 


Thebes.  Twenty- three  centuries  before  the  Chris* 
tian  era  Usertesen  III.  appears  as  the  earliest  re- 
corded name  among  really  great  rulers.  The  war 
spirit  abates,  religious  supremacy  revives,  and  Egypt 
is  humbled  under  a  barbaric  invasion.  Diplomacy 
steps  in  to  regain  the  advantage.  Ethiopia  assists 
Theban  princes  to  oust  the  usurpers.  Then  appears 
Rameses  II.,  the  greatest  of  Egypt's  monarchs,  to  ex- 
tend his  sway  to  the  Ganges,  and  to  create  a  golden 
age  of  three  centuries.  Tyranny  follows,  marked  by 
the  Gxodus  of  the  Hebrews,  and  dissension  opens 
the  door  to  foreign  arms.  She  emerges  for  only  brief 
periods  from  vassalage  to  shed  under  Ptolemaic  rule 
a  reflection  of  Greek  culture,  alike  upon  Aryans  and 
Semites.     Hamite  influence  is  ended. 

Compare  with  this  abortiveness  the  effect  upon 
near-lying  Phoenicia,  of  a  comparatively  sterile  soil 
and  enforced  recourse  to  the  sea,  which  led  to  hardi- 
hood and  enterprise,  and  to  enriching  trade,  the  best 
training  in  practical  culture.  Dommation  over  the 
water  inspired  confidence  for  even  wider  expeditions, — 
beyond  the  pillars  of  Hercules  to  England  and  the 
Baltic,  into  the  Indian  ocean,  even  round  the  utter- 
most point  of  Africa,  and  this  without  compass  or 
proper  use  of  sails.  Commerce  was  attended  by  the 
establishment  of  factories  and  colonies  which,  in 
order  to  flourish,  were  entrusted  to  competent  persons 
who  would  conform  to  the  existing  institutions  so 
as  to  promote  harmonious  intercourse,  spreading  by 
example  and  tempting  offer  of  novelties  the  seeds  of 
eastern  culture  to  the  advantage  of  all.  Similar  lib- 
erality of  sentiment  at  home  bound  a  number  of  petty 
independent  states  in  a  confederate  league.  Prac- 
tical possession  and  enjoyment  overshadowed  political 
ambition  and  the  growth  of  originality  in  the  arts  and 
sciences.  Nevertheless,  this  uncongenial  comer  of 
Asia  Minor,  in  pursuit  of  riches,  did  more  for  progress 
than  any  of  the  empires  referred  to;  and  foremost 
among  its  legacies  ranks  the  invention  of  an  alphabet. 


CARTHAGE  AND  GREECE. 


78 


Among  its  colonies  need  only  be  mentioned  Car- 
thage, which  succeeded  as  the  great  maritime  and 
commercial  power,  the  dreaded  rival  of  Rome,  The 
weakness  of  the  Quirites  consisted  then  in  lack  of 
consolidation,  yet  by  the  simple  tactics  of  Scipio,  in 
carrying  the  war  into  Africa,  the  great  advantages 
of  Hannibal  were  swept  away,  and  Carthage  fell. 

In  the  people  adjoining  Phoenicia  we  behold  the 
effect  of  persecution  in  rousing  dogged  perseverance 
and  wealth-creating  energy.  The  priest-ridden  Jews, 
hidden  in  an  obscure  corner  of  Asia  Minor,  without 
commercial  prominence,  oft  conquered  and  afflicted, 
were  finally  scattered  to  the  four  quarters  of  the  earth. 
Dispersion  and  contumely  drove  them  to  rely  on 
wit  and  speculation,  to  stimulating  intercourse  which 
revealed  to  them  the  proscribed  learning  of  the  middle 
ages,  and  the  key  to  trade  and  traffic  wherein  they 
became  prominent. 


In  Greece  a  similar  spirit  was  likewise  fostered 
by  her  geographic  position;  sea-girt  slopes  and  a 
connecting  archipelago;  hilly  yet  not  sterile  tracts, 
varied  by  peninsulas  and  bays;  land  and  sea  meeting 
in  a  struggle  for  supremacy,  inviting  man  to  enter 
and  secure  the  advantage  from  both.  But  the  nmlti- 
plicity  of  isles  and  districts,  separated  by  channels  and 
mountains  unfavorable  to  centralization,  bred  factions 
and  local  pride,  fostered  liberty,  and  led  to  numerous 
states,  and  to  much  dissension  in  politics.  This  diver  • 
sity  was  intensified  by  the  race  distinctions  of  abo- 
rigines and  immigrants  of  different  periods,  modified 
by  environment,  as  exemplified  in  the  fickle  and 
viviunous  lonians,  who  lifted  Athens  to  greatness  in 
commerce  and  arts,  and  the  Dorians,  of  severe  sim- 
plicity, whose  military  genius  raised  Sparta  to  promi- 
nence. Here  lay  an  emulating  and  inspiring  variety 
of  qualities,  yet  with  sufficient  homogeneity  in  lan- 
guage, literature  and  religion. 

A  proportionately  strong  individuality  manifested 


If 

■  ;w 


I: 


iS' 


'w 


74 


CENTRALIZATION  OP  POWER. 


h    II 


l\ 


1 1 
il 


itself  in  enterprise  and  lofty  thought.  Environment 
fostered  also  courage,  and  an  adventurous  tempera- 
ment which  sought  the  expansive  freedom  of  the  sea, 
and  turne-^  to  trade  and  colonization  to  find  therein 
further  training  in  self-reliance,  and  in  the  unfolding 
of  the  country's  resources.  An  equable  clhnate  and 
excellent  regimen  produced  clearness  of  mind.  Com- 
merce developed  a  subtlety  and  craft  which  in  politics 
reached  consummate  intrigue ;  cunning  was  esteemed 
a  virtue,  and  Greek  perfidy,  which  made  the  end 
sanctify  the  means,  passed  into  a  proverb. 

A  blunted  moral  perception  manifested  itself  in  a 
variety  of  loose  indulgences  which,  however,  sprung 
rather  from  the  vagaries  of  pampered  genius  than 
from  innate  debasement.  Throughout  all  ran  a 
jocular  strain,  with  a  happy  grasp  of  the  ridiculous, 
and  a  love  of  paradox  and  sarcasm,  culminating  in  a 
display  of  keen  wit. 

Such  was  the  race  whose  originality  and  grandeur 
of  thought,  whose  elevated  art  and  institutions,  have 
impressed  themselves  as  a  dominating  influence  upon 
subsequent  ages,  by  means  of  cherished  relics,  of  the 
richest  among  ancient  languages,  and  of  a  host  of 
creative  writers  and  thinkers.  Oratory  and  philosophy 
found  nurture  in  free  thought  and  political  conditions ; 
tragedy  rose  out  of  the  religious  feeling,  soon  to 
yield  to  the  natural  bent  for  comedy;  art  reflected 
the  varied  beauty  of  its  surroundings,  in  physique 
and  soaring  imagination,  reaching  here  the  highest 
ideal  in  plastic  form.  All  this  was  based  on  a  highly 
developed  manhood,  remarkable  for  symmetry  of  form, 
for  agility  and  nervous  vigor,  mainly  due  to  open  air 
exercise.  The  stimulus  for  this  and  other  develop- 
ment lay  in  the  Olympic  games,  the  national  alma 
mater  and  bond  of  Hellenic  unity. 

Civilization  here  was  a  transplantation  brought  from 
the  opposite  coasts,  and  subsequently  transmitted  to 
a  series  of  colonies,  from  the  Euxine  to  Italy  and 
beyond.     These  repaid  the  gift  in  turn  witli  riches 


ANCIENT  LEADERS. 


76 


and  elevating  intercourse,  and  by  contributing  to 
raise  Greece  by  the  sixth  century  to  the  foremost 
rank  as  a  power.  These  reflex  influences  assisted  to 
mould  culture;  but  from  the  hitherto  unsurpassed 
freedom  of  its  environment  was  derived  that  special 
savor  which  gave  it  originality.  No  degrading  poly- 
gamy or  caste  system  fettered  it ;  no  grasping  knowl- 
edge-monopolizing priesthood  held  control.  Here 
began  the  first  true  democracy,  in  self-governing 
states,  for  and  by  the  people,  so  that  Greece  formed 
the  cradle  of  both  intellectual  and  political  liberty. 

The  first  impulse  to  greatness  may  be  attributed  to 
the  laws  framed  by  Lycurgus  and  Solon.     The  former 
installed  that  soldier  class,  sustained  by  slavery  and  a 
middle  caste,  to  which  was  due  the  greatness  of  Sparta 
as   a   military   power.     The  consequent   expeditions 
gave  such  prominence  to  the  commanders  as  to  lead 
here  to  a  form  of  monarchy  which  proved  an  excep- 
tion to  the  usual  Greek  oligarchy.     At  Athens  all  the 
four  classes  had  a  share  in  the  government,  j'et  with 
a  preponderance  in  favor  of  the  higher  orders,  which 
remained  a  rankling   sore  to  the   lowest   and   most 
numerous  estate,  despite  their  exemption  from  many 
imposts.     The  Persian  invasions  gave  them  special 
opportunity  to  press  their  demands,  until  every  office 
being  opened  to  them,  aristocracy  had  to  yield  to  a 
controlling   democracy,  stimulated  by  rivalry   in   all 
pursuits,  and  with  the  introduction  of  every  imagina- 
ble artifice  in  politics.     Pisistratus,  for  instance,  gained 
popular  favor  and  control  by  the  trickery  of  wounding 
himself     To    Themistocles    is   due   the    creation   of 
Athens'  fleet,  which  in  the  battle  at  Salamis  saved 
Greece  from  the  Iranians,  and  raised  tlie  state  to  the 
leadership  which  was  sustained  by  the  confederation 
of    Delos.      Themistocles   tarnished    his   laurels   by 
Persian  intrigues,  but  his  work  remained  to  plead  for 
him,  and  his  policy  as  continued  by  Pericles  brought 
Athens  to  the  pinnacle  of  her  glory,  in  her  golden 
age,  when  art  reached  perfection,  and  numerous  colo- 


•Ai 

M 


&■■■ 
■■•I'  I 


TS 


V 


76 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


r 


nies  and  conquests  in  Asia  and  E  irope  brought  terri- 
torial importance  and  wealth. 

Then  came  internal  wars  to  undermine  the  states. 
Jealous  of  her  maritime  rival,  Sparta  stooped  to  a 
Persian   alliance   to   humble   her.     While  the    two 
giants  were  thus  struggling,  little  Thebes  stepped  to 
the  front,  and  with  the  new  military  tactics  of  Epam- 
inondas,  of  attacking  in  column   instead  of  line,  was 
enabled  for  a  time  to  assume  the  mastery.     Trained 
by  this  general,  Philip   of  Macedon   employed   the 
method  tor  his  own  and  his  country's  advancement; 
and  then,  availing  himself  of  Hellenic  dissension,  he 
turned  it  for  acquiring  supremacy  also  here.     This 
called  the  Greeks  to  their  only  remaining  bulwark, 
unity,  and  with  the  aid  of  different  leagues,  semi-inde- 
pendence was  sustained  a  while,  until  mighty  Rome 
dealt  the  final  blow.     Henceforth  the  peninsula  figures 
only  as  a  province,  for  about  2,000  years,  ravaged  by 
stern  marters  and  marked  by  Slav  immigration.     Yet 
her  soil  remained  the  classic  ground  which  nourished 
the  teachers  of  Europe,  which  provided  the  models  in 
literature,  science,  and  art  for  the  Roman  culture,  and 
subsequently  for  the  revival  of  learning,  and  which 
still  looms  forth  in  her  relics  of  fine  arts  and  letters, 
in  her  history,  as  the  type  for  ennobling  aspirations. 
Macedonia's  career  was  but  a  rocket  flight,  due  to 
the  innovations  of  a  great  leader.     The  military  pha- 
lanx of  Alexander  the  Great,  directed  by  a  genius, 
burst  upon  the  old-fashioned  systems  like  an  avalanche, 
shattering  army  after  army,   and  bringing  the  world 
to  his  feet.     It  shook  Asia  from  its  lethargy,  to  re- 
ceive the  influence  of  Greek  art  and  learning;  and 
when  the  conquest  crumbled,  Hellenic  ideas  and  lan- 
guage widely  remained,  a  compensating  relic,  sustained 
by  trade  and  intercourse.     Alexander  was  not  a  mere 
soldier,  as  shown  by  the  founding  of  his  great  shore 
city  in  Egypt,  the  natural  centre  for  trade  in  this 
quarter,  and  whence  the  Ptolemies  shed  the  lustre  of 
a  new  Greek  culture,  marked  by  the  Alexandrian  li- 


THE  APENNINE  BOOT. 


77 


brary  and  by  glorious  scientific  developments.  With 
such  energy  as  his,  which  successfully  resisted  an  in- 
sidious Oriental  luxury,  other  great  enterprises  might 
have  been  started  in  Asia,  but  for  the  premature  death 
of  the  hero,  and  the  consequent  dissolution  of  his  em- 
pire. One  feature  of  Seleucus'  portion  of  the  spoils 
was  the  rise  of  Antioch  to  a  sovereign  city  in  south- 
western Asia.     The  days  of  Babylon  were  numbered. 

Pursuing  the  westward  march  of  empire,  we  come 
to  another  sea-girt  land,  the  Apennine  boot,  whose 
heel  planted  itself  upon  a  conquered  world.  Rising 
midway  in  the  Mediterranean,  between  the  great  east 
and  the  rising  west,  it  lay  guarded  on  three  sides  by 
water,  and  on  the  north  by  a  bulwark  of  Alps.  Tribal 
diversity  added  a  leaven  which  was  sustained  by 
varied  scenery  and  climate,  from  temperate  to  semi- 
tropic,  with  an  intricate  network  of  mountains  enclos- 
ing numerous  small  valleys  and  plains.  The  inspiring 
beauty  of  the  sky,  subject  to  sudden  spells  of  storms 
and  heavy  rains,  seemed  reflected  in  the  paroxysmal 
character  of  the  people.  Yet  theirs  was  not  the  fickle 
disposition  of  the  Greek,  but  the  passions  of  indomi- 
table men,  as  depicted  in  their  strongly  marked  feat- 
ures. They  ate  and  drank  with  the  fervor  of  a 
vigorous  constitution,  gluttony  prevailing  over  delicacy. 
Their  jest  was  loud  and  their  sport  bloody.  They 
preferred  farce  to  neatly  woven  comedy  or  stately 
tragedy,  -^rt  was  copied,  learning  transplanted,  and 
religion  adopted,  all  subordinate  to  worldly  consider- 
ations, which  prompted,  indeed,  three  phases  of  wor- 
ship before  paganism  was  replaced  by  Christianity. 
The  priest  was  an  officer  under  the  government,  and 
prayer  rose  from  groups  in  standing  attitude.  The 
Koman  was  a  soldier,  who  scorned  the  artfulness  bred 
by  trade  and  subterfuge,  and  whose  frankness  appeared 
in  the  boastful  vanity  based  on  conscious  strength  and 
great  achievements,  and  fed  by  limitless  ambition. 
His  morality  partook  of  the  same  superior  stamp,  iu 


I 


78 


CENTRALIZATION  OP  POWER. 


I 


4    i 
hi  •■ 


upholding  honor  and  pledged  faith  in  public  and  pri- 
vate life,  exalting  home  and  motherhood.  His  devel- 
opment was  muscular  rather  than  nervous.  While 
lacking  in  the  acute  perception,  wit,  and  ideality  of 
the  Athenian,  he  possessed  originality  and  invention, 
and  connected  with  the  highest  intellectual  attainment 
the  practical  sense  which  could  appreciate  and  adopt 
the  best  contrivances,  and  could  foster  and  unfold 
resources,  material  and  mental.  Yet  all  must  be  sub- 
rorvient  to  the  greatness  of  the  state;  and  so  he  loved 
war,  with  Mars  for  his  chief  deity,  and  courage  for  a 
leading  virtue.  He  conquered  like  a  barbarian,  but 
ruled  like  a  statesman.  He  learned  how  to  circumvent 
the  phalanx  and  the  camp,  and  he  knew  how  to  retain 
the  advantage  by  able  law-giving  and  administration. 
But  the  bent  for  authority  brought,  among  other 
evils,  slavery,  a  poison  which  in  due  time  infected  the 
nation  and  race,  and  hastened  the  decline  of  both. 
This  deterioration  became  visible  also  in  the  land, 
where  devastated  forests,  neglected  drainage,  and 
other  causes  have  resulted  in  the  depopulation  of  large 
tracts  by  aridity  and  inundation. 

Rome  sprang  out  of  blood  and  robbery,  but  practi- 
cal sense  and  a  spirit  of  order  soon  produced  reforms 
under  laws  adapted  to  changing  conditions,  and  in  this 
pliability  lay  the  strength  and  stability  of  its  govern- 
ment. Roman  individuality  was  merged  in  the  state, 
in  which  vestcxl  all  prerogatives,  not  as  under  feudal- 
ism where  personal  rights  and  importance  received 
the  first  consideration.  Witness  the  stern  abnegation 
of  men  like  the  elder  Brutus,  who  condemned  liis  chil- 
dren for  conspiracy ;  the  Horatius,  who  single-handed 
defended  the  bridge  against  an  army ;  Coriolanus,  who 
sacrificed  success  to  filial  devotion;  Cincinnatus,  the 
farmer-jjencral,  who  so  unselfishlv  wielded  tlie  die- 
tatorship.  Such  were  the  noble  leaders  who  impressed 
their  qualities  upon  tlie  nrtion.  Allies  and  dependents 
were  not  irritated  hy  pressure  from  existing  insti- 
tutions, but  won  bv  liberal  concessions  in  self-ijovern- 


n 


ALL  RULING  ROME. 


79 


ment.  The  Roman  people,  so  long  restricted  to  the 
tribes  on  the  Tiber  and  to  kindred  races  abroad,  re- 
served for  themselves  certain  sovereign  rights,  with  the 
collection  of  taxes,  which  were  farmed  out  by  censors, 
and  the  supervision  of  which  was  intrusted  to  military 
governors  and  their  staff  from  Rome.  At  home,  this 
growing  power  and  attendant  wealth  produced  an  ever- 
increasing  strife  for  position  and  party  control,  with 
attendant  sale  of  votes  and  other  venality.  Idleness 
and  luxury  led  to  effeminacy  and  social  corruption. 
Conquest  increased  slavery,  until  long  before  the 
Christian  era  the  slaves  outnumbered  by  seven  mil- 
lions the  five  millions  of  free  inhabitants  in  Italy. 
The  stigma  cast  by  their  intrusion  in  most  occupations 
drove  out  the  peasant  farmers  and  middle  classes, 
which  formed  the  national  mainstay,  separated  society 
more  widely  into  rich  and  poor,  and  changed  the  race 
itself  by  infusing  into  it  their  preponderating  mixture 
of  Asiatic  and  other  foreign  blood. 

The  preceding  review  indicates  the  struggle  be- 
tween the  aristocracy  and  the  people,  which  here  ac- 
quired a  greater  virulence  than  in  Greece.  The 
former  early  gained  the  upper  hand,  but  Servius 
Tullius  yielded  the  plebeians  a  share  in  the  govern- 
ment, ample  enough  to  enable  them  to  expel  Tarqui- 
nius  for  his  subsequent  attempt  at  curtailment,  and 
to  gradually  enforce  additional  concessions.  The  ob- 
noxious enslavement  under  the  debt  law  was  modified ; 
tribunes  were  ordained  to  guard  plebeian  rights ;  the 
assembly  of  tli(^  tribes  was  made  equal  with  the  other 
legislative  body;  all  offices  were  opened  to  citizens; 
land  holdings  were  reduced  so  as  to  allow  of  a  large 
distribution  among  tlie  lower  classes. 

Notwithstanding  party  struggles,  all  stood  united 
for  the  interests  of  the  state.  A  Gallic  invasion 
showed  the  importance  of  consolidation.  Italy  was 
first  brought  under  the  sway  of  Rome,  and  toward 
the  close  of  the  third  centurv,  b.  c,  her  arms  crossed 
the  Alps,  then  conquered  Spain.      The  Punic  wars 


1 
'  i 

i 

1 

m 

fi 

1 

i 

.1 

■ 

i 

1 

m 

'''  ^ 

* 

%  K 

ii 

i>- 

m 

i( 

80 


CENTRALIZATION  OP  POWER. 


!         ii 


taught  maritime  methods.  The  prolonged  invasion 
of  Hannibal  was  favored  by  the  still  incompleted 
control  over  Italian  allies,  but  Scipio's  manoeuvre  in 
carrying  the  war  into  Africa  compelled  the  Cartha- 
ginian leader  to  abandon  his  advantage,  and  follow  to 
fight  under  less  auspicious  conditions.  Carthage 
was  humbled,  and  finally  destroyed,  after  serving, 
by  the  lessons  she  taught,  as  a  stepping  stone  for  her 
rival.  The  fall  of  this  great  commercial  and  colonizing 
power  checked  the  spread  of  civilization,  and  promoted 
thereby  the  extension  of  military  sway  by  the  Quirites. 
Now,  with  fleets  and  trained  armies,  their  path  of 
conquest  extended  eastward  over  the  Greek  peoples, 
into  Asia,  and  westward  into  Gaul. 

The  diversion  of  the  poorer  citizens  into  these 
absorbing  pursuits  had  given  opportunity  to  the 
aristocratic  elements  to  regain  some  of  their  lapsed 
privileges  The  opposition  was  roused  to  counter- 
efforts.  The  Gracchi  revived  for  them  the  land 
limitation ;  they  succeeded  in  electing  Marius  to  the 
consulship,  and  through  him  wider  admission  into  the 
legions  was  obtained  for  the  lower  classes.  Sulla 
endeavored  to  reverse  this  gain,  only  to  evoke  a  civil 
struggle,  whence  emerged  four  parties,  two  aristo- 
cratic, one  of  military  adventurers,  and  the  Marian  or 
popular  faction.  The  military  or  Catiline  clique  was 
overthrown  by  Cicero ;  the  rest  coalesced  into  a 
triumvirate,  through  the  manoeuvres  of  Caesar,  who 
had  won  the  support  of  the  people.  By  skilfully 
ingratiating  himself  with  the  Gauls  and  Germans 
during  his  administration  there,  he  was  enabled  to 
overrule  his  opponents,  and  make  himself  dictator  at 
Rome.  The  efforts  of  Brutus  and  other  stanch 
patriots  to  save  the  republic  were  in  vain.  Corrup- 
tion had  undermined  the  system  of  popular  rule, 
and  factions  were  daily  becoming  more  numerous  and 
reckless,  threatening  to  embroil  the  provinces  in  per- 
petual civil  war,  productive  of  anarchy. 

The  time  had  come  for  the  concentration  of  power 


'I  >  1 


THE  CMSABS. 


81 


in  one  strong  hand  to  avert  disorders,  perhaps  dis- 
solution. Although  less  fitted  than  the  great  Ceesar 
for  this  task,  Octavius  found  the  path  prepared  for 
him,  and,  favored  by  circumstances,  his  calculating 

5rudence  enabled  him  to  erect  an  imperial  throne, 
'his  was  not  accomplished  without  considerable 
bloodshed,  which  secured  to  him  his  inherited  pos- 
sessions; but  the  great  body  of  the  people  recog- 
nized the  value  of  restraint  in  so  heterogeneous  an 
empire.  The  result  justified  their  belief;  for  under 
Augustus  blossomed  the  golden  age  of  Rome,  em- 
bracing all  the  more  glorious  features  of  the  adopted 
and  transformed  Greco-oriental  culture.  Yet  among 
a  hundred  millions  of  subjects  one  half  languished  in 
slavery,  while  a  vast  standing  army  had  to  be  main- 
tained, to  hold  in  check  provinces  extending  from  the 
Caspian  sea  and  Arabia  along  northern  Afriqa  and 
Iberia  into  Great  Britain  and  Germany. 

The  army  now  fell  back  from  its  former  position 
as  a  means  for  conquest,  to  that  of  custodian  and  prop 
for  the  empire.  With  less  duty  and  booty  to  occupy 
them,  the  soldiers  found  leisure  to  weigh  their  own 
power  and  importance;  and  this  struck  more  forcibly 
that  select  body,  the  pretorian  guard,  to  whose  care 
Italy  and  Rome  were  entrusted.  Their  ascendency 
soon  made  them  the  power  behind  the  throne,  and 
the  electors  of  its  occupant.  Plots,  bribery,  smA 
favoritism  predominated  by  turns,  and  infamous  and 
weak  rulers  assumed  the  sceptre,  to  be  deposed  or 
braved  at  a  distance  by  the  usurpers  proclaimed  by 
different  sections  of  the  army.  Rome  lost  her  pre- 
dominating voice,  the  more  so  as  the  provincial  origin 
of  most  emperors  induced  them  to  reside  abroad,  and 
extend  citizenship  first  over  Italy  and  subsequently  to 
all  free  inhabitants  in  the  empire.  This  served  in  a 
measure  to  tighten  the  bond  between  the  dependencies^ 
to  which  conduced  also  the  latinization  of  so  large  a 
proportion  of  them,  notably  the  crescent  region  ex- 
tending through  Gaul  into  Spain,  where  blossomed  the 

C.  IJ— I.    6 


kill 


'  it 
■;  Ml 


p. ) 


'^.Mi  I 


If  z 


if  I 


Bmu 


89 


CENTRALIZATION  OP  POWER 


Romance  languages.  But  Romans,  permeated  by 
luxury  and  corruption,  disappeared  in  the  vortex  of 
race  mingling  and  provincial  strife  for  the  mastery. 

A  division  of  the  government  between  two  emper- 
ors, in  the  east  and  west,  was  followed  by  the  transfer 
of  the  supreme  seat,  by  Constantine,  to  the  Bosphor- 
us.  Rome  sank  into  subordination,  although  restored 
in  some  degree  by  becoming  the  capital  of  the  western 
empire.  The  split  favored  the  irruptions  preparing 
in  the  north.  The  Goths  had  learnt  the  art  of  war- 
fare in  the  Roman  service,  and  acquired  an  insight 
into  its  weaker  points,  and  into  the  allurements  col- 
lected in  and  around  the  capitals.  Pressed  by  the 
Tartars  pouring  in  through  Hungary,  they  were  per- 
mitted to  settle  on  the  south  side  of  the  Danube. 
Broken  agreements  and  maletreatment  roused  them 
against  the  empire.  They  overran  Turkey,  and  finally 
under  Alaric  took  Rome  itself  Odoacer  supplanted 
the  last  Roman  emperor  as  first  king  of  Italy. 

The  beginning  of  the  millenary  middle  ages  is 
marked  by  the  assumption  of  preeminence  on  the  part 
of  the  Teutonic  races,  commingling  with  the  Celts, 
while  the  Greco-Latin  mixture  subsides  to  the  second 
rank.  In  course  of  time  an  important  element  ap- 
pears in  the  Slavs,  bearing  in  their  name  the  stamp 
of  oppression.  The  Visigoths,  who  overthrew  the 
western  empire,  are  soon  pressed  aside  by  the  Ostro- 
goths, entering  from  below  the  Danube,  and  confined 
to  southern  France  and  Spain,  where  they  displaced 
the  earlier  invasion  of  Alanes,  Suevi,  and  Vandals, 
the  latter  crossing  into  Africa  to  revive  for  a  time  in 
barbaric  form  the  Carthaginian  state.  The  Franks 
pour  into  Gaul,  subduing  the  Burgundians  who  had 
preceded  them ;  the  Angles  and  Saxons  spread  from 
Denmark  into  England,  and  from  the  same  region  are 
traced  also  the  Longobards,  whose  conquering  advance 
southward  stands  commemorated  in  northern  Italy. 

The  irruption  of  the  Teutons  and   the  attendant 


CHRISTIANITY. 


88 


wars  and  devastations,  the  overthrow  of  states  and 
institutions,  the  check  to  agriculture  and  other  indus- 
tries, and  to  elevating  intercourse,  have  a  depressing 
and  retrograde  effect  on  culture ;  and  this  proves  the 
more  prolonged  and  blighting,  owing  to  the  barbaric 
condition  of  the  invaders.  Before  finding  opportunity 
to  acquire  learning  and  esteem  its  ad\antages,  they 
become  converts  to  Christianity. 

In  its  leading  doctrine  of  redemption  from  sin,  this 
religion  advocated  reform  and  humility,  and  upheld 
faith  as  the  supreme  and,  indeed,  only  requirement 
for  the  realization  of  life's  aim.  It  upheld  asceticism, 
which  in  commending  poverty  and  ignorance,  raised  a 
bar  to  progress.  These  teachings  were  impressed 
upon  its  adherents  during  long  persecutions,  and  the 
antagonism  to  polytheists  in  whom  centered  all 
learning,  partly  as  the  base  for  their  revised  dogmas, 
served  in  itself  to  stamp  classic  knowledge  as  iniqui- 
tous and  dar-rerous,  at  least  to  the  masses.  The 
simple-minded  Teutons  received  these  injunctions  with 
ready  grace,  and  even  took  pride  in  despising  educa- 
tion. Add  to  this  the  engrafted  superstitious  rites 
and  beliefs  which  enslaved  the  mind,  and  the  gener- 
ally accepted  prophecy  of  the  end  of  the  world  within 
a  thousand  years  from  the  birth  of  Christ,  a  belief 
destructiye  to  the  desire  for  improvement  and 
progress. 

A  formidable  obstacle  to  education  rose,  moreover, 
in  the  corruption  of  the  Latin  into  the  several  Romance 
languages,  under  the  intermingling  and  inflection,  es- 
pecially of  Gothic  and  Celtic  dialects.  In  these  lan- 
guages few  books  were  written;  and  although  classic 
Latin  was  retained  both  by  ecclesiastics  and  officials, 
yet  the  limitation  of  its  readers  to  so  narrow  a  circle 
tended  of  course  to  discourage  literary  efibrt  even 
in  them.  The  dearth  of  fresh  material  served  in 
a  measure  to  regain  favor  for  the  abjured  classics, 
by  obliging  the  few  studiously  inclined  to  seek 
recourse  here.     For  the  masses,  however,  this  intel- 


!   i 


i 


il 


:il 


84 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


Icctual  storehouse  remained  closed  by  virtue  of  the 
linguistic  transformation,  and  these  hindrances  which 
discouraged  them  from  leaniing  to  write,  were  aug- 
mented by  the  cost  and  scarcity  of  writing  material. 
Ignorance  fostered  superstition,  as  marked  bv  the 
ordeal  trials,  belief  in  witchcraft,  and  practice  of 
mummery.  This  era  has  therefore  been  called,  not 
inappropriately,  the  dark  age.  It  was  a  chiysalid 
period,  for  the  maturing  and  merging  of  the  Celtic, 
Latin,  and  Teutonic  elements,  preparatory  to  the 
material  and  intellectual  revival  to  come  in  due  time. 
While  Christianity  served  to  restrict  knowledge,  it 
must  be  credited  with  preserving  it  from  destruction. 
The  natural  guardians  should  have  been  the  towns, 
as  the  nuclei  for  culture ;  but  the  Teutons,  little  used 
to  large,  compact  municipalities,  discountenanced  their 
formation — another  cause  for  the  dark  age.  This  im- 
portant charge  devolved  therefore  on  the  clergy,  whose 
professional  instincts  for  oratory,  display  of  learn- 
ing, and  fondness  for  argument  prompted  them  to  a 
certain  range  of  reading.  The  storehouses  of  learn- 
ing became  the  cloister,  that  improvement  upon  the 
ancient  hermitage  of  St.  Benedict,  for  the  practice  in 
association  of  the  Christian  virtues.  The  monks  illus- 
trated to  perfection  the  import  of  the  inculcated 
humility  of  their  religion,  in  every  feature  of  their 
life  While  lowly,  they  were  neverohelcss  exalted, 
swaying  prince  and  peasant,  flock  and  nation,  by  sanc- 
tity or  learning,  wisdom  or  superstition.  These 
knights  of  the  peace  were  forced  either  by  the  dullness 
of  isolation  and  leisure,  or  by  t  e  duty  of  preparing  for 
their  labors  in  the  pulpit,  t.  ^  confessional,  or  the 
schoolroom,  to  dip  into  lore  ai  accumulate  books; 
and  fortunately  for  their  preserva  )n  the  monasteries 
were  sacred  from  the  marauders  'ho  infected  the 
middle  ages,  forming  oases  of  pee  je  and  culture  in 
the  desert  of  ignorance  and  disorder.  The  eastern 
empire,  hemmed  in  by  rebellious  Orientals  and  bar- 
baric Ostrogoths,  also  cradled  learning  for  the  revival 


FEUDALISM. 


88 


which  the  fanatic  Tartars  were   destined  to  awaken. 

There  were  men  even  among  the  Teutons,  who 
recognizing  the  abaseniont,  sought,  although  in  vain, 
to  start  the  revival.  Heroic  in  mind  as  m  stature, 
Charlemagne  had  inherited  the  warlike  traits  of  his 
grandfather,  the  Martel,  who  put  a  limit  to  Saracenic 
invasions  in  the  west,  and  the  dominating  instincts  of 
Pepin,  who  wrested  the  sceptre  from  the  imbecile 
line  of  Clovis.  He  planned  the  restoration  of  the 
Roman  empire,  and  achieved  it  with  the  aid  of  cohe- 
sive Christianity  and  Tcutonism.  He  placed  a  check 
on  Sf'ythic  ingression,  reduced  pagan  Germany, 
and  fcjought  to  instil  a  thirst  for  instruction.  With 
his  death  the  fabric  crumbled ;  for  under  his  grand- 
sons the  empire  was  divided  between  France  and 
Germany,  the  latter  claiming  the  imperial  title.  The 
time  for  revival  was  not  yet  ripe. 

The  middle  age  had  to  pass  through  the  ordeal  of 
feudalism,  its  most  characteristic  phase,  founded  on 
causes  common  to  both,  on  lack  of  unity  and  order, 
on  aeglect  of  education  and  advancement.  The 
Teutons  were  barbarians,  with  little  taste  as  yet  for 
settled  association ;  for  the  migratory  habits  revealed 
in  the  recent  irruptions  and  conquest  movements  still 
lingered  within  them.  They  were  strongly  imbued 
with  a  sense  of  personal  independence,  and  an  inclina- 
tion for  tribal  relations,  centering  in  the  military 
leaders.  Subordination,  even  to  the  latter,  had  been 
forced  upon  them  by  incessant  conflict  and  intercourse 
with  adjoining  nationalities,  and  their  love  for  inde- 
pendence revolted  at  the  additional  restraint  of  im- 
perial consolidation.  They  clustered  therefore  in  sul- 
len murmur  round  their  tribal  chiefs,  now  transformed 
into  dukes,  counts,  barons,  and  other  grades,  and  the 
feeble  and  ridiculous  figures  cut  by  so  many  of  the 
rulers  before  and  after  Charlemagne,  intensified 
this  feeling  while  encouraging  the  ambitious  aim  of 
the  lords.  The  prospective  cosmic  catastrophe  tended 
further  to  dissolve  commcii  interests. 


i'  ! 


III 
I; 


Hi 


i|f' 


I 

Ik 
i'') 


V 


86 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


ij       ^j 


h       t, 


The  feudal  system  rose  out  of  barbaric  conquest;  out 
of  the  distribution  of  lands  acquired  by  invasion  and 
granted  for  the  prosecution  of  war.  Every  free  par- 
ticipant in  a  campaign  received  his  allodium,  or  inde- 
pendent share,  the  chiefs  and  prelates  securing  for 
their  influence  large  tracts;  others  received  a.feudum, 
or  grant,  conditional  on  services  to  be  rendered ;  and 
in  course  of  time  both  classes  of  holdings  were  parceled 
out  in  more  or  less  small  feudal  lots  to  relations  and 
to  new  generations,  to  retainers  and  immigrants,  in 
return  for  tribute  or  service,  usually  military.  The 
prevailing  disorder  made  weaker  independent  owners 
glad  to  exchange  their  position  for  vassalage,  in  order 
to  gain  the  protection  of  the  stronger.  Thus  the 
land  fell  into  comparatively  few  hands,  the  mightiest 
being  usually  the  king,  to  whom  most  lords  tendered 
a  certain  homage,  including  such  men  as  William  the 
Conqueror,  of  Normandy,  vassal  of  the  French  king. 
The  lords  demanded  obedience  from  their  lordlings 
or  village  magnates,  and  these  from  farmer  tenants, 
who  in  their  turn  controlled  directly  the  great  mass 
of  landless  serfs,  bound  to  the  land,  to  till  and  toil,  or 
to  render  obedience  as  servants  or  soldiers.  Circles 
within  circles  of  gradually  ascending  hereditary  dom- 
ination formed  a  cluster  of  confederate  powers.  The 
king,  while  upheld  by  the  jealousy  and  rivalry  among 
the  lords  as  a  medium  for  maintaining  a  balance  of 
power,  could  effect  little  against  any  combination 
among  them,  particularly  as  even  the  feudal  holders 
of  his  own  terrain  controlled  the  soldiers  upon  whom 
he  must  rely.  It  was  a  system  well  suited  to  the 
lawless  disposition  of  the  still  undisciplined  Teutons. 

The  dissolution  of  Charlemagne's  empire  illustrated 
the  strength  of  feudalism,  and  the  frailty  of  the  throne 
was  marked  by  the  title  of  electors,  arrogated  to  them- 
selves by  the  dukes,  who  claimed  power  to  install  one 
of  their  choice.  In  Gaul,  Capet,  duke  of  Francia, 
cut  short  the  Carlovignian  dynasty,  and  in  assuming 
the  sceptre  the  name  of  his  duchy  was  applied  to  the 


EVOLUTION  OF  KINGSHIP. 


87 


kingdom.  The  weakness  of  disunion  had  encouraged 
the  inroads  of  Norsemen,  the  later  influx  of  Teu- 
tonic conquest  migration.  They  had  to  be  appeased 
with  the  concession  of  Normandy,  subject  to  the  king. 
The  subsequent  conquest  by  the  Norman  duke  of 
England,  which  became  his  seat,  subordinating  Nor- 
mandy to  a  province,  brought  about  the  long  conflict 
and  animosity  between  the  two  powers.  In  Spain,  the 
lack  of  consolidation  had  also  favored  the  invasion 
of  the  Mohammedans.  These,  splitting  in  their  turn 
into  petty  sovereignties,  gave  the  opportunity  for  the 
Christians  to  regain  the  lost  ground.  The  German 
control  over  Italy,  as  part  of  the  western  empire,  led 
here  to  the  additional  evil  of  bitter  party  strife  between 
the  Ghibellines,  or  imperialists,  and  the  Guelphs,  or 
nationalists,  who  sought  liberation  from  foreign  rule. 

The  reaction  from  this  state  of  affairs  gradually  ac- 
quired str^mgth.  The  power  centralized  in  the  sov- 
ereign naturally  sought  to  assert  and  extend  itself, 
endeavoring  to  win  for  this  purpose  the  support  of  the 
people  and  church,  as  opposed,  like  itself,  to  the  grasp- 
ing ambition  and  insolence  of  the  nobles.  For  this 
':ame  opportunities,  as  in  the  alliance  of  family  and 
other  interests,  in  popular  revolts  and  foreign  wars, 
in  all  of  which  the  principles  of  Machiavelli  were  fre- 
quently applied  with  success.  The  church  was  con- 
cerned in  sustaining  centralized  power ;  partly  for 
religious  and  humane  reasons,  in  the  brotherhood  of 
man,  and  the  prevention  of  schisms  ;  partly  for  politi- 
cal purposes,  to  secure  its  own  control,  and  to  keep 
in  due  subordination  the  numerous  fiefs  pertaining  to 
prelates  and  orders. 

The  struggle  between  the  people  and  the  barons 
was  marked  by  confiscation,  and  more  or  less  syste- 
matic robbery.  The  towns,  as  the  centre  of  industries 
and  trade,  long  suffered  the  most  glaring  exactions, 
despite  the  fostering  auspices  of  lords  interested  in 
thoir  success.  Finally,  they  resolved  upon  self-pro- 
tection, by  combining  forces,  as  instanced  notably  in 


'i^  :> 


I* 


m\ 


I 


nr 


■'j;i!\f^'^ 


88 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


the  Lombard  and  Hanseatic  leagues,  the  former  em- 
bracing powerful  city  republics,  like  Venice,  Florence, 
and  Genoa,  the  other  controlling  especially  the  Baltic 
and  North  Sea  shores,  and  embracing  some  four  score 
of  towns.  They  were  the  asylums  of  freedom,  the 
cradle  of  the  middle  class,  which  soon  grew  strong 
enousch  to  check  feudalism,  and  then  to  restrain  auto- 
crats.  Their  prosperity  and  power  assisted  in  them- 
selves to  elevate  hitherto  despised  castes,  while  in 
their  trade  and  intercourse,  with  attendant  enterprise 
and  colonization,  lay  the  germs  of  education,  and  of 
material  and  intellectual  advancement. 

One  more  factor  for  the  undermining  of  feudalism 
appeared  in  the  crusades.  For  their  origin  we  must 
revert  to  the  Semitic  movements  in  Asia,  and  their 
influence  upon  the  Aryans.  The  former  stand  cred- 
ited with  originating  the  loftiest  and  greatest  religious 
ideas,  but  the  Aryans  are  not  without  their  share  in 
these  conceptions,  since  in  Brahmanism,  and  especially 
in  Buddhism,  lies  the  most  exalted  of  creeds,  which, 
soaring  beyond  the  mere  personal  deity  adopted  by 
less  speculative  minds,  expands  into  a  grand  pantheism. 
This  faith  found  no  time  to  take  root  among  the  rest- 
less, practical  peoples  that  moved  beyond  India  west- 
ward, to  be  moulded  in  different  environments. 
Adhering  to  the  primitive  Aryan  sabeism,  they  al- 
lowed it  to  unfold  under  varying  natural  phenomena, 
Euhemerism  and  other  influences,  into  the  polytheism 
which  Christianity  undertook  to  supplant.  It  was  loft 
to  the  contemplative  Semitic  race  to  lift  itself  above 
this  corrupt  diffusion,  if  not  to  tlie  highest  philosophic 
realms,  to  the  noble  simplicity  of  j)ersonal  monotheism, 
and  to  infuse  it  into  the  gradually  awakening  reflec- 
tions of  the  Aryans. 

Christianity  fitly  issued  from  a  monotheistic  people. 
Polytheism  had  been  gradually  undermined  by  philo- 
sophic discussion,  and  through  the  politic  concessions 
and  adoptions  by  Homo,  to  gain  favor  at  first  for  her 
^rly  weakness,  and  subsequently  for  her  empire.   This 


SUCCESSES  OF  CHRISTIANITY. 


led  to  periodic  modifications,  which  could  not  fail  to 
shake  the  faith  even  of  the  multitude.     While  Rome 
was  tolerant  with  the  conquered,  the  respect  imposed 
upon  them  for  its  own  belief  and  its  sovereignty,  and 
the  semi-worship  exacted  for  its  emperors,  served  to 
weaken  inherited  piety  and  regard  for  native  tradi- 
tions, and  to  sanction  inquiry  into  sacred  things.     In 
the  east,  Buddhism  greatly  extended  the  influence 
of  its  lofty  teachings  through  caravan  intercourse  to 
the  confines  of  Europe.     The  sublime  idea  of  divine 
revelation,  as  proclaimed  by  the  apostles,  fitly  sup- 
plemented the  many  expectations  growing  out  of  the 
old  Hebrew  prophecies  pointing  to  a  Messiah.     The 
simplicity  of  the  Christian  creed,  together  with  the 
beautiful  doctrine  of  creation,  the  rumor  of  miracles, 
the  inflexible  zeal  of  its  adherents,  fostered  by  the 
discipline  and  unity  of  the  early  church,  and  enhanced 
by  the   impressive   purity  and   charity   of  life   and 
thought,  especially  among  women,  under  the  impulse 
of  perpetual  struggles  against  inherited  sin — all  these 
were  among  the  causes  for  its  success.     Not  the  least 
was  the  brotherhood  in  the  church  and  of  nations,  and 
equality  before  God,  and  prospective  social  elevation, 
to  be  follov/ed  by  future  blissful  rewards,  dependent 
not  on  costly  offerings,  but  on  faith  and  conduct ;  doc- 
trines which  attracted  especially  the  great  compassless 
masses,  the  poor  and  oppressed,  the  enslaved  and  un- 
happy, who  suffered  under  the  innumerable  iniquities 
of  the  powerful,  the  glaring  ostentation  of  the  rich, 
and  the  corruption  of  the  rulers. 

Tlie  peaceful  golden  age  inaugurated  by  Augustus 
in  a  consolidated  empire,  with  the  attendant  tolerance, 
freedom  of  intercourse,  and  spread  of  culture,  favored 
the  incipient  propagation  of  religion,  as  did  the  sub- 
sequent persecution,  due  to  the  fears  roused  by  the 
inconsiderate  abuse  of  idolatry  and  corrupt  adminis- 
trators, and  by  talk  of  a  prospective  Christian  kingdom. 
Maletreatment  was  sanctioned  by  the  growing  dislike 
to  the  Hebrews,  and  by  the  sporadic  character  of  the 


IVi 


b 


90 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


i 


iin      !*i 


,'ii 


new  faith,  devoid  of  national  standing.  But  Chris- 
tianity soon  became  strong  enough  to  exact  conces- 
sions, to  win  the  rulers  by  desirability  of  alliance,  and 
to  become  the  state  religion  under  Constantino,  when 
one  twentieth  of  his  subjects  professed  it.  Thence- 
forth its  spread  was  rapid,  being  aided  by  soldiers  as 
well  as  missionaries,  for  conquerors  found  it  a  good 
pretext  for  invasion;  and  a  valuable  means  for  securing 
submission. 

The  doctrines  and  successes  of  Christianity  did  not 
escape  the  observation  of  reflective  men  even  beyond 
its  actual  reach.  In  distant  Arabia  another  Semitic 
people  had  nursed  the  worship  of  one  supreme  being. 
In  course  of  time  their  system  became  engrafted  with 
a  number  of  sub-deities  more  approachable  by  mortals 
as  mediators  with  the  sovereign  of  all.  This  corrup- 
tion had  penetrated  into  social  life,  and  by  its  ab- 
U'Tmities  roused  reformers.  The  most  conspicuous 
were  the  Hanifs,  notably  at  Medina,  who  practised 
purified  rites  directed  to  Allah  alone,  confiding  in  a 
final  judgment  to  reward  their  devotion.  It  required 
merely  another  step  to  improve  upon  these  tenets 
with  the  suggestions  presented  in  their  midst,  and 
near  the  border  by  Jews,  by  Sabians,  and  particularly 
by  the  anchorites  of  Syria.  Mohammed's  travels  as 
a  trader  had  afforded  him  the  necessary  insight  and 
means  to  prepare  himself  for  the  new  role  of  reformer. 
Revelations  and  other  appeals  to  superstition  did  their 
share.  Nearly  all  the  intrinsic  virtues  favoring 
Christianity,  as  miracles,  purity  of  life,  simplicity  of 
doctrines,  zeal,  brotherhood,  future  rewards,  were 
introduced,  to  attract  without  the  obstructing  media- 
tion of  redeemer  or  priest.  Compromises  with  hostile 
sects  opened  aciditional  avenues.  Soon  religion  be- 
came chiefiy  the  auxiliary  of  a  commonwealth ;  the 
mosque  a  drilling  ground  for  soldiers ;  charity  turned 
into  tithes  and  then  into  taxes;  fanaticism  readily 
ignited  the  fiery  cavaliers  of  nomadic  Arabia,  and 
every  campaign  added  followers  and  subjects.     Sue- 


THE  CRUSADES. 


M 


cess  bred  success.  Yet  the  elevating  features  of  the 
creed,  as  manifested  in  its  early  Saracenic  career, 
reached  a  certain  altitude,  especially  after  the  blighting 
ascendancy  of  the  Osmanli;  while  Christianity,  sim- 
ilarly overshadowed  from  infancy,  in  time  cast  off  its 
shackles  to  attain  the  loftiest  culture.  Race  triumphed 
over  both  religions. 

Within  a  century  the  Saracens  had  overrun  Asia 
from  the  Mediterranean  to  India,  and  were  pene- 
trating beyond  Constantinople  into  Europe,  seeking  to 
join  the  link  of  conquest  by  advancing  through  north- 
ern Africa  into  Spain.  The  Arabs  were  not  illiberal, 
despite  their  fanaticism,  and  tribute  was  accepted,  as 
for  instance  in  India.  Subsequently,  with  the  inter- 
mingling of  Turks,  pressing  westward  from  central 
Asia,  a  less  tolerant  spirit  obtained.  Deep  as  well  as 
fashionable  piety  had  intensified  the  desire  to  worship 
at  the  tomb  of  the  Savior,  and  Christian  pilgrims 
poured  gold  into  Mohammedan  purses ;  but  fanaticism 
soon  overcame  prudence  and  exposed  them  to  perse- 
cution. 

This  state  of  affairs  was  hinted  abroad  in  Europe 
to  the  indignation  of  devotees,  hot  with  the  youth  of 
conversion.  It  needed  but  a  spark  to  fire  them,  and 
that  was  struck  by  Peter  the  Hermit,  from  whose  fer- 
vent zeal  sprang  the  inspiration  that  he  was  destined 
to  rescue  the  holy  sepulchre.  The  pope  sustained 
the  zealot,  and  sanctified  enlistment  by  conferring  the 
badge  of  the  red  cross,  bright  with  the  hope  of  salva- 
tion from  being  engaged  in  so  laudable  an  enterprise. 
The  unsettled  and  warlike  condition  of  Europe,  under 
the  then  prevailing  feudalism,  was  favorable  to  any 
migratory  movement  or  campaign,  so  that  no  trouble 
was  experienced  in  mustering  fanatics  for  the  first 
crusade  in  1096.  The  advance  body  was  a  mere 
blinded  rabble,  including  women  and  children,  so  un- 
provided  as  to  be  obliged  to  ravage  friendly  territories 
for  food,  and  so  undisciplined  and  badly  armed  as  to 
allow  themselves  to  be  mowed  down  like  grass  by 


)!]    1 


y 


m 


.    1     • 


92 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


I 


exasperated  Christians  and  hoslile  Turks.  The  main 
body  of  feudal  chiefs  with  mailed  chivalry  was  fought 
by  the  astute  foe  with  the  aid  of  nature  in  devastated 
lands.  Only  a  fragment  under  Godfrey  escaped 
hunger,  thirst,  and  scimitars,  to  found  a  feeble  king- 
dom in  Palestine.  The  second  crusade  was  headed  by 
a  kiujof  and  an  emperor,  and  the  third  by  three  crowned 
heads,  without  achieving  even  so  nmcli  as  the  first. 
After  this,  corruption  permeated  the  good  cause. 
The  fourth  expedition  overthrew  the  Greek  empire 
to  establish  a  Latin  kingdom.  The  fifth  obtained  a 
temporary  recession  of  Jerusalem,  and  in  the  seventh 
and  eighth  St  Louis  sacrificv'^d  himself  in  the  vain 
effort  to  sustain  the  compact. 

The  direct  aim  of  the  crusades  was  practically  a 
failure  but  the  incidental  and  collateral  benefits  proved 
inestimable.  The  fanaticism  which  had  prompted 
them  worked  itself  out  during  foreign  intercourse 
and  experience,  to  be  further  reduced  at  home  by  the 
germs  of  culture,  brought  back  from  the  so-called  bar- 
baric Saracens,  who  shamed  the  Christian  knights  by 
their  superior  chivalry  and  their  patronage  of  letters 
and  arts.  The  preparations  and  traffic  attendant  on 
these  vast  movements  served  to  give  an  invigorating 
impulse  to  manufactures  and  other  industries ;  to  call 
forth  merchant  fleets  in  the  seaboard  states  for  car- 
rying troops  and  supplies;  to  develop  commerce  and 
elevating  intercourse,  and  to  make  European  nations 
acquainted  with  the  luxuries  and  treasures  of  the 
Orient ;  to  promote  great  harmony  and  connnunication 
between  the  western  nations,  and  to  strengthen  the 
church  and  state  at  the  expense  of  feudalism. 

The  increase  of  sovereign  power  for  curbing  law- 
lessness, and  promoting  order  and  security,  was  indis- 
})ensabl3  to  industrial  and  intellectual  development. 
The  protection  which  the  Lombard  league  of  cities 
assured  for  itself  served  to  build  up  here  alone  a 
number  of  opulent  centres,  notably  the  republic  of 
Venice,  which  rose  to  a  great  maritime  power  and 


WEALTH  AND  LUXURY. 


98 


colonizer,  and  of  Florence,  wherein  the  Medici  opened 
a  glorious  era  as  patrons  of*  art  and  literature.  In 
the  north  the  Hanseatic  cities  contented  themselves 
with  more  practical  gains,  which  nevertheless  served 
to  diffuse  an  elevating  refinement. 

Silk  culture  was  introduced  into  Italy  in  the  middle 
of  the  twelfth  century,  serving  to  encourage  many  an- 
other enterprise.  Chimneys  and  window  glass  began 
to  appear  soon  after,  to  render  houses  more  attractive, 
and  thereby  to  exert  a  vast  influence  for  improving 
the  character,  habits,  and  social  condition  in  general 
of  the  race.  By  infusing  a  growing  taste  for  wider 
comforts,  energy  was  stimulated  to  the  greater  pro- 
duction of  wealth,  and  thus  were  fostered  trade, 
industries,  and  education.  Luxury  spread  so  fast, 
indeed,  as  to  call  forth  restrictive  sumptuary   laws. 

The  enervation  of  luxury  applies  in  many  direc- 
tions, as  in  sapping  the  vigor  of  warlike  races,  like 
the  Medes,  in  the  oppression  of  lower  classes  and  the 
spread  of  slavery,  which  reduces  the  middle  class  and 
creates  a  dangerous  under-stratum  as  in  Rome  ;  and 
in  several  of  the  causes  leading  to  the  decline  of  the 
once  mighty  Spain.  On  the  other  hand  luxury  stim- 
ulates the  energy  to  procure  it,  and  fosters  material 
comfort  and  the  highest  phases  of  civilization.  France 
led  in  luxurious  habits  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV., 
yet  she  held  all  Europe  at  bay.  These  indulgences 
Drought  about  the  terrible  revolution  under  Louis 
XVI.,  yet  during  its  throes  she  sprang  to  the  height 
oi  her  ambition.  In  England  the  luxury  attending  the 
great  accumulation  of  riches  has  not  prevented  her 
from  attaining  rank  among  the  first  niilitaiy  powers. 
Luxury,  therefore,  is  objectionable  only  when  it  be- 
comes predominant. 

A  marked  effect  of  intercourse  with  the  Saracens 
was  observed  in  education.  C6rdova,  and  other  seats 
of  Arabic  learning  attracted  pilgrims,  and  gave  im- 
pulse to  the  founding  of  universities  in  different  parts 
of  Europe.     The  rise  here  of  scholastic  philosophy, 


I 


n 


CENTRAUZATION  OP  POWER. 


while  tending  to  develop  acuteness,  retarded  the  ex- 
pansion of  thought  and  studies,  and  overshadowed  even 
the  experiments  of  such  men  as  Bacon  and  Albertus. 
The  crusades  produced  the  troubadours  and  mime- 
singers,  who  stirred  the  people  with  their  recital  of 
noble  deeds  and  brilliant  exploits,  and  promoted  the 
publication  of  works  in  their  vernacular,  thus  opening 
the  way  for  the  instruction  of  the  masses,  from  whom 
learning  had  hitherto  been  locked  up  by  the  exclusive 
Latin  race.  Moorish  architecture,  with  its  minarets, 
arches,  and  tracery,  gave  sugge-^tions  for  the  Gothic 
style,  the  most  sublime  express  on  of  religious  aspira- 
tion. It  was  tLe  first  inspiring  step  toward  a  revival 
of  arts  and  free  and  lofty  thought. 

Declining  feudalism  presented  a  relieving  feature 
in  the  institution  of  chivalry,  which  during  the  cru- 
sades unfolded  into  ennobling  proportions.  Rising 
out  of  the  innate  Teutonic  gallantry  to  women,  it  was 
elevated  by  the  predilection  of  leading  men  for  the 
profession  of  arms.  Their  training  as  sons  of  vassals,  at 
the  castle  of  the  lords,  embraced  the  management  of 
weapons  and  the  steed,  the  practice  of  etiquette  as 
pages  to  the  ladies,  while  intercourse  with  knights 
inculcated  lofty  ideas  of  honor,  of  justice,  of  commis- 
eration for  the  oppressed.  The  tendency  was  to  sus- 
tain the  prevalent  war  spirit,  with  ideas  too  exalted 
and  fictitious,  but  also  to  soften  its  harsh  features,  and 
to  infuse  a  tone  of  refinement  into  the  approaching 
revival. 

Such  were  the  dominating  influences  during  the 
middle  ages  which  had  to  yield  before  the  modern  era. 
This  dates  from  the  introduction  of  several  important 
inventions,  notably  gunpowder,  the  compass,  and 
printing-press,  which  revolutionized  political  and  social 
conditions,  and  promoted  the  revival  of  enterprise  and 
learning,  its  germs  being  traced  to  the  crusades, 
with  tlicir  stirring  intercourse.  It  was  also  signalized 
by  the  overthrow  of  the  remnant  of  ancient  European 


m 


MARITIME  ENTERPRISE. 


M 


greatness,  in  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the 
Turks,  with  the  aid  of  cannon,  then  becoming  known, 
and  by  the  discovery  of  a  new  continent,  the  stimulus 
and  field  for  colossal  undertakings,  for  trade  and  colo- 
nization. 

Gunpowder  revolutionized  military  tactics,  sweeping 
away  the  advantages  of  mailed  knights  and  walled 
castles,  at  a  single  blow,  reducing  the  power  of  the 
nobility  and  feudal  barons,  and  transferring  it  to  the 
people  and  the  sovereign,  thus  promoting  centraliza- 
tion. This  was  an  indispensable  retrogression,  a  tem- 
porary fettering  of  freedom  in  order  to  secure  among 
the  masses  the  education,  self-reliance,  and  self-gov- 
ernment necessary  for  a  later  rational  enjoyment  of 
liberty.  True,  rulers  sought  to  retain  the  control 
longer  than  necessary,  using  standing  armies  for  their 
own  aggrandizement,  and  sturdy  efforts  were  required 
to  effect  the  change. 

The  Mohammedan  element  in  Spain  had  by  its  hos- 
tility stirred  among  the  mountaineers  a  warlike  and 
adventurous  disposition,  which  under  the  flush  of 
success,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  broke  beyond  the 
narrow  confines  of  the  peninsula,  and  sought  upon  the 
sea  a  wider  field.  Prince  Henry  of  Portugal  led 
the  Iberians  in  this  new  enterprise.  By  perfecting 
the  use  of  the  compass  for  navigation,  he  opened  the 
hitherto  fearful  highways  of  the  ocean,  and  enabled 
Columbus  to  discover  America,  Magellan  to  circum- 
navigate the  globe,  and  Vasco  da  Gama  to  penetrate 
by  way  of  Cape  Good  Hope  to  the  Indies,  and  to 
transfer  their  rich  trade  from  Venice  and  other  Med- 
iterranean entrepots  to  Portugal,  from  which  the 
more  enterprising  Holland,  and  subsequently  England, 
wrested  the  prize.  Navies  nmltiplied  under  the  con- 
sequent encouragement  to  migration,  colonization,  and 
trade;  manufactures  responded  to  the  growth  of  fresh 
and  wider  resources ;  the  middle  classes  made  a  stride 
to  the  front  for  domination,  sustaining  their  position  by 
the  energy  and  prosperity  which  enriched  their  states. 


ii 


Ml 


•"■■fijiiii )  I 


00 


CKNTRALIZATION  OP  POWER. 


:i!:|l| 


A  still  greater  medium  for  general  advancement 
and  the  uplifting  of  the  masses  appeared  in  the  print- 
ing-press. While  repelled  by  France  in  the  west,  the 
Mohammedans  continued  their  advance  from  the  east 
under  the  more  barbaric  Ottoman  leadership,  and 
bore  the  crescent  from  Greece  to  Constantinople. 
Thus  fell  hhe  last  relic  of  the  eastern  empire,  and  the 
revived  Roman  sister  state  might  also  have  succumbed 
but  for  the  stanch  rescue  of  Vienna  by  Sobieski. 
The  invasion  drove  Greek  savants  and  artists  west- 
ward, there  to  influence  the  revival  of  arts  and  learn- 
ing, and  the  invention  of  printing.  The  main  feature 
herein  being  the  movable  types  of  Gutenberg,  he  must 
be  recognized  as  the  one  who  struck  the  great  blow 
at  ignorance,  presenting  at  the  same  time  the  incen- 
tive and  means  for  the  entire  liberation  of  learning. 

One  important  phase  of  the  intellectual  emancipa- 
tion appeared  in  the  Reformation.  The  fall  of  the 
western  empire  had  lifted  into  prominence  the  bishop 
of  the  state  church,  as  the  only  one  who  possessed 
influence  alike  over  the  natives  and  the  conquering 
Goths.  Religion  was  the  bond  which  held  together 
the  shattered  elements  of  old  nationality,  and  the  fer- 
menting admixture  of  new  races.  The  Franks  were 
induced  to  aid  in  granting  temporal  power  to  the 
popes,  and  the  subsequent  rallying  round  them  of  the 
anti-Germanic  party  in  Italy  increased  their  influence. 
Gregory  VII.  added  still  more  to  it  by  reserving  for 
the  church  the  investiture  of  ecclesiastical  officers,  and 
by  compelling  Emperor  Henry  to  humble  himself  to 
the  dust  for  venturing  to  dissent.  Exconunuiiication 
was  the  power  which  swayed  the  sceptre  henceforth 
raised  above  every  catholic  monarch  by  the  king  of 
kings  at  Rome.  He  worked  upon  the  superstition  of 
the  masses  by  means  of  the  confessional,  and  other 
rites,  wielded  by  priests  and  friars,  who  were  attached 
to  the  church  more  closely  than  ever  by  enforced  celi- 
bacy and  other  renunciations  of  worldly  ties,  and  by 
exemption  from  civil  jurisdiction.     He  maintained  an 


DECLINE  OF  FANATICISM. 


.97 


additional  and  deeper  espionage  by  means  of  the  Jesuit 
order,  and  held  a  terrifying  weapon  in  the  Inquisition 
to  check  free  thought  and  crush  dissent.  The  seclu- 
sion of  learning  within  the  Latin  language,  and  its 
universality,  widened  the  field  for  the  church,  as  did 
the  spreading  conversion  north  and  west,  and  in  the 
new  world,  while  the  rival  Greek  body  was  curtailed 
by  Mohammedan  encroachments.  Every  fresh  acces- 
sion meant  also  increased  legacies,  particularly  in  land, 
for  enrichment  and  power;  and  Rome  herself  reaped 
a  rich  harvest  from  the  pilgrimage,  which  turned  from 
the  long  journey  to  Jerusalem  to  confirm  the  ancient 
pagan  city  as  the  sacred  Christian  capital.  The  dis- 
sensions created  by  feudalism  helped  to  win  the  weak- 
ened sovereigns  to  an  alliance  with  the  church,  which 
like  themselves  favored  a  gradual  centralization  of 
control,  as  less  favorable  to  sectarianism.  The  cru- 
sades served  to  strengthen  it  by  intensifying  religious 
zeal,  although  their  final  effect  was  largely  reactionary. 
With  fanaticism  cooled  came  reflection.  Through 
the  clearing  mist  of  superstition  could  be  seen  the  errors 
and  corruption  of  the  church,  accumulated  since  its 
rise  from  purifying  privations  to  affluence  and  power, 
and  exposed  by  the  more  or  less  loud  demonstrations  of 
Albigenses,  Wyclifl&tes,  and  Hussites,  during  unseemly 
quarrels  between  priests  and  rulers  or  between  rival 
popes,  and  by  the  merciless  harshness  of  Christian  prel- 
ates. Inquiry  was  hushed,  but  not  suppressed.  Eras- 
mus desired  neither  rash  revolution  nor  coercion  of  the 
mind.  He  appealed  to  reason,  and  advocated  enlighten- 
ment for  reaching  a  loftier  level  of  morality  and  faith. 
The  new-born  press  helped  to  spread  his  views,  and  to 
rouse  thought  and  raise  leaders  for  the  movement  to 
be  started  by  the  igniting  spark,  the  sale  of  indul- 
gences, to  which  the  Austin  friars,  notably  Luther, 
took  exceptions.  Many  princes  favored  the  outcry 
e^ainst  an  institution  which  drained  their  states  of 
much-needed  money,  and  sought  to  meddle  in  their 
administration.     Even  Charles  V.  was  at  first  luke- 


>lii, 


('.  B.-I.    7 


08 


(KNTRALIZATION   OK   POWER. 


Hi 


warm  on  this  account ;  but,  as  the  tendency  of  the 
age  inclined  to  brute  force,  or  arms,  and  the  princes 
formed  a  league  for  defence,  the  emperor  was  moved 
by  jK)licy  to  crush  it.  Political  reasons  likewise  in- 
duced France  to  rise  and  prevent  a  schism,  and  secure 
tolerance.  Chagrined  by  repulse,  Charles  retired  to 
a  convent  to  mourn  over  the  failure  of  his  hopes,  as 
the  champion  of  an  already  faded  middle  age. 

The  church  was  obliged  to  yield  to  the  tempest,  in 
the  shape  of  certain  reforms,  and  in  stirring  to  renewed 
zeal  its  adherents,  such  as  the  Jesuits  with  their 
stealthy  prying,  their  subtle  intrigue,  their  striving, 
as  the  hidden  power  behind  the  throne,  to  rule  the 
king  as  well  as  his  subjects.  Thus  it  moulded  to  its 
ends  the  fanatical  Ferdinand  of  Austria,  and  induced 
him  to  attempt,  a  century  later,  to  win  back  the  lost 
ground  in  Germany.  Wallenstein  and  Tilly,  indeed, 
carried  all  before  them ;  but  one  greater  than  they 
stepped  forward  to  turn  the  scale  once  more,  and 
bring  into  momentary  fame  a  peninsula  which  had 
lain  in  obscurity  since  the  Viking  era.  Inspired  by 
religious  zeal  and  French  money,  Gustavus  Adolphus 
of  Sweden  enforced  a  favorable  treaty  in  behalf  of 
German  protestants  at  the  price  of  his  life.  Flushed 
with  success  his  generals  protracted  the  struggle  in 
conjunction  with  France,  and  closed  the  thirty  years' 
war  only  after  exacting  heavy  territorial  compensa- 
tion, notably  Pomerania  on  one  side  and  Alsace  on  the 
other,  both  to  become  the  source  of  future  strife. 
The  people  paid  dearly  for  thus  heedlessly  inviting 
foreign  champions,  and  the  emperor  suffered  for  his 
folly  by  receiving  back  his  realm  in  the  shape  of  an 
impoverished  and  lax  confederacy. 

The  disunion  gave  opportunity  tor  the  rise  of  a 
rival  destined  soon  to  eclipse  Austria.  Prussia  was 
built  up  by  the  Great  Elector ;  and  in  the  army  aad 
treasure  gathered  by  a  prudent  father,  FredericK  the 
Great  found  a  means  for  his  ambition  to  lift  the  t^tate 
to  the  front  rank  of  European  powers.     The  achieve- 


KVOLUTION  OF  ENGU8HMEN.  ,99 

ment  was  custly,  the  Beveii  years'  war  alone  mvolving 
the  loss  of  a  million  men,  though  securing  military 
and  territorial  aggrandizement.  Frederick  gained 
the  fame  not  merely  of  a  great  captain,  but  of  a  wise 
ruler,  who  repaired  the  ravages  of  war  by  fostering 
measures  beneficial  to  industries. 

The  struggle  for  free  thought  extended   through 
the  north  and  west  of  Europe,  where  proximity  to 
the   sea  stimulated  enterprise  and  love  of    liberty. 
The  Netherlands  held  the  lead  as  a  manufacturing 
region,  and  were  fast  wresting  the  rich  India  trade 
from  Portu«,;al.     The  attendant  energy  and  enlight- 
enment gave  ready  access  to  protestant  ideas,  to  the 
alarm  of  Philip  II.,  who  cherished  this  section  as  his 
special  patrimony,  and  abhorred  a  schism  which  might 
lead  it  away  from  his  beloved  church  and  from  Spain. 
The   stanch   little   people   rallied   round   William  of 
Orange,  and    sustained  themselves  for   thirty-seven 
years  against  the  onslaught  of  the  armies  of  Spain, 
fanatical  and  cruel  as  their  master,  and  established  the 
free  Dutch  Republic,  richer  than  ever,  with  greater 
colonies  and  the  finest  of  navies.     In  these  two  lay 
the  chief  source  of  their  endurance  as  well  as  of  their 
recuperation. 

In  England,  Phoenician  intercourse  and  Roman 
occupation  had  left  many  a  promising  germ.  Then 
came  the  mingling  of  races,  of  Britons  with  Anglo- 
Saxons,  who  assumed  the  predominance  in  thought 
and  language,  and  were  leavened  with  the  more  pro- 
nounced Scandinavian  blood  of  Danish  conquerors,  and 
with  Gallicized  Norsemen,  who  sought  to  irjipose  on 
them  their  Norman  officials  and  their  language.  Out 
of  this  medley  emerged  the  English  nation,  wherein  the 
hardihood  and  self-reliance  of  the  islander  were  com- 
bined with  the  prudence  and  conservatism  which  dis- 
tinguish the  race.  She  asserted  her  right  to  freedom 
in  the  thirteenth  <'entury,  by  forcing  from  the  king  the 
magna  charta,  and  establishing  popular  representation 
and  a  house  of  commons.    In  such  a  soil  protestantism 


I 


iij 


^Tlfil 


if 


100 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


Ill 

i 

.1^ 
If 
ii 

! 

could  not  fail  to  win  adherents,  yet  its  rapid  advance 
was  indebted  rather  to  the  wounded  vanity  and 
caprice  of  the  profligate  but  vigorous  and  able  Henry 
VIII.  He  turned  the  tables  so  far  upon  the  un- 
yielding pope  as  to  persecute  the  church  and  confis- 
cate its  wealth;  and  in  order  to  obtain  a  strong 
servant  for  his  plans,  he  invested  parliament  with 
powers  which  it  subsequently  learned  to  wield  to 
better  advantage. 

Thus  trained  and  endowed,  England  unfolded 
in  the  Elizabethan  age  into  a  first  class  nation,  a 
leader  in  daring  achievements  and  enterprise,  in 
industrial  and  intellectual  might.  By  quibbHng  at 
Elizabeth's  claim  to  the  throne,  the  pope  converted  a 
ready  friend  into  a  foe,  who  gave  the  finishing  blow 
to  his  influence  in  Britian.  The  same  policy  in 
Spain  led  to  the  armada  expedition  against  England, 
which  in  its  disastrous  ending  engulfed  the  great- 
ness of  Iberia,  and  helped  to  liberate  Holland  and 
lift  Albion  into  prominence.  Catholicism  obtained  a 
certain  satisfaction  in  the  sectarian  disruptions  which 
led  to  the  persecution  of  the  Puritans,  and  finally  to 
the  liberation  of  the  United  States. 

The  tact  and  talent  of  the  Tudors  made  endurable 
a  despotism  which  the  people,  imbued  by  them  with 
their  own  vigorous  spirit,  resented  in  the  succeeding 
line  of  the  Stuarts, opened  by  James  I.,  "the  wisest 
fool  in  Europe."  Blindly  intent  on  the  divine  right  of 
kings,  Charles  I.  paid  with  his  life  the  penalty  for  re- 
sisting the  spirit  of  the  age,  which  demanded  constl 
tutional  government.  The  people  displayed  their 
daring  and  self-reliance  alike  during  the  Common- 
wealth, by  victorious  campaigns  in  Ireland  and  Scot- 
land, against  tlie  Dutch  and  the  Spaniards,  and  during 
the  reign  of  the  frivolous  Charles  II.  by  developing 
arts  and  industries.  The  obstinacy  of  James  II.  in 
seeking  to  restore  the  catholic  religion  exhausted 
their  patience,  and  the  Stuarts  lost  the  throne.  They 
desired  self-rule,  under  the  emulative  and  progressive 


SOME  INTELLECTUAL   KINGS. 


management  of  popular  parties,  each  bidding  for  fame 
and  favor  by  wise  and  prudent  measures  and  reforms, 
or  by  brilliant  military  and  political  undertakings. 
The  sovereign  must  here  be  content  to  act  merely  as 
a  figure-head,  as  a  medium  for  balancing  political 
elements,  and  obviating  dangerous  aspirations.  In 
this  aspect  the  licentious,  foolish,  and  incompetent 
Georges  were  not  only  endurable  but  useful,  despite 
their  nonentity.  England  advanced  to  greatness 
under  the  leadership  of  statesmen  like  Walpole,  Pitt, 
and  Palmerston,  Beaconsfield  and  Gladstone,  the 
first  aiming  for  political  aggrandizement,  the  last  for 
internal  prosperity  and  popular  rights,  such  as  the 
disestablishment  of  an  obnoxious  state  church  in 
Ireland,  the  extension  of  the  franchise  and  more 
liberal  land  laws.  Abolition  of  slavery  and  adoption 
of  the  ballot  figure  among  the  progressive  enactments 
of  this  the  greatest  of  trading  nations,  and  one  unsur- 
passed for  wealth  and  territorial  possessions. 

The  union  of  Germany  and  Spain  under  Charles  V. 
led  to  an  aggressive  policy  on  the  part  of  France  for 
preserving  the  balance  of  power,  and  to  an  alliance 
with  protestant  princes,  while  native  Huguenots 
were  freely  persecuted.  The  latter  rose  several  times 
to  arms  during  the  sixteenth  century,  but  were  finally 
relieved  by  The  edict  of  Nantes.  The  fostering 
measures  of  Kenry  IV.  and  Sully  secured  the  ma- 
terial development  which  permitted  Richelieu  to  lift 
France  to  the  first  place  in  Europe,  especially  by  the 
military  achi-  \  e  nents  of  the  thirty  years'  war  which 
humbled  her  great  rival.  His  patronage  of  arts  and 
letters  bore  fruit  during  the  brilliant  age  of  Louis  XIV  , 
the  type  of  a  monarch  if  not  of  a  good  ruler;  a  man 
who  knew  how  to  choose  ministers  like  Mazarin  and 
Colbert,  but  wliosc  imprudent  ambition  frittered  away 
in  uselcfts  wars  most  of  the  results  •  ;f  their  beneficent 
plans  foi'  advancing  industries,  trade,  and  colonization. 
Another  rash  proceeding  was  the  renewed  persecution 
of  the  Huguenots,  which  forced  half  a  million  of  them 


It 


mii 


11 


n 


m 


103 


CKNTRALIZATION   OF   POWER. 


to  emigrate,  and  carry  their  arts  and  industries  to 
rival  nations.  This  despotism  gave,  moreover,  a 
servile  stamp  to  manners,  language,  literary  style 
and  thought,  wherein  France  now  became  the  accepted 
standard  for  the  world. 

Her  supremacy  was  sustained  by  the  long  array  of 
great  names  headed  by  Descartes,  Pascal,  and  Mon- 
taigne; Comeille,  Moli^re,  and  Racine;  Kabelais,  La 
Fontaine,  Boileau,  Fenelon,  and  Bossuet,  by  the  side  of 
which  adjoining  nations  have  placed  Copernicus, 
Galileo,  Kepler,  and  Newton;  Bacon,  Hobbes,  Spinoza, 
and  Liebnitz ;  Shakespeare,  Cervantes,  Ariosto, 
Tasso,  Camoens,  and  Milton.  This  list  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century  was  made  imposing  by  the  names  of 
Kant,  Adams,  Montesquieu,  Voltaire,  Rousseau, 
Lessing,  Gibbon,  and  Schiller;  Linnoeus,  Buffon, 
Priestley,  Galvani,  Herschel,  Lavoisier,  and  La^slace ; 
Watt,  Fulton,  Brindley,  Hargreaves,  Arkwright,  and 
Jacquard,  all  of  whom  exercise  a  wide  influence  upon 
intellectual  and  material  development. 

The  increase  of  manufactures,  and  other  industries, 
commerce  and  colonization,  the  spread  of  educatioti, 
the  liberation  of  thought  by  such  means  as  the  vic- 
torious reformation,  the  opening  of  new  fields  in 
America  and  elsewhere,  for  enterprise  and  enjoyment 
of  freedom,  and  the  multiplication  of  inventions,  were 
phases  of  progress  which  benefited  especially  the 
middle  and  lower  classes,  bringing  ever  nearer  to 
their  reach  the  escape  from  oppression,  poverty,  and 
ignorance,  and  the  opportunity  for  acquiring  wealth 
and  knowledge.  With  growing  self-reliance  came  the 
sense  of  their  own  real  importance,  collectively  at 
least,  as  measured  by  the  number  and  the  theo- 
retic rather  than  practical  ability  of  the  clique  sur- 
rounding the  throne,  which  absorbed  all  tho  offices  and 
secured  all  control.  In  order  to  assure  their  own 
ambitious  purposes  against  the  formidable  feudalisn^, 
monarcha  had  purchased  the  support  of  the  n*  -hi^^s  by 
exemptions  and  privileges,  and  the  devotion  of  atanci 


i 


RULERS   AND   PEOPLE. 


103 


ing  armies  and  body-guards  by  liberal  treatment ;  but 
once  secure  from  fear,  natural  sympathy  and  common 
interests  inclined  them  again  toward  a  bridled  nobility, 
whose  aid  was  now  sought  to  restrain  the  increased 
aspirations  of  the  people.  With  similar  interests  for 
suppressing  the  masses,  the  church  made  cause  with 
royalty,  hedging  it  with  divine  sanction,  while  the 
nobles  supported  themselves  with  primogeniture  and 
entail. 

The  consequent  antagonism  between  the  people  and 
the  throne,  with  its  adherents,  was  fostered  especially 
in  France  by  socialistic  and  infidel  writers  like  Rous- 
seau and  Voltaire,  and  their  host  of  followers  and 
imitators.  Their  utterances  found  emphasis  in  the 
distress  caused  by  the  long  and  useless  wars  of  Louis 
XIV.,  the  chief  burden  of  which  fell  upon  the  masses, 
who  possessed  only  one  third  of  the  soil  while  the 
nobility  and  clergy,  owning  the  two  thirds,  were 
exempt  from  taxes  and  other  exactions.  The  iniquity 
became  the  more  glaring  in  consequence  of  the  profli- 
gacy' and  extrava)ni;anctj  of  the  court,  and  the  ignorance 
and  dissolute  conduct  of  the  clergy  itself. 

These  lessons,  however,  did  not  take  effect  here 
iintil  the  example  had  been  set  in  a  far  distant  region. 
A.merica  had  been  settled  by  a  selection  of  hardy  ad- 
venturers from  all  quarters,  and  by  religious  and 
f>oUtical  refugees  of  Teutonic  blood,  chiefly  of  the  in- 
ilependent  English  stock,  who  bore  with  them  a 
hatred  of  tyranny.  Freedom,  energy,  and  self-re- 
liance were  fostered  by  life  in  the  backwoods,  strug- 
gling with  nature  and  the  hostile  aborigines,  and 
self-government  of  a  republican  type  was  forced  upon 
them,  to  be  intensified  by  the  arrogar.ce  of  the  king's 
officials,  and  the  ridicule  cast  upon  royalty  by  the 
character  of  the  Georges.  As  the  free-spoken  colo- 
nists revealed  the  bent  of  their  thought,  the  alarmed 
administration  had  recourse  to  repressive  measures, 
which  served  only  to  embitter  the  people  and  hasten 
the  outburst.   Eager  to  weaken  her  powerful  neighbor, 


iii 


I 


ion 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


■•■  I 


France  fed  the  flame,  and  tendered  assistance  toward 
the  liberation  of  the  colony,  and  the  formation  of  the 
United  States  republic,  an  inspiring  model  for  num- 
erous imitators,  a  beacon  light  for  democratic  ideas. 

Now  the  lesson  came  ho^e  to  France,  and  the  op- 
portunity to  practise  it  quiciily  arrived.  Financial 
distress  compelled  an  appeal  to  the  long  ignored 
people,  whose  representatives  formed  h^lf  of  the  sum* 
moned  states-general  meeting.  Aware  of  their  im- 
portance in  this  ^nrrgency,  they  assumed  a  tone  of 
independence,  whc.  :he  nobles  and  clergy  caviled, 
sustained  by  the  kiu^  The  commons  resolutely  pro- 
ceeded to  open  a  national  assembly,  and  to  prepare  a 
constitution  which  should  remove  the  existing  in- 
equality and  injustice.  Encouraged  by  a  large  seces- 
sion from  the  opposite  ranks,  they  proclaimed  not 
alone  equalization  of  taxes,  together  with  a  consolida- 
tion of  the  debt,  but  freedom  of  the  press  and  religion, 
and  the  abolition  of  political  privileges  derived  from 
birth.  The  government  was  evidently  impotent 
to  enforce  any  objection;  yet  the  mere  nimor  of 
troops  approaching  roused  the  triumphant  populace  to 
arms.  The  fall  of  the  Bastile,  and  the  raising  of  the 
democratic  tricolor  at  Paris,  became  the  signal  for  a 
general  revolution.  The  nobles  fled,  shorn  of  class 
distinction  and  possessions,  and  the  still  recalcitrant 
monarch  was  made  a  capti^'e. 

The  controlling  element  was  still  inclined  to  mod- 
eration, and  in  mvor  of  a  constitutional  monarchy; 
but  the  proposed  interference  of  the  German  powers 
in  behalf  of  imperilled  royalty,  ignited  the  popular 
fury.  The  red  republican  element  in  the  assembly 
gained  the  upf)er  hand,  and  the  reign  of  terror  inau- 
gurated a  republic,  which  was  baptized  in  the  royal 
blood  of  France.  The  excesses  of  the  Saturnalia 
roused  the  fears  which  led  to  reaction  resulting  in  a 
new  constitution.  And  now,  purified  through  the  ex- 
citement, the  people  turned  their  strength  and  courage 
to  uphold  the  honor  of  the  regenerated  nation.     Ap- 


NAPOLEON. 


106 


prehensive  of  the  effect  of  the  revolution  abroad,  more 
rulers  joined  the  coalition  against  the  republic;  but 
with  the  additional  stimulus  of  freedom  and  unre- 
stricted promotion  for  bravery  and  skill,  the  French 
armies  triumphed,  and  achieved  a  profitable  peace. 

Here  was  the  opportunity  for  genius  to  assert  itself, 
and  there  was  matchless  genius  present.  Napoleon 
had  given  a  signal  proof  of  military  ability  as  com- 
mander of  the  third  army  corps  in  Italy,  which  se- 
cured the  chief  glories  oi  1797,  and  his  subsequent 
victories  in  Egypt  exalted  him  into  a.  popular  idol. 
Aware  of  this,  and  confident  of  himself,  he  perceived 
that  by  boldly  joining  in  the  scramble  for  power  then 
taking  place  among  aspiring  directors  at  Paris,  his 
chances  for  success  looked  promising.  To  this  con- 
clusion, moreover,  he  was  driven  by  the  final  turn  of 
his  Egyptian  operations.  He  must  seek  a  new  field 
wherein  to  retrieve  himself  before  his  laurels  faded, 
and  there  was  none  so  attractive  as  Paris.  The 
control  of  the  armies  was  at  once  given  to  the  return- 
ing hero,  and  thus  armed  he  undertook  to  reorganize 
the  constitution  and  government,  assuming  dictatorial 
powers.  After  dazzling  the  people  with  further 
achievements,  he  availed  himself  of  a  critical  moment 
to  lift  himself  to  an  imperial  throne. 

The  chief  cause  of  his  extraordinary  success  may  be 
ascribed  to  that  feature  in  his  brilliant  military  tactics 
which,  in  its  improvement  upon  Macedonian  and 
Roman  methods,  aimed  to  concentrate  the  strength 
of  the  army  against  some  particular  point  of  the 
enemy's  line,  and  by  breaking  it,  to  create  confusion. 
To  this  he  added  an  unusual  rapidity  of  movement. 
In  his  first  campaign  as  consul  he  shrewdly  detached 
Russia  from  the  alliance  with  England  and  Austria, 
and  disconcerting  the  latter  by  his  tactics  won  an 
easy  victory.  After  parading  at  Vienna,  he  crushed 
the  Austrians  and  Russians  at  Austorlitz,  broke  up 
the  Grerman  empire,  and  sought  to  ensure  its  dismem- 
berment by  erecting  the  confederacy  of  the  Rhine, 


'ii 


.  Ni- 


106 


CKNTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


and  by  flattering  Bavaria  and  Wiirtemberg  with  the 
regal  dignity  also  bestowed  upon  his  brothers. 
Prussia  was  likewise  laid  in  tne  dust.  England  es- 
caped, owing  to  her  insular  position  and  to  her  navy, 
which  destroyed  the  French  fleet  intended  to  carry 
across  the  invaders.  For  one  more  effort  to  cast  off" 
the  yoke,  the  Austrian  emperor  had  to  do  penance 
with  the  hand  of  his  daughter. 

At  the  opening  of  the  second  decade  of  the  century, 
Napoleon  stood  at  the  summit  of  his  grandeur,  his 
imperial  dignity  consecrated  by  marriage  with  an  an- 
cient imperial  family,  and  with  the  world  at  his  feet. 
Unrivalled  as  a  military  leader,  he  had  given  evidence 
also  of  statesmanship.  Out  of  the  disorders  of  the 
revolution  he  had  reared  an  efficient  government, 
marked  by  admirable  reforms,  and  fostering  measures 
which  gave  impulse  to  industries  and  trade,  education 
and  arte.  The  Code  Napoleon  still  serves  as  a  model 
for  rising  nations ;  the  bank  of  France  stands  a  mon- 
ument to  his  ministration;  the  legion  of  honor  yet 
stirs  the  nation  on  to  glorious  deeds.  His  assumption 
of  despotic  power  was  a  step  backward  for  the  nation, 
but  a  salutary  lesson  in  some  respects,  as  it  gave  time 
for  the  necessary  reforms  and  institutions  to  take  root, 
and  better  prepare  the  people  for  self-government 
under  the  republic.  His  was  a  brilliant  rule  for 
France,  which,  however,  like  himself,  had  to  pay 
dearly  for  overreaching  ambition  and  excess.  Even 
the  turmoil,  devastation,  and  slaughter  inflicted  upon 
Europe  were  not  without  their  benefit,  rousing  the 
land  as  they  did  from  lethargy  to  activity  and 
progress. 

As  in  the  case  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  Kussia 
invoked  the  elements  to  turn  his  victories  into  disasters, 
to  dim  the  lustre  of  his  star.  The  allies  had  learned 
some  of  his  military  methods,  and  at  Leipzig  and 
Waterloo  they  used  against  him  his  own  tactics.  Their 
success  confirmed  for  a  time  the  enslavement  of  the 
people,  but  the  wave  of  progress  closes  round  them. 


/■ 


PETER  THE  GREAT. 


107 


The  dawning  spirit  of  democracy  in  France  asperted 
itself  by  deposing  Charles  X.  for  attempting  to  play 
the  autocrat.  The  subsequent  administration  was 
practically  republican,  and  it  was  chiefly  the  cherished 
prestige  enfolding  the  Napoleonic  name  that  made 
the  nation  once  more  accept,  under  the  illusive  syno- 
nym of  peace,  an  empire,  which  was  by  no  means  so 
inglorious  as  its  ending,  for  the  country  gained  honors 
in  the  Crimean  and  Italian  campaigns,  and  flourished 
internally,  but  the  source  of  its  great  prosperity  must 
be  traced  to  the  revolution. 

In  Russia,  the  beneficence  of  a  firm,  despotic  ruler- 
ship  was  signally  illustrated  under  Peter  the  Great, 
the  imperial  genius  who  raised  hiR  country  from  bar- 
baiism  and  insignificance  to  a  first-class  power.  Him- 
self thirsting  for  knowledge,  he  impressed  upon  his 
people,  by  force,  the  lessons  acquired  in  social,  admin- 
istrative, and  "military  reforv-is.  He  gave  them  a  fleet 
and  a  capital,  fostered  manufactures  aad  trade,  reduced 
the  nobles,  raised  the  masses,  favored  tolerance,  and 
encouraged  enterprise.  Hemmed  in  by  the  Tartars, 
Poles,  and  Swedes,  he  opened  a  way  to  the  Black  sea, 
extended  his  domains  westward,  and  plucking  victory 
from  the  defeats  inflicted  by  Charles  XII.,  partly  by 
shrewd  recourse  to  natural  elements,  he  gained  a  foot- 
hold along  the  Baltic.  It  was  left  to  women  to  suc- 
cessfully carry  on  the  work  begun  by  this  true  father 
of  his  country,  and  in  particular  to  perpetuate  his 
policy  of  territorial  aggrandizement,  until  Russia  be- 
came the  greatest  of  compact  empires.  Her  military 
and  colonial  bonds  are  stretching  wider,  despite  all  the 
efforts  of  her  apprehensive  neighbors.  They  forget  not 
that  she  extinguished  a  nation  in  the  partition  of  Poland, 
and  aims  to  quench  the  lingering  flame  of  Ottoman 
power.  The  elevation  of  her  people  has  lately  been 
marked  by  such  acts  as  the  liberation  of  the  serfs,  and 
now  they  are  struggling  for  a  share  in  a  government 
absorbed  by  hereditary  autocracy. 

The  war  of  1854-5,  undertaken  in  behalf  of  that 


11 


1 

■  f 

It 

i 
1 

if 


108 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


political  principle,  balance  of  power,  served  as  a  lever 
for  Italian  unification,  promoted  also  by  the  selfish 
policy  of  France.  The  ideas  implanted  since  the  time 
of  Napoleon,  and  agitated  by  Victor  Emmanuel,  found 
a  vigorous  exponent  in  Garibaldi,  who  joined  anew 
the  fragments  of  Apennine  nationality  shattered  by 
the  fall  of  the  western  empire.  A  judicious  alliance 
with  Prussia  in  1866,  and  a  seizure  of  opportunity 
during  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  perfected  the  con- 
solidation. 

The  humiliation  of  Austria  by  Napoleon,  and  the 
consequent  lapse  of  her  Teutonic  empire  into  a  con- 
federation, was  a  reconstruction  by  which  the  people 
managed  to  obtain  an  increased  share  of  the  political 
rights  brought  before  them  by  the  revolutions  in 
America  and  France.  The  gradual  efforts  of  the 
princes  to  regain  the  ceded  privileges  led  to  the  out- 
break of  1848,  which  obliged  them  to  retract  in  many 
directions.  The  declining  influence  of  Austria  en- 
couraged Prussia  to  intrigue  for  the  leadership  in 
Germany,  and  under  the  astute  guidance  of  Bismarck, 
supplemented  by  the  military  genius  of  Moltke,  she 
succeeded  in  vanquishing  her  rival.  The  Zollverein 
and  other  measures,  and  the  war  with  France,  served 
to  bind  closer  the  confederacy,  and  to  permit  the  re- 
vival of  the  German  empire,  although  in  a  more  lib- 
eral federal  form,  and  without  its  old  Koman  adjunct. 
The  success  centred  once  more  in  new  military  tactics, 
sustained  by  the  discipline  and  firmness  of  a  highly- 
educated  soldiery. 

Coming  to  our  own  time  and  country  for  a  per- 
sonal embodiment  of  national  power  and  progress,  we 
shaU  rarely  find  a  more  perfect  type  than  Frederick 
Billings,  in  whom  were  united,  in  a  remarkable  degree, 
the  three  primary  principles  of  progressive  force, 
underlying  all  the  highest  and  purest  forms  of  civil- 
ization, namely:  intellectual  power,  moral  power,  and 
the  power  of  wealth.     As  society  is  oi^anized,  and 


•li 


1 1 


•'^P'^LVS.-ilU  Jm  *■»  ''■■''- 


^yC^Zl-^ 


ft 


■%. 


1       » 


ir 


FREUKRICK   BII.LINdS. 


1U9 


social  devt'lojxn*  )1  sintained  and  encouraged,  we  find 
the  c\ariipl.  hcr«  j>r»-8etiUd  the  liigliost  type  of  man- 
ho>»d --tUe  morai  and  iotoUeciual  foifo  eacli  .spriri«jfinj5 
from  rt.Mfl  aiding  ti-e  <nJK'r;  and  tlio  financval,  follow- 
iiijji;  un<i«.T  »  jnst  and  proper  Hu'w>rdiuatji>;i  lo  the 
othpr<?,  li^  tilt  reward  of  w«'.l  <l»>.>i'j^.  \n  ld<'al  and 
staiuiarl  of  tliis  kind  is  refre>«hinjj;  inrleed,  l)<»t.)i  to  the 
bioijmpher  and  Lo  the  reader:  that  i>\'  ;i  rnaii  m  wljoni 
integrity  is  the  most  oonapicuous  characteristic  ;  who, 
while  on<l()\ved  witli  the  highest  intellcitual  ahiHty, 
lias  ev<n'  been  foremost  in  moral  and  religious  influ- 
ence, in  philanthropy,  in  pure  citizenship  and  pur<' 
statesmanship,  and  ;in  apostle  no  loss  of  litoraturo 
and  art  than  of  education  and  religion, 

"Measui'ed  by  every  standard,  he  was  a  great 
man,  and  in  the  years  that  are  to  come,  no  brighter 
name  will  adorn  the  roll  of  this  society  than  that  of 
Frederick  Billings."  Such  was  the  tribute  paid  by 
the  80ci«^ty  of  California  [)ioneers  to  one  who,  though 
for  many  years  a  non-resident,  ever  cherished  th*; 
fondest  recollections  for  the  state  in  which  first  ho 
won  repute,  and  by  whose  citizens  he  was  held  in 
most  affectionate  remembrance. 

Commencing  life  without  other  advantages  than  a 
good  educati  )n,  a  sound  constitution,  and  the  noble 
qualities  inherited  from  his  par(Mu;:j,  almost  from  the 
day  when  lie  landed  as  ojie  of  the  argonauts,  one 
of  the  youngest  of  the  argonauts,  on  thes(;  western 
vslum  s,  he  was  recounized  as  among  the  foronrr.^^  of 
legal  practitioners,  the  trusted  counsellor  'if  those 
whom  the  people  trustod,  on  whom  they  ■  •  /ked  as 
the  leaders  of  men  and  as  the  head  of  their  affairs. 

Returning  in  the  prinu;  of  njanhood  to  his  New 
ICngland  iuyine,  ho  raidced  amoncr  the  railnv  '  princes 
of  the  hind,  with  the  Vandrrbdts.  with  Ames,  with 
Huntington,  and  Villard.  j:>ut  it  in  as  a  wian,  ruther 
than  as  a,  lawyer  and  railroad  arlific  r,  and  above  all 
as  a  Chri.*ti;tis  man,  that  the  name  of  Krederick  Bil- 
lings has  lioconu;  a  bou^cdiold  word,  not  only  in  the 


>   I 


''!«*<4t-^:rji.i*i  .,»■,  ..V*-. 


6/ 


-^. 


''  ^,-— \ 


» 1 


..  i 


VRBDBRIOK  BILUNOS. 


1U9 


social  development  sustained  and  encouraged,  we  find 
the  example  here  presented  the  highest  type  of  man- 
hood— the  moral  and  intellectual  force  each  springing 
from  and  aiding  the  other;  and  the  financial,  follow- 
ing under  a  just  and  proper  subordination  to  the 
others,  as  the  reward  of  well-doing.  An  ideal  and 
standard  of  this  kind  is  refreshing  indeed,  both  to  the 
biographer  and  to  the  reader:  that  of  a  man  in  whom 
integrity  is  the  most  conspicuous  characteristic  ;  who, 
while  endowed  with  the  highest  intellectual  ability, 
has  ever  been  foremost  in  moral  and  religious  influ- 
ence, in  philanthropy,  in  pure  citizenship  and  pure 
statesmanship,  and  an  apostle  no  less  of  literature 
and  art  than  of  education  and  religion. 

"Measured  by  every  standard,  he  was  a  great 
man,  and  in  the  years  that  are  t  >  come,  no  brighter 
name  will  adorn  the  roll  of  this  society  than  that  of 
Frederick  Billings."  Such  was  the  tribute  paid  by 
the  society  of  California  pioneers  to  one  who,  though 
for  many  years  a  non-resident,  ever  cherished  the 
fondest  recollections  for  the  state  in  which  first  he 
won  repute,  and  by  whose  citizens  he  was  held  in 
most  affectionate  remembrance. 

Commencing  life  without  other  advantages  than  a 
good  education,  a  sound  constitution,  and  the  noble 
qualities  inherited  from  his  parents,  almost  from  the 
day  when  he  landed  as  one  of  the  argonauts,  one 
of  the  youngest  of  the  argonauts,  on  these  western 
shores,  he  was  recognized  as  among  the  foremost  of 
legal  practitioners,  the  trusted  counsellor  of  those 
whom  the  people  trusted,  on  whom  they  looked  as 
the  leaders  of  men  and  as  the  head  of  their  affairs. 

Returning  in  the  prime  of  manhood  to  his  New 
England  home,  he  ranked  among  the  railroad  princes 
of  the  land,  with  the  Vanderbilts,  with  Ames,  with 
Huntington,  and  Villard.  But  it  is  as  a  man,  rather 
than  as  a  lawyer  and  railroad  artificer,  and  above  all 
as  a  Christian  man,  that  the  name  of  Frederick  Bil- 
lings has  become  a  household  word,  not  only  in  the 


I: 

'^4  :  i 
■'^.  ■  i 

li 


;!'li 


BBS 


■iil 


( 


" 

] 

J 

1  : 

1;       1 

m  ■;    ; 

I 

^  j'.   i 

^^H' '' 

'.  i 

if   < 
I 

i  1 

i!  11 


110 


CENTRALIZATION  OP  POWER. 


land  of  his  nativity,  not  only  in  what  he  had  once  re- 
solved was  to  be  the  land  of  his  adoption,  but  through- 
out the  wide  realm  that  reaches  from  the  new  world 
metropolis  westward  to  the  city  of  the  Golden  Gate. 

Far  back  in  the  days  of  the  Plantagenets,  when 
the  third  Henry  sat  on  the  throne  of  England,  was 
entered  in  the  Domesday  book  the  name  of  Bellingo, 
or  as  originally  written,  Billing,  a  word  meaning  in 
the  Saxon  vernacular  "a  place  by  the  meadows." 
From  the  family  estate  was  derived  its  name,  and  a 
goodly  estate  it  was — one  of  the  fairest  spots  in  tlu; 
fair  county  of  Northampton,  but  a  few  miles  distant 
from  its  county-seat  and  from  time  almost  immemo- 
rial of  historic  interest. 

In  the  sixth  year  of  Henry  III — that  is,  in  1221 
— was  levied  between  Sarah,  the  daughter  of  Warine 
Falconer,  demandant,  and  Henry  de  Billing  and 
Wimar  his  wife,  deforciants,  a  fine  of  a  moiety  of 
three  virgates  of  land  in  Rushden,  Northamptonshire, 
where  also  Henry  held  from  William,  earl  of  Ferrars, 
a  sixth  of  one  knight's  fee.  And  now  for  more  than 
two  centuries  there  is  a  gap  in  the  fiimily  annals, 
until,  about  1460,  we  find  that  one  John  Billing  was 
also  the  owner  of  lands  in  Rushden,  and  a  patron  of 
the  church  of  Colly- Weston,  About  the  same  date 
his  eldest  son,  Sir  Thomas,  was  knighted  for  true  and 
loyal  service  rendered  the  Lancastrian  party  in  the 
wars  of  the  roses,  appearing  in  14G6  at  the  bar  of  the 
house  of  lords  as  leading  counsel  for  Henry  VI. 
Later  he  was  law  adviser  in  chief  to  Edward  IV,  and 
in  1465  was  appointed  lord  chief  justice  of  the  king's 
bench.  His  death  in  1481  was  caused  by  apoplexy; 
and  to  this  day  may  be  seen  at  Wappenham  church 
the  marble  slab  on  which  his  figure  was  graven,  trans- 
ferred to  this  Northamptonshire  parish  from  the 
abbey  of  Bittlesden,  where  his  remains  were  laid  at 
rest.  Still  also  in  Wappenham  parish  stands  his  an- 
cient manor  house,  now  occupied  by  a  thrifty  yeoman 
of  the  shire.     To  this  manor,  with  its  surrounding 


FREDERICK  BILUNGS. 


Ill 


estates,  succeeded  his  eldest  son,  Thomas,  who,  dying 
in  15C8,  left  his  four  daughters  as  co-heiresses,  by 
whose  marriage  the  land  passed  into  other  families. 

Six  more  generations,  and  we  come  to  William 
Billing,  the  first  one  of  the  race  who  came  to  the 
western  world,  disposing  of  his  lands  at  Taunton 
about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
removing  thence  to  Massachusetts,  where  he  was  one 
of  the  original  owners  of  the  site  on  which  was  built 
the  town  of  Lancaster.  In  1658  we  find  him  at 
Dorchester,  where  he  married,  becoming  later  one  of 
the  largest  landed  proprietors  in  Stonington,  Connec- 
ticut, and  several  neighboring  towns.  In  New 
London  his  grandson  Samuel  purchased  and  laid  out 
as  a  separate  town  a  certain  tract  of  land  belonging 
to  the  Mohegans.  In  1781,  when  New  London  was 
burned  by  the  British,  under  command  of  the  traitor 
Benedict  Arnold,  Samuel  was  one  of  those  who  came 
to  its  defense,  and  who  perished  in  the  massacre  that 
followed.  Ji'z  name  is  one  of  those  inscribed  on  a 
marble  slab  in  the  monument  by  which  the  event  was 
commemorated.  His  youngest  son,  John,  was  in 
early  life  a  seafaring  man,  voyaging  from  New  Lon- 
don to  the  West  Indies;  and  in  1775  joined  the  con- 
tinental army,  settling  later  in  Vermont,  where,  at 
Royalton,  he  ended  his  days,  in  August  1832.  Gel, 
the  eighth  of  his  eleven  children,  was  a  merchant  of 
Royalton,  where  Frederick  Billings,  his  third  son, 
was  born  on  the  27th  day  of  September,  1823.  His 
wife,  Sophia  Wetherbe,  was  the  daughter  of  Jason 
Wetherbe,  of  Charlestown,  New  Hampshire,  whose 
father  served  with  distinction  as  a  captain  in  the 
revolutionary  war ;  her  mother  being  the  daughter  of 
Captain  Farvvell,  one  of  the  heroes  of  Bunker  hill. 
A.mong  her  ancestors  was  John  Wetherbe,  one  of  the 
earliest  settlers  of  Marlborough,  Massachusetts,  and  a 
soldier  in  King  Philip's  war. 

In  the  order  of  their  birth  the  names  of  Oel's 
children  were  Edward  Horatio,  a   lawyer  and  law 


Sif 


m 


p 


\n 


112 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


partner  of  Oliver  P.  Chandler,  of  Woodstock,  Ver- 
mont ;  Laura,  who  died  in  San  Francisco  a  few  days 
after  her  arrival  of  Panamd.  fever,  contracted  while 
detained  at  the  Isthmus ;  Charles  Jason,  a  banker  of 
Fitch  burg,  Massachusetts;  Frederick,  the  subject  of 
our  biography;  Sophia  Farwell,  who  married  a  Massa- 
chusetts representative  in  congress ;  Franklin  Noble, 
a  Woodstock  merchant ;  Richard  Oel,  a  civil  engineer 
who  met  his  death  from  an  accident  in  1852:  ^Hza- 
beth  Sprague ;  and  Oliver  Phelps  Chandler,  a  wyer 
and  a  graduate  of  the  university  of  Vermont. 

In  1835,  the  family  moved  to  Woodstock.  Here 
Frederick  commenced  his  education  at  the  public 
school,  completing  it  at  the  Kimball  academy  in 
Meriden,  N.  H.,  and  at  the  university  of  Vermont, 
where  he  graduated  in  the  alass  of  1844.  Among  his 
fellow-students  were  many  who  afterwards  became 
prominent  in  professional  and  political  circles:  such 
men  as  Bishop  Howe  of  South  Carolina,  and  William 
Collamer  of  Woodstock.  An  apt  and  brilliant  scholar, 
he  was  a  favorite  alike  with  classmates  and  professors, 
and  made  for  himself  a  host  of  friends. 

Said  the  president  of  the  university,  rendering  his 
tribute  of  respect,  in  his  funeral  address:  "He  was 
not  only  largely  gifted,  but  most  happily  gifted  with 
those  diverse  and  related  gifts  which  at  once  enhance 
and  supplement  each  other,  and  together  make  a  man 
whom  other  men  can  at  once  admire  and  love.  En- 
tering college  some  years  after  he  had  graduated,  I 
found  his  fame  still  fresh  in  college  tradition ;  the 
fame  of  his  scholarship,  his  oratory,  his  popularity, 
his  intellectual  and  social  leadershij).  Of  the  great 
men  of  those  times — and  no  American  college  then 
had  greater — Wheeler  and  Marsh,  and  Torrey  and 
Benedict,  youthful  as  he  was,  he  was  almost  as  much 
the  companion  as  the  pupil.  Everybody  who  knew 
him  in  those  early  days  foresaw  his  brilliant  career. 
What  direction  it  would  take  no  one  knew.  It  would 
not  have  surprised  anyone  to  have  it  prophesied  of 


/^ 


FREDERICK  BILUNGS. 


118 


him  that  he  would  be  a  leading  advocate,  or  an  emi- 
nent statesman,  a  preacher  of  commanding  influence, 
a  literary  celebrity,  or  what  he  actually  became,  a 
magnate  in  the  world  of  business;  but  that  some- 
'vhere,  in  whatever  field  he  might  occupy  himself,  he 
would  be  a  king  of  men  everyone  foreknew." 

His  course  at  college  ended,  Mr  Billings  began  to 
prepare  for  his  chosen  profession  of  the  law,  entering 
the  office  of  O.  P.  Chandler  at  Woodstock,  and  in 
1848  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  Meanwhile  he  had 
been  appointed  civil  and  military  secretary  to  Gov- 
ernor Horace  Eaton,  serving  in  that  capacity  during 
his  two  years'  term  of  office. 

But  it  was  not  in  Vermont  that  he  was  destined  to 
make  his  mark  as  a  lawyer,  though  doubtless  he 
would  have  made  it,  had  he  selected  his  native  state 
as  the  sphere  of  his  professional  labors.  California 
was  the  land  in  which  his  lot  was  to  be  cast,  and  in 
the  bar  of  that  state  he  became  one  of  the  ablest 
members. 

It  was  in  the  spring  of  1849  that  Mr  Billings 
landed  in  California.  At  that  time  wealth  and  pre- 
ferment awaited  the  successful  lawyer  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  Mr  Billings  was  one  of  those  men  who 
could  not  fail  of  success.  Immediately  on  his  arrival 
he  opened  an  office  in  Portsmouth  square,  and  after 
practising  for  a  time  alone  formed  a  partnership 
with  Archibald  C.  Peachy,  under  the  firm  name  of 
Peachy  and  Billings.  From  the  first  Mr  Billings 
ranked  foremost  among  the  practitioners  of  the 
metropolis,  not  as  a  court  lawyer,  nor  indeed  as  an 
office  lawyer,  for  he  avoided  all  the  drudgery  of  his 
profession,  but  as  the  legal  adviser  of  men  of  business 
where  important  interests  were  involved.  Of  the 
estimation  in  whicli  he  was  held  no  better  proof  can 
be  given  than  his  appointment  as  counsellor  to  Gen- 
eral Riley,  and  as  attorney-general  to  the  department 
of  which  he  was  in  charge.  Captain  Henry  W.. 
Halleck,   who  in  later  years,  as  commander-in-chief 


C.  B.-I.    8 


\% 


i 


tl 


1 


u 


^?-- 


H 


l-r  tj-  t*- 


t     , 


'   I 


Hi 


v.. 


114 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


'! 


I'll 


of  the  union  forces,  played  so  prominent  a  part  in 
the  drama  of  the  rebellion,  was  then  the  military 
secretary  of  California,  and  with  him  Mr  Billings 
also  formed  a  partnership,  and  what  proved  to  be 
a  life-long  friendship.  Soon  afterward  Trenor  W. 
Park  was  admitted,  and  for  many  years  Halleck, 
Peachy,  Billings,  and  Park  were  recognized  as  the 
leading  firm  in  San  Francisco.  When  I  add  that 
this  combination  was  further  strengthened  by  the 
services  of  Oscar  L.  Shaffer,  it  is  no  wonder  that 
their  business  assumed  enormous  proportions,  was  by 
far  the  largest  and  most  lucrative  in  a  city  famous  for 
its  legal  talent  no  less  than  for  its  costly  and  pro- 
tracted litigation. 

The  necessity  of  a  substantial  and  fire-proof  build- 
ing for  offices  was  now  imperative,  and  determined 
the  firm  to  build,  at  a  cost  of  $400,000,  Montgomery 
block,  which  was  for  years  one  of  the  finest,  and  cer- 
tainly the  most  famous  structure  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. Here,  as  to-day,  were  the  chambers  of  many 
a  leader  of  the  bar,  and  of  more  who  aspired  to  be 
leaders;  here  were  afterward  the  headquarters  of 
the  San  Francisco  Stock  exchange ;  and  here,  on  the 
corner  of  Montgomery  and  Washington  streets,  yet 
stands  the  well-known  Bank  exchange  of  historic 
fame. 

Of  the  many  leading  cases  in  which  Mr  Billings' 
firm  were  engaged  I  will  mention  only  one,  famous 
in  the  legal  annals  of  California,  involving  as  it  did 
the  title  to  the  Almaden  quicksilver  mine,  with  two 
square  leagues  of  adjoining  land.  After  the  cession 
of  California  to  the  United  States,  a  commission  was 
appointed  to  adjust  unsettled  land  claims,  whereupon 
the  discoverer  of  the  mine  filed  a  petition  asking  that 
his  claim  be  confirmed.  The  property  was  valued  at 
several  million  dollars ;  and  that  it  was  not  over- 
valued was  sufficiently  proved  by  the  output  of  the 
mine,  exceeding  for  a  number  of  years  that  of  any 
quicksilver  deposit  in  the  world.    Through  the  efforts 


'A 


FREDERICK  BILUNG8. 


lift 


of  Mr  Billings  and  his  associates,  who  appeared  as 
counsel  for  the  petitioners,  the  title  to  the  mine  was 
confirmed  by  the  commission,  but  denied  to  the  land. 
With  this  decision  neither  party  was  satisfied,  and  an 
appeal  being  taken  to  the  United  States  district 
court,  one  of  those  legal  contests  ensued  which  have 
since  become  historic.  But  with  the  further  history 
of  the  case  we  are  not  concerned.  Rather  let  us  hear 
the  opinion  of  others  as  to  Mr  Billings'  professional 
career,  and  the  standing  of  his  firm  in  the  community. 
From  the  report  of  the  society  of  California  pioneers, 
already  mentioned,  I  extract  the  following: 

"  In  his  profession  as  an  advisor  and  counsellor  he 
stood  among  the  first.  He  was  as  thoroughly  read 
as  any  young  lawyer  ever  admitted  to  the  bar  of  the 
state;  but  the  drudgery  of  the  profession  is  not 
learned  from  text  books,  and  the  business  that 
crowded  upon  him  as  counsellor,  almost  from  the  day 
he  put  out  his  modest  sign,  prevented  him  from 
becoming  a  lawyer  especially  skilled  in  the  minor 
details  of  his  calling.  The  times  were  flush  and  fees 
were  large.  One  client,  a  company,  paid  the  firm 
$30,000  a  year  as  a  retainer.  On  the  other  hand, 
personal  expenses  reached  from  $1,500  to  $2,000  a 
month.  These  were  truly  the  days  of  old,  the  days  of 
gold,  the  days  of  '49." 

In  connection  with  the  Almaden  case  it  may  here 
be  mentioned  that  Mr  Billings  himself  secured  in 
Mexico  the  evidence  of  a  number  of  statesmen  whose 
testimony  would  be  of  value.  For  their  accommo- 
dation he  specially  chartered  steamers  to  Mazatlan, 
and  thence  to  San  Francisco,  entertaining  them  for 
months  in  princely  fashion,  and  sending  them  home 
at  a  cost  of  more  than  $200,000. 

From  the  firm  of  which  Mr  Billings  was  the 
founder,  Park  was  the  first  one  to  withdraw,  and 
this  he  did  to  form  a  partnership  with  Shafter  and 
Heydenfeldt.  The  remaining  members  continued  to 
practise  together  until  1861,  when  by  mutual  consent 


!  1 


I  <1  !• 

\h-\ '  n 


116 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


l!  il 


the  nrm  was  dissolved.  Early  in  that  year  Mr  Bil- 
lings was  selected  by  General  Frdmont,  on  account 
of  his  rare  diplomatic  ability,  to  accompany  him  to 
England,  with  » view  to  dispose  to  a  British  syndi- 
cate of  the  general's  Mariposa  estate,  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  valuable  in  California.  But  when 
the  sale  was  all  but  consummated,  the  civil  war  broke 
out,  and  without  apparent  reason,  except  for  the  pro- 
verbial timidity  of  capitalists,  the  syndicate  withdrew 
from  further  negotiations. 

Returning  to  the  states  in  1 862,  the  following  year 
again  saw  Mr  Billings  in  California,  accompanied  by 
his  bride,  Miss  Julia  Parmly  of  New  York  city,  of 
whom  further  mention  will  be  made  elsewhere  in  this 
biography.  But,  his  health  becoming  impaired,  he 
returned  to  New  York  for  rest  and  change. 

In  March  1865,  we  find  him  once  more  en  route 
for  California,  voyaging  by  way  of  the  straits  of 
Magellan,  in  a  steamer  sent  forth  to  take  her  place 
on  the  Panamd  route.  Among  his  fellow-passengers 
was  Professor  Agassiz,  and  with  the  great  scientist 
he  formed  one  of  those  sincere  and  lasting  friendships 
which  death  alone  can  sever.  After  a  few  months 
passed  in  San  Francisco,  he  made  an  overland  tour  of 
the  north-west,  passing  through  Oregon,  Washington, 
and  British  Columbia,  up  the  Columbia  river  and 
through  Puget  sound.  It  needed  not  a  man  of  his 
quick  perception  to  appreciate  the  vast  resources  of 
this  virgin  and  almost  unpeopled  region,  its  soil  and 
situation,  its  forests,  its  rivers,  and  harbors ;  nor  coulJ 
he  fail  to  notice  its  lack  of  facilities  for  communication, 
and  especially  of  direct  comunication  with  the  east 
Here  we  have  the  key  to  his  later  connection,  as  will 
presently  be  related,  with  the  Northern  Pacific  rail- 
road. 

But  still  his  health  did  not  improve,  and  acting 
under  medical  advice,  in  1866  he  returned  to  New 
York,  soon  afterward  making  his  home  at  Woodstock, 
where,  except  for  the  time  required  by  his  duties  in 


FREDERICK  BILUNGS. 


117 


the  metropolis,  were  passed  the  remainder  of  his 
days,  though  with  occasional  visits  to  the  Pacific 
coast. 

It  was  with  the  greatest  reluctance  and  with  pro- 
found regret  that  Mr  Billings  severed  his  connection 
with  California.  Apart  from  his  profession,  of  which 
he  was  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  respected  members, 
he  had  been  identified  with  the  earlier  history  of  the 
state,  had  been  closely  connected  with  her  leading 
institutions,  civil,  social,  and  religious.  In  the  stirring 
events  which  marked  the  formative  period  of  her 
career,  there  was  no  more  active  and  influential  citi- 
zen, none  more  earnest  in  promoting  measures  for  the 
common  good,  in  establishing  law  and  order,  and  in 
fostering  all  worthy  enterprises  that  tended  to  give 
stability  to  a  new  and  ambitious  commonwealth. 

Especially  was  his  influence  felt  in  combating  those 
who,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  would  have  estab- 
lished here  a  Pacific  coast  republic.  For  this  purpose 
he  labored  in  connection  with  Thomas  Starr  King. 
Many  were  the  addresses  which  he  delivered,  and 
never  did  he  fail  to  impress  his  audiences  with  the 
power  of  his  convictions,  to  kindle  their  patriotism  by 
his  earnest  and  eloquent  appeals,  f^ays  one  who  knew 
him  well:  "As  an  orator,  it  is  diffic  ill  to  speak  of  him 
without  overstepping  the  bounds  of  eulogy.  He  was 
contemporary  with  Baker,  Tr:.cy,  Stanley,  Foote,  and 
a  host  of  other  brilliant  rhetoricians.  He  was  not  a 
frequent  speaker.  His  California  life  was  so  full  that 
it  gave  him  no  time  to  study  and  practise  the  graces 
of  oratory;  nor  had  he  the  ambition  to  shine  as  an 
orator,  and  it  was  only  when  the  occasion  arose  that 
seemed  to  demand  his  appearance,  that  he  reluctantly 
mounted  the  rostrum.  When  he  did  so  he  was 
always  full  of  his  subject,  and  pouring  it  forth  in  fer- 
vid diction  until  the  storm  of  his  eloquence  inspired 
his  audience,  from  which  moment  he  played  upon 
them  at  will.  He  spoke  during  the  war  from  the 
same  platform  with  Starr  King,  and  had  no  more 


u 


i 


1 


m 


!  ■  .f 


i. 


Jill 


.'S 


!  I' 

'If 


118 


CENTRALIZATION  OF   POWER. 


enthnsiastic  auditor  than  Mr  King  himself.  Had  he 
given  himself  to  oratory,  and  made  it  the  profession 
of  his  life,  his  friends  believe  that  no  orator  of  modem 
times  would  have  ranked  as  his  superior." 

That  the  reader  may  judge  for  himself  as  to  Mr 
Billings'  oratorical  powers,  I  will  give  here  an  extract 
from  the  speech  in  which  he  nominated  George  P. 
Edmunds  for  the  presidency,  at  the  republican  con- 
vention of  1880: 

"Mr  President  and  Oentlemen  of  the  Convention:  That  quiet  atate  in 
New  England,  earliest  born  into  the  union  after  the  old  thirteen,  whoM 
people  have  always  been  loyal  to  liberty,  enthusiastically  urges  the  name  of 
her  most  distinguished  son  as  the  fittest  man  to  be  InscriMd  in  the  presi- 
dentiid  banner.  Her  delegates  bring  that  message  here  with  joy  and  pride 
alike,  supreme  because  they  know  no  state  has  a  better  right  to  name  a 
republican  candidate,  and  that  no  state  can  make  a  better  man.  For  the 
first  time  in  her  history,  although  always  in  the  advance  guard  of  the  repub- 
lican hosts,  Vermont  thus  comes  to  the  front  in  a  national  convention. 
She  thus  comes,  not  seeking  a  reward  for  the  loyaity  which  has  never 
faltered  in  years  gone  by,  not  making  a  condition  of  the  loyalty  which  is 
nevor  to  falter  in  the  years  to  come.  Her  republicanism  is  nut  born  of 
selfishness — it  is  bred  in  her  bone,  and  it  runs  in  her  blood.  Nor  does  she 
thus  come  because  the  man  she  names  for  the  presidency  sprang  from  her 
loins.  He  is  no  longer  hers.  He  is  the  possession  and  the  pride  of  the 
nation.  Still  more,  Vermont  would  call  on  her  everlasting  mountains  to 
fall  on  ber  and  hide  her  before  she  would  thrust  any  local  pride  or  selfish 
ambition  into  the  councils  of  this  critical  epoch.  Vermont  rises  to  the 
height  of  the  occasion.  She  looks  backward  through  the  years;  she  looks 
forward  through  the  years;  and  she  feels  the  infinite  peril,  the  ignominy 
and  the  crime  of  turiJng  over  the  government  to  the  administration  of  a  revo- 
lutionary democracy.  She  longs  tor  victory — the  victory  of  patriotism  at  the 
polls  and  the  victory  of  statesmanship  after  the  polls.  And  she  implores  this 
convention  to  let  no  unnecessary  issues,  to  let  no  discords  born  in  hot  rival- 
ries, to  let  no  personal  ambition,  to  let  no  dissensions,  to  let  no  anythinga  put 
the  victory  in  peril.  She  prays  you  to  make  that  victory  secure  by  going 
straight  to  the  conscience  and  intelligence  of  the  people,  not  only  by  your 
platform  ringing  with  honor  and  honesty,  but  by  putting  on  that  platform  a 
candidate  far  better  than  the  platform,  because  known  everywhere  through 
the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land  as  its  very  incarnation,  long  tried  and  never 
found  wanting.  A  candidate  weak  nowhere,  strong  everywhere,  who  will 
compact  the  party,  bring  every  independent  into  line,  and  win  recruits  even 
from  the  enemy.  That  is  victory  here  and  now,  victory  for  years  to  come. 
Any  other  course  forebodes  disaster  and  courts  defeat  for  years  to  come.  Such 
a  candidate,  healing  all  dissensions,  of  wondrous  ability,  of  aggressive 
integrity,  of  the  largest  experience  in  public  affairs,  of  the  highest  states- 
manship, is  that  brave,  clean,  vigilant  man,  on  whom  rests  no  shadow  of 
reproach,  to  whom  in  every  crisis  in  the  councils  of  the  nation  we  turn 
with  joy  and  confidence,  the  central  figure  and  leader  of  the  senate — the 
foremost  type  and  defendei  of  all  that  is  best  in  the  republican  faith,  the 
ideal  candidate,  seeking  not  the  ofiice,  worthy  of  the  oest  days  of  this 
republic,  having  the  promise  and  the  potency  of  victory,  is  George  F. 
Edmunds." 

By  his  friends  he  was  repeatedly  urged  to  accept 
preferment,  and  especially  the  nomination  for  congress; 


FREDERICK   BILLINGS. 


119 


but  without  avail.  All  such  requests  he  firmly  but 
courteously  refused,  for  to  mingle  in  the  muddy 
stream  of  politics,  to  use  such  wiles  and  artifices  as 
were  needed  to  insure  success  in  the  early  days  of 
California,  and  indeed  are  needed  to  a  far  greater 
degree  at  the  present  time,  was  utterly  foreign  to  his 
nature.  Perhaps  it  was  for  this  very  reason  that  he 
was  held  in  such  repute  by  both  houses  of  the  legis- 
lature, and  that  when  Lincoln  was  reconstructing  the 
cabinet  for  his  second  term,  a  joint  resolution  was 

Eaased  recommending  Mr  Billings  for  a  place.  That 
e  would  have  been  appointed,  had  the  president 
lived,  is  beyond  doubt,  for  only  two  days  before  his 
r.ssassination  he  promised  a  member  of  the  California 
delegation  that  the  request  should  be  granted.  Dur- 
ing Johnson's  regime  a  similar  resolution  was  passed, 
and  again  during  that  of  general  Grant,  with  whom, 
in  his  later  years,  he  lived  as  a  neighbor  in  New  York 
city,  and  on  terms  of  cordial  intimacy. 

But  if,  during  his  sojourn  in  California,  the  state 
had  cause  to  regret  his  absence  from  her  halls  of 
legislature,  in  other  respects  there  were  none  to  whom 
she  has  become  so  deeply  indebted.  To  social,  reli- 
gious, and  educational  institutions  he  extended  a  help- 
ing hand,  for  such  he  esteemed  as  the  greatest  factors 
of  civilization.  Of  the  first  presbyterian  church  of 
San  Francisco,  organized  in  1850  in  a  tent  on  Stock- 
ton street,  he  was  one  of  the  founders,  and  from  his 
purse  came  most  of  the  money  with  which  that  body 
afterward  erected  one  ofthe  most  attractive  structures 
in  the  city.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  members 
of  the  board  of  education,  and  largely  through  his 
thoughtful  efforts  in  their  behalf,  the  public  schools 
were  brought  to  a  state  of  efficiency.  At  the  dedi- 
cation, in  September  1854,  of  the  schoolhouse  at 
North  beach,  he  delivered  an  address,  which  was  pub- 
lished at  iue  request  of  the  mayor  and  other  promi- 
ient  citizens  before  whom  it  was  spoken.  A  few  ex- 
tracts will  here  be  given: 


i' 


r  1 


t  •  (3 

Si 


H 


li  I'  '  '' 


iy  t      I 


120 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


"It  is  moat  fit  that  the  day  which  witneasea  the  dedication  of  thia  fine 
atruotore  to  the  purpoae  of  ita  building  ahould  be  marked  with  ceremony. 
Were  it  the  tentn  or  twentieth,  inateM  of  the  aeoond,  aubatantial  edifice 
complete  and  ready  for  the  education  of  the  children  of  our  city,  atill  ahould 
the  event  be  the  occaaion  of  rejoicing.  The  firat  atep,  the  aecond  atep,  and 
all  ateps,  in  the  beginning  and  progreaa  of  the  work,  to  celebrate  whoM 
efiicient  prosecution  we  come  together  to-day,  will  be  remembered  to  the 
praise  of  our  city  in  her  history — and  what  ia  worthy  of  hiatory  may  well 
redeem  an  hour  from  the  present. 

"To  be  sure,  ourbuildmg  ia  no  crystal  palace,  to  inaugurate  whoae  opening 
the  president  puts  off  the  cares  of  government,  and  the  queen  deacenda  frooi 
her  throne;  no  auch  muliltuue  is  here  as  gathera  to  witness  the  laying  of  thv 
corner-stone  or  capstone  of  the  ereat  monument;  and,  perhaps,  the  clipper 
ship,  gay  with  flags,  glides  into  ner  element  amid  the  cheers  of  a  larger 
assemblage  than  is  present  here.  But  neither  event,  however  more  imposing 
in  its  outward  circumstance,  is  half  so  great  in  its  intrinsic  worth  and  sig- 
nificance as  this  event  of  to-day.  Give  ua  the  apirit  and  the  intelligence  of 
which  this  building  is  both  a  sign  and  a  promise,  and  we  are  sure  to  have  the 
ship,  the  monument,  and  oven  the  palace;  but  take  away  the  schoolhouae — 
tell  ua  that  it  ia  not  in  tlie  land — and  never  will  there  be  occasion  for  a  gath- 
ering to  behold  the  great  work  finished  or  the  great  deed  done.  The  char- 
acter  that  underlies  them  is  certain  to  be  wanting. 

"  Humble  may  be  the  Fchoolhouse — rudely  constructed,  of  logs,  perhaps 
— as  in  the  early  days  ot  now  settlements;  with  crevices  so  large  and  so 
numerous  that,  m  a  New  England  winter,  even  the  mammoth  fire-place, 
blazing  with  its  hack  loga  and  fore  logs  and  aplit  wood  above  and  chips 
beneath,  can  hardly  keep  the  cold  without.  And  far  apart  may  these  rude 
structures  be:  placed  on  the  side  or  summit  of  a  bleak  hill  difficult  of  acceaa 
— honestly  and  impartially  placed  there  because  the  spot  is  the  centre  of  the 
district  or  township, — and  tliithcr  through  the  deep  snows  the  big  sled  drawn 
by  the  big  oxen  may  take  the  little  children  in  the  morning  who  comn  not 
home  until  night.  Or,  advancing  a  step  frrther  in  the  progress  of  the  settle- 
ments — when,  with  the  childrcu  giown  up  and  new  settlers  arrived,  the  means 
arid  the  population  of  the  township  have  multiplied,  and  the  districts  are  in- 
creased in  number  and  diminished  in  size,  and  here  and  there  a  village  ia 
seen— we  may  behold  more  pretending  schoolhouses;  not  so  far  apart;  built 
of  framed  timber,  painfully  square  in  shape;  having  small  windows  of  not 
large  panes  of  glass,  high  up  from  the  ground;  some  of  them  aristocratic 
enougn  to  be  clapboarded  and  painted  cheap  red;  with  the  honest  old  fire- 
place generally  on  the  right  of  the  door  as  you  entered,  closed  np  to  give 
wa  '  to  the  stove — a  change  that  is  not  an  improvement.  Or,  taking  a  long 
st?  le  and  coming  down  to  our  own  day,  wo  may  find  schoolhouses  every- 
wL  re:  in  the  country  dotting  the  hill-sides,  and  making  cheerful  the  valleys; 
in  >ur  cities,  along  shaded  streets,  and  in  prominent  places,  and  wherever 
ne«  ^dd;  attracting  attention  by  their  number  and  architectural  beauty; 
<3ui  mnded  with  grounds  tastefully  arranged,  where  grounds  can  be  had; 
bui  i;of  the  best  material,  without  regard  to  expense,  and  every  consideration 
of  h  'ilth,  and  comfort,  and  beauty  consulted.  But  whether  built  of  loga,  or 
f  ram  ^d  timber,  or  brick,  or  stone;  whether  far  apart  or  near,  painted  or 
unpa.  ited;  good,  bad  or  indifferent,  the  schoolhouse  marks  the  spirit,  in- 
telligence, a!kd  character  of  the  people.  It  comes  in  point  of  time,  aave  the 
house  in  which  we  were  born,  before  all  otiicr  structures,  and  is  at  the  begin- 
ning of  all  that  is  good  and  great  in  any  community. 

"I  am  saying  no  new  thing.  I  am  glad  tSat  I  am  not.  Our  fathers  acted 
on  this  principle.  They  hardly  provided  shelicr  for  their  heads  before  their 
axes  resounded  in  the  forests,  felling  the  trees  for  the  schoolhouse;  and 
their  precepts  and  examples  have  not  been  lost  on  their  children.  Our 
country  has  been  called  a  country  of  schoolhouses.  In  old  states  and  new 
states,  individuals,  associations,  and  legislatures  contribute  to  the  cause  of 
popular  education.  It  f  a  leading  feature  in  the  policy  of  our  government; 
our  people  cheerfully  are  taxod  for  it;  our  great  men  have  enforced  it,  and 


FREDERICK  BILUNOS. 


ISl 


nothing  new  ia  to  be  said  of  it  Everybody  knows  that  the  common  aohool 
is  to  society  and  the  state  what  the  rich  quartz  is  to  the  placers — the  matrix, 
the  great  original  source  of  wealth;  that  they  are  the  lighthouses  of  intelli< 
gence;  the  fortresses,  the  strongholds  of  virtue;  that  the  children  educated 
there  are  the  great  standing  army  of  our  country,  the  army  that  makes  the 
other  army  that  achieves  the  victories  of  war,  and  the  still  other  and  greater 
army  that  achieves  the  gentler  and  better  victories  of  peace. 

"But  the  very  commonness  of  these  schools  prevents,  in  a  great  measure, 
our  realizing  their  vast  worth  and  significance;  their  intimate  connection 
with,  and  control  over,  the  character  of  a  people;  the  necessity  of  their 
creation,  and  the  wisdom  of  their  perpetuation.  It  is  because  the  sun  rises 
every  morning  that  we  fail  to  hail  his  coming  with  acclamation.  It  is  because 
the  air  we  breathe  is  so  free  that  we  think  so  little  of  its  presence  and 
necessity.  It  is  the  rare  thing,  the  thing  that  occurs  at  long  intervals,  that 
arrests  our  attention.  Men  watch  and  wait  for  the  yearly  eclipse,  and  almost 
forgot  the  every-day  sun,  'the  unhasting  still  unrestiua  sun.' 

"Thankful  should  we  be  to  Providence  that  great  blessings  are  so  multi« 
plied  to  U3  that  we  have  no  room  for  a  holiday,  a  day  of  rejoicing  for  each; 
thankful  that  great  events  are  not  so  rare  that  each  in  its  coming  can  be  wel« 
comed  with  banks  closed,  and  the  tide  of  business  stayed,  and  gay  proces* 
sions  in  our  streets.     It  speaks  infinitely  for  the  healthful   industry  and 

Prosperity  of  a  people,  if  they  yield  not  much  to  exuitement  and  display, 
he  top  spins  the  fastest  when  its  motion  can  hardly  be  seen;  the  machinery 
works  best  when  it  makes  the  least  noise. 

"But  sometimes  it  is  well  to  stop  and  rejoice.  Such  an  occasion  is  this 
that  assembles  us  to-day.  No  need  is  there  of  a  great  gathering  or  much 
ado;  no  grand  demon^/tration  is  called  fur.  But  it  ia  well  that  some  should 
assemble  to  hail  the  completion  of  this  structure;  to  welcome  it  to  the 
present  and  commend  it  to  the  future.  Not  simply  on  account  of  the  build- 
ing, however  well  adapted  to  its  purposes,  and  however  much  an  ornament 
to  the  city.  Yet  the  building  is  a  most  praiseworthy  structure;  right  royal, 
•contrasted  with  those  of  the  early  days  of  our  country,  and  comparing  most 
favorably  with  the  best  of  our  own  day — those  of  the  city  of  Boston,  so 
munificeut  in  her  provisions  for  common-school  education,  and  so  noted  for 
Iier  common -school  buildings.  To  one  who  remembers  the  confined  air,  the 
uncomfortable  seats,  the  high  desks,  and  the  distracting  noise  of  the  single 
room  cf  the  schoolhouse  of  old,  it  is  a  relief  to  look  at  this  building,  com- 
bining all  the  conveniences,  and  comforts,  and  improvements  of  modem 
times.  To  enjoy  the  luxury  of  going  to  school  in  such  a  schoolhouse  wonld 
be  a  sufficient  inducement  for  me,  if  I  could  sing,  to  strike  up  the  song, 

•*  0,  would  I  were  a  boy  ag- In," 

in  which  doubtless  all  present  would  join,  save,  perhaps,  the  ladies  and  the 
children. 

"But  the  building  ia  to  be  rejoiced  over,  not  so  much  for  what  it  is,  as  for 
what  it  indicates;  not  so  much  for  what  it  speaks  fur  itself,  as  for  the  city 
that  built  it,  and  not  only  tlie  city,  but  the  state  in  which  the  city  is,  and 
not  only  the  state,  but  the  vast  region  over  which  tho  state  is  to  exercise  a 
controlling  influence. 

"To  one  who  goes  to  the  Atlantic  states  various  are  the  questions  put 
about  California.  The  old  story  of  the  discovery  of  gold  in  the  mill  race  is 
to  be  gone  over;  the  fantastic  scenes  of  the  early  working  of  her  mines  are 
to  be  recounted;  the  extent  of  her  placers,  the  size  of  her  trees,  the  character 
of  her  soil,  the  peculiarities  of  her  climate,  the  growth  of  her  cities,  the 
amount  of  her  population,  the  prospects  for  railroads,  the  chances  for  busi- 
ness— these,  and  a  thousand  other  matters,  are  all  to  be  discussed.  And, 
when,  in  all  these  respects,  curiosity  is  satisfied,  and  inquiry  ceases,  and  the 
consideration  that  she  deserves  is  given  to  our  state,  then,  and  properly  too, 
as  if  all  other  matters  were  of  no  value  unlrys  there  is  something  more,  the 
anesti.ons  come  thick  and  fast — but  what  is  your  social  life?  What  is  society 
Going  for  itself  and  that  to  come  ?    How  about  homes  and  children  there^ 


'  i 


( !' 


I 


1 1 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


tad  what  about  oommou  aohooU?  And  that  last  queatiou  about  aohouU 
ooven  alL  For  where  there  are  children  to  be  educated,  and  thay  are  edu- 
•ated,  there  must  bo  hearthatones  and  houies;  and  where  there  are  homea 
have  no  fear  for  society;  and  wheie  society  can  be  trusted,  all  is  well,  in 
spite  of  all  vicissitudes,  whether  the  soil  is  deep  and  rich  or  thin  and  poor — 
whether  the  climate  be  soft  and  suuny  or  rough  and  stern — whether  the  rain 
comes  iu  one  season  or  in  all  seasons,  or  never  comes — whether  there  is  an 
abundance  of  gold  in  the  mountains  or  none  at  all. 

"  A  year  ago,  when  away  from  California,  I  was  nruud  to  speak  of  what 
the  state,  and  particularly  of  what  San    Francisco  had  done  thus  early  for 
commou-school   education.     I  hardly  waited  for  questions.     I  knew  some- 
thing of  what  had  been  accomplished,  of  what  was  in  progress,  and  what 
was  aimed  at  in  that  particular,  and  I  was  anxious  to  make  it  known.     For, 
among  all  the  attractive  features  of  our  golden  state,  this  was  onre  to  be  the 
most  gratifying  and  the  most  satisfying;  this,  more  than  all  thii.ga  zb>; 
would  plant  her  firmly  in  the  faith  of  those  who,  though  never  having  seen 
her,  loved  her  and  wished  her  well.     The  eyes  of  mothers  grew  brighter  iind 
the  hopes  of  fathers  stronger  as  they  were  told  the  8tory.     As  they  heard 
of  the  children  here — of  the  positive  legislation  for  their  education  by  the 
«ity  and  state — and  of  the  hearty  interest  and  business-like  manner  with 
which  the  people  had  gone  to  work  to  establish  a  system  of  common  schools, 
not  to  be  surpassed  by  the  far-famed  schools  of  New  England,  they  began 
to  believe  that  the  distant  land  to  which  their  sons  and  daughters  had  gone 
was  not  the  wild,    turbulent,  chaotic,  ever-to-be-dreaded   California  wnich 
they  had  fancied  it;  without  law,  without  conscience;  reckless,  abandoned, 
corrupting;   wliere  there  was  nothing  worth  the  seeking  save  the  gold,  ancl 
he  who  found  that  lost  himself.     Tliey  began  to  believe  there  was  order  and 
domestic  comfort  here;  that  there  was  an  energizing,  quickening  spirit  at 
work,  laying  broad  and  deep  the  foundations  of  society  and  !' estate;  that 
the  sense  of  religious  obligation  and  the  authority  of  conscie.ice  were  not 
strangers  to   us;  that,    whde  there  was  an  unparalleled  activity  and  pro- 
gressiveness  in  all  our  doings,  there  was  likewise  a  durability  and  a  healthy 
growth;  that  even  so  early,  and  amid  and  in  spite  of  all  its  excitements, 
our  land  was  budding  and  blossoming  forth  with  rich  luxuriance  in  the 
refined  an<i  pure  aflfeotious  of  social  life,  and  in  the  nobler  enterprises  of 
benevolence. 

"  And  let  it  not  be  forgotten  that  the  talisnianic  words  which  call  up  fa: 
away   these    visions   of   hope   and   beauty   for  Citlifornia  are — 'Behold   her 
schools  and  her  churches!'     Her  8ci.:.<)ls  and  her  churches,  I  say;  for  where 
one  is,  the  other  will  be.     Not  that  her  churches  and  schools  are  everything, 
or  that  there  is  nothing  worth  regarding  beside  them.    We  are  not  in  school - 
houses  all  our  lives;  nor  is  every  day  a  Sunday  calling  us  to  church.     School- 
houses  cannot  go  to  sea,  nor  carry  on  commerce,  nor  guide  the  plow,  nor 
build  the  railroad,  nor  make  laws.     Tliey  are  not  a  substitute  for  commerce, 
or  agriculture,  or  enterprise,  or  law,  or  government.     They  are  not  a  sub- 
stitute for  anything  that  man  can  do.     Nor  do  they  go  above  man.     They 
cannot  give  us  the  gentle  rain,  or  the  softly-falling  dew,  or  the  whisperini; 
breeze,  or  the  sunlight,   or  the  moonlight,  or  the  starlight;  nor  can  tii 
enable  us  to  do  without  them.     They  are  simply  places  where  children  & 
taught;  not  taught  everything,  nor  every  one  taught  Momething.     They  - 
not  profess  to  make  philosophers,  or  poets,  or  painters;  politicians,  <loctort 
farmers,  or  lawyers,  or  fit  anybody  for  this  particular  tiling,  or  that  particu- 
lar thing,  or  the  other  particular  thing.     After  all  wu  say  about  them,  they 
are  the  most  modest,  unaitsuming  places  in  the  world. 

"  But  this  they  do.  They  lay  the  groundwork  of  the  man — and  that  is 
everything,  because  it  amounts  to  everything.  The  productive  energy  that 
in  this  our  day  all  over  the  world  is  doing  such  great,  and  brave,  and 
wonderful  thin^,  received  its  first  impulse  there.  And  if  it  in  not  thf 
province,  as  it  is  not,  of  the  common  school  alone,  of  itself  to  jompasb  all 
education  and  impart  all  the  knowledge  for  which  the  miv.'\  has  capacity. 


FREDERICK  BILLINQ& 


183 


yet  it  ii  the  beginnins  and  condition  of  ttU  education  and  ednoational  syitenu, 
and  without  which  there  could  be  no  education  and  no  aystem.  The  higher 
■chool  preituppoaea  and  involves  the  common  school,  and  the  university 
presupposes  and  involves  them  both.  The  common  school  can  exist  and  get 
along  without  the  other  two,  but  not  iu  its  highest  etUoiency;  for  to  suppose 
the  common  school  best  taught  is  to  presuppose  the  university  to  educate 
and  furnish  the  best  teachers.  Rightly  viewed,  the  true  path  of  education 
lies  in  a  great  circle — and  this  great  circle  tw  aa  much  more  important  than 
the  great  circle  of  Lieutenant  Miuiry  as  the  voyage  of  a  soul  through  life  is 
more  important  than  the  voyage  of  a  ship  around  the  world. 

'*  And  it  is  because  the  common  school  is  the  starting  point  in  this  great 
circle,  if  a  circle  can  be  said  to  have  a  starting  point — it  is  because  of  this 
ftotkt  system  which  grows  out  of  the  common  school,  and  because  of  the 
mtelligence  and  high  purpose  in  a  people  which  the  existence  of  this  system 
indicates,  that  the  common  school  is  so  significant. 

"  Here  lies  the  secret  of  the  great  faith  which  the  schoolhouse  imparts. 
Here  lies  the  explanation  of  the  talismanic  effect  of  the  words,  '  behold  her 
schools  and  her  churches.'  It  is  thus  that  the  structure,  whether  simple  or 
more  pretending,  has  become  a  sign  and  a  monument — a  monument  seen 
from  afar,  and  wherever  seen,  giving  assurance  of  the  general  diffusion  nf 
intelligence — of  the  education  of  the  great  mass  of  the  people  in  their  moral 
and  intellectual  character — of  a  population  intelligent,  virtuous,  skilled  iu 
the  arts  of  life,  capable  of  advancement  and  striving  to  attain  it.  It  is  thus 
that  the  knowledge  of  the  schoolhouse,  standing,  as  it  does,  close  to  the 
church,  delivers  us  always  from  the  slavery  of  fear  and  makes  us  rejoice  in 
the  promptings  of  hope.  It  is  thus  that  to  the  far-off  real  well-wishers  of 
onr  state  the  news  of  such  scenes,  however  unpretending,  as  we  are  engaged 
in  to-day,  will  speak  more  for  us  than  the  largest  shipments  of  gold  and  the 
most  hopeful  letters  of  trade.  It  will  speak  the  more  for  us,  because  of  their 
great  fear  for  us — and  their  fear  was  reasonable.  Great  were  our  elements 
of  danger.  Tn  the  feverish  excitement  of  our  population — in  the  anxious, 
bnstlinff,  jostling,  eager  haste  to  get  gold — and  with  the  prevailing  impression 
that  this  was  to  be  no  abiding  place — whence  was  to  come  the  inclination, 
and  if  the  inclination,  whence  the  leisure  to  conceive  and  carry  out  broad 
schemes  for  the  public  good.  Even  if  many  an  individual  act  was  to  be 
performed  with  no  reward  except  the  consciousness  of  duty  alone,  whence 
was  to  come  the  united  action  that  slowly,  dilige>  tly,  in  all  patience,  spite 
of  all  discouragements,  should  begin,  carry  on,  and  perfect  great  systems  of 

f;eneral  improvement  T  Systems  making  no  noise  in  their  operation,  whose 
ruita  were  in  the  future,  and  those  fruits,  virtue,  refinement,  intelligence. 

"But  mark  this  building!  It  is  my  text;  and  as  often  the  text  of  the 
pulpit  is  better  than  the  discourse,  so  this  text  is  more  eloquent  for  our  city 
than  any  words  of  mine.  Here  it  stands,  at  the  North  beach  j  fui  bo  recently 
was  this  locality  a  beach — a  solitary  beach,  and  nothing  more — tb»t  "till  the 
name  clings  to  it,  though  thick  now  with  building:;  ^ti^l  uusy  with  1?  e.  It 
is  outside,  beyond  the  old  graveyard,  which  a  few  years  since  was  '  bought 
to  be  so  far  away  from  the  uusiiiess  of  the  place  that  has  grown  up  into  our 
present  great  city,  as  to  insure  to  those  buried  there  perpetual  security  from 
all  encroachments.  It  stands  where  it  will  be  almost  the  first  object  to 
attract  the  eye  of  the  new-comer  as  our  city  begins  to  open  to  his  view;  and 
what  first  impressions  such  an  introduction  will  produce,  I  leave  to  you  to 
conceive. 

"As  I  stand  here  within  its  walls  to-day,  my  thoughts  go  back  to  the  early 
'ays  of  our  city,  when  there  were  no  Bchoolht>u8os,  and  there  was  no 
occasion  for  them,  because  there  were  no  children  to  fill  them;  when  our 
population  could  be  counted  by  hundreds,  and  co  isisted  of  men  who  were 
dwellers  in  tents,  or  in  wooden  buildings  iiizt  .vere  not  buildings,  but  only 
caricatures.  And  I  see  how  vast  and  rapid  has  been  our  growth,  in  moral, 
social,  and  general  greatness.  I  thought  then  that  San  Francisco  would 
never  be  great  and  good  until  the  advent  of  bricks  and  children — of  bricks. 


Mi 


i- 


IM 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  tOWER. 


■i 
','■1 


! 


1;  j 


as  tbe  accompaniment  and  exponent  of  permanence,  regularity,  confidence, 
security,  and  sound  basis  of  what  may  be  called  the  business  and  the  external 
of  society;  of  children,  as  the  accompaniment  and  exponent  of  gentleness, 
goodness,  truthfulness,  and  integrity  of  what  may  be  called  the  spirit  and  the 
internal  of  society.  The  city  built  up  of  wood  and  clotb  is  not  more  easy  or 
certain  to  be  consumed  by  (ire,  than  society  made  up  of  men  alone  is  to  be 
destroyed  by  vice.  That  the  bricks  and  children  have  both  come,  again  I  say, 
mark  this  building. 

"Is  is  nv>t  a  most  significant  building — significant  in  manner  of  construe* 
tion,  in  purpose,  in  position,  but  more  than  all,  significant  in  prophetic  reve- 
lation  ?  It  jught  to  ue  lithographed;  and  in  every  city,  in  every  village,  and 
in  every  house,  where  are  heard  lamentations  over  the  desolations  of  our  city, 
there  should  the  picture  be  hung — underneath,  the  simple  words — A  San 
Francisco  schoolhouse;  and  above,  the  familiar,  but  signiticent  motto,  J/ p/tir>- 
bua  unum.  The  horseshoe,  that  some  years  ago  might  have  been  seen  so 
solemnly  nailed  over  the  door  of  many  a  house  in  New  England,  had  not  such 
charm  and  power  to  drive  away  the  witches  as  this  picture  would  have  to 
dispel  the  gloomy  doubts  and  fears  which  in  many  minds  rise  up  with  the 
name  of  San  Francisco,  and  brood  over  her  future.  And  what  power  that 
horseshoe  had,  it  is  more  befitting  that  our  now  mayor,  so  soon  to  be  the  presi- 
dent of  the  board  of  education,  should  tell,  for  he  comes  from  the  good  town 
of  Salem,  where  the  witches  had  their  headquarters  and  the  horseshoe  was 
most  in  vogue. 

"  Rightly  have  we  assembled  to  rejoice  over  this  building.  And  though 
the  great  ground  of  our  rejoicing  is  in  the  spirit,  and  union,  and  energy  of 
our  people,  from  whom  really  the  building  comes,  let  us  not  forget  those 
who  have  been  instrumental  in  its  erection.  The  system  to  which  the 
building  belongs,  the  worthy  superintendent  who  particularly  watches  over 
the  system,  the  board  of  education  on  which  the  superintendent  relies,  the 
ordinance  that  created  the  board,  and  the  authorities  that  made  the  ordinance; 
shall  not  honorable  mention  be  made  of  them  all  to-day  ?  For  the  encour- 
agement of  the  superintendent,  and  the  present  board,  and  the  present 
authorities  of  our  city;  and  the  superintendent,  and  the  boa.rd,  and  the 
authorities  to  come;  and  of  all  who,  in  any  way,  at  any  time,  may  be 
connected  mediately  or  immediately  with  the  great  trust  of  carrying  oiit  the 
will  of  our  people,  with  reference  to  common  schools  and  common-school 
education;  let  us  recognize  and  hold  up  to  praise  the  zeal,  and  energy,  and 
faithfulupss  to  duty,  of  which  this  well-proportioned,  well-constructed,  and 
wisely  adap'^ed  building  is  more  ample  proof.  Let  us  ever  stay  up  the  hands 
of  those  V no  seek  out  the  children  of  the  city,  who  make  intelligent  their 
wants,  aud  give  form  and  shape  to  the  legislation  of  our  municipality  for  the 
interests  of  education.  Their  duty  may  lie  in  a  noiseless  path,  but  that  fact, 
in  this  noisy  part  of  our  noisy  world,  makes  those  who  are  faithful  worthy  of 
the  more  praise. 

"And  now  we  dedicate  this  building  to  itspurpoue.  We  set  it  apart  by 
no  formal  cereu'Oiiy.  We  proclaim  it  finished;  we  throw  wide  open  its 
doors;  we  invite  the  children  to  come  to  it;  and  we  leave  it  to  the  future; 
not  altogether  leave  it,  for  our  hopes  cluster  around  it,  and  our  good  wishes 
will  ever  attend  it.  Long  may  it  stand  to  acc.'>mptiMh  its  work.  May  thrse 
who  come  to  it  for  instruction,  come  to  it  as  a  pleasant  home.  In  after  years 
may  they  remember  it  with  ( leasant  recollections;  and,  above  all,  he  able  to 
say  that  to  it  they  are  debtors.  And  scattered,  as  perhaps  they  will  be, 
widely  through  the  world,  that  debt  may  tliey  discharge,  by  t'oing  for  the 
children  of  their  day  what  here  has  been  done  for  them.  So  shall  this 
building  help  to  vindicate  and  establish  everywhere  the  policy  so  character- 
istic of  our  country,  of  making  the  institution  of  schooht  for  the  general 
difiFusion  of  knowledge,  a  cherished  and  leading  object  in  the  businebs  of 
government.  And  while  doing  this,  it  will  speak  better  things  for  the  city 
of  San  Francisco,  in  her  early  days,  than  anything  else  in  her  history. 
Fruitful  will  this  building  be  in  the  present,  I  trust,  but  far  more  so,  I  know. 


FREDERICK  BILLINGS. 


125 


in  the  fntnre.  It  is  simply  a  schoolhonse,  but  the  good  it  will  do  will  live 
loDg  after  its  walls  may  have  crumbled  with  age;  when  we  who  dedicate  it 
to-day,  and  even  the  children  whose  voices  so  soon  will  be  heard  within  it, 
shall  have  ceased  to  live.  Rightly  do  we  rejoice  over  its  completion,  and 
hopefully  do  we  give  it  to  its  work.  '* 

Nor  was  it  alone  as  an  orator,  or  judge  of  oratory, 
that  Mr  Billings  excelled.  In  literature  and  art  bis 
taste  was  perfect,  and  as  keen  as  it  was  discriminat- 
ing. No  one  enjoyed  with  keener  relish  the  works  of 
genius  in  whatever  department,  for  he  was  a  man  of 
universal  sympathies,  and  whatever  was  good  in  hu- 
man life  became  in  a  measure  assimilated  with  his 
broad  and  catholic  nature.  While  his  standard  was 
of  the  highest,  he  was  the  most  generous  of  men  in 
his  estimation  of  others,  never  inclining  to  severity 
and  hypercriticism,  or  if  so,  it  was  only  toward  him- 
self, as  one  who  set  before  him  the  mark  of  his  high 
calling  and  judged  himself  thereby.  Of  all  the 
traits  of  character  which  stamped  him  as  a  great 
man,  perhaps  the  strongest  was  the  greatness  of  his 
humility. 

Among  those  to  whom  the  university  of  California 
is  indebted  for  its  existence  is  Frederick  Billings, 
who  came  to  the  assistance  of  Durant  and  Brayton, 
when  strugjxlinor  to  maintain  at  Oakland  what  was 
then  the  only  institution  in  the  state  devoted  to  the 
higher  branches  of  education.  Of  his  connection 
with  that  institution,  later  known  as  the  college  and 
afterward  the  university  of  California,  his  fiiend  and 
colleague,  Willey,  thus  writes  to  the  committee : 

"  Mr  Billings  was  one  of  those  who  did  the  pre- 
liminary work  of  founding  the  college  of  California, 
commencing  in  1849  and  continuing  till  1855,  when 
the  college  was  incorporated  according  to  law,  and  he 
was  one  of  the  first  trustees.  He  was  always  ready 
to  give  his  time  to  plan  and  consult  for  the  upbuild- 
ing of  the  college,  to  attend  the  frequent  meetings  of 
trustees,  and  when  necessary  to  give  his  professional 
services  in  the  transaction  of  its  business.  At  the 
same  time  he  gave  his  constant  influence  in  favor  of 


ih. 


5     I 
r 


U  *.. 


Um 


V 


126 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


the  college  in  social  life,  as  well  as  in  public.  He 
was  enthusiastic  in  his  behalf.  All  this  time  he  was 
under  the  heaviest  kind  of  business  pressure,  and 
with  him  time  was  more  even  than  money. 

"  Thus  he  continued  on  until  his  own  health  gave 
way,  and  he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  state.  Before 
he  left,  however,  he  was  elected  by  the  trustees  pres- 
ident of  the  college,  and  was  urged  to  accept  the  of- 
fice. He  did  not  see  his  way  clear  to  do  this  at  the 
time,  but  years  after,  in  1884,  he  wrote  me  thus  in 
regard  to  it :  'I  have  never  been  reconciled  to  the 
turning  of  the  college  over  to  the  university.  I  have 
sometimes  wished  that  I  had  accepted  the  presidency 
of  the  college  when  it  was  tendered  me,  for  though 
it  would  have  given  me  a  life  of  hard  work,  there 
would  have  been  great  satisfaction  if  I  could  have 
succeeded  in  putting  the  institution  upon  a  firm  and 
prosperous  foundation.' " 

Such  was  the  modest  ambition  of  one  who  then 
ranked  among  the  railroad  magnates  of  the  east,  one 
to  whom  was  due  the  resuscitation  of  the  Northern 
Pacific  Railroad  company  after  the  collapse  of  1873. 
It  was  in  1869  that  Mr  Billings  first  became  con- 
nected with  the  Northern  Pacific,  purchasing  in  that 
year  from  Hiram  Walbridge  a  one-twelfth  interest  in 
the  property.  In  1870  he  was  appointed  to  the  di- 
rectorate, which  oflSce  he  held  until  the  year  before 
his  death,  and  in  1879  was  elected  to  the  presidency, 
resigning  that  position  in  1881,  when  a  controlling 
interest  passed  into  the  hands  of  Villard.  As  chair- 
man of  the  land  committee  he  organized  the  land 
department,  of  which  he  was  managing  director  un- 
til the  reorganization  of  the  company  in  1875.  In 
1871,  together  with  President  Smith  and  certain  of 
the  directors,  he  located  the  crossing  of  Red  river, 
and  in  the  following  year  the  terminus  on  Puget 
sound.  In  1873  he  was  one  of  a  committee,  of  which 
the  remaining  members  were  R.  D.  Rice,  the  vice- 
president,  and  W.  G.   Moorhead,  a  director,   organ- 


FREDERICK  BILLINGS. 


127 


ized  for  the  purpose  of  enlisting  new  capital  in  San 
Francisco,  and  making  arrangements  for  beginning 
the  construction  of  the  road  on  the  Pacific  side. 
With  them  went  William  Milnor  Roberts,  the  engi- 
neer-in-chief. 

For  several  years  after  its  organization  the  North- 
ern Pacific  company  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
promising   railroad   enterprises   of  the   age.     While 
receiving  from  the  government  no  subsidy  in  bonds, 
its  land  grant  was  far  more  valuable  than  that  of  the 
Central  or  Union  Pacific.     Along  its  route  were  no 
deserts,  no  lack  of  water,  timber,  or  building-stone. 
Whether  for  agriculture  or  stock-raising,  there  was 
no  parallel  zone  that  surpassed  and  few  that  equalled 
its  resources.     Mineral   lands  were   included   in   its 
grant,  and  in  minerals,  especially  coal  and  iron,  not  a 
few  of  its  sections  abounded.     In  much  of  it  forest 
and  prairie  alternated,  making  easy  and  inexpensive 
the  opening  and  cultivation  of  farms.     The  climate 
was  excellent,  free  from  drought,  from  extremes  of 
moisture,  heat  or  cold,  and  from  all  malarial  influ- 
ences.    The  route  passed  through  some  of  the  finest 
scenery  on  which  human  eye  can  rest,  through  fertile 
valleys  and  undulating  plains,  across  rolling  prairies 
and  foothills,  flanked  by  mountain  ranges,  by  moun- 
tain spurs,  and  solitary  peaks,  among  which  nestled 
innumerable  lakes,  with   waters  of  clearest   crystal. 
It  was,  moreover,  a  central  route,  and  the  shortest 
from  the  great  lakes  to  the  Pacific  coast,  which  here 
bends  inland  toward  the  east.     It  was  also  the  most 
practicable,  for  here  were  no  such  obstacles  as  had 
been  encountered  on   the    Central-Union,  and   were 
later  encountered  on  the  Southern  Pacific. 

All  these  and  other  advantages  Mr  Billings  had 
not  failed  to  observe  during  his  sojourn  in  the  north- 
west, and  it  is  only  justice  to  himself  to  state  that  his 
liberal  investments  in  the  company's  stock,  and  what 
is  more,  the  aid  which  he  rendered  in  giving  so  freely 
the  benefit  of  his  Pnancial  and  executive  ability  dur- 


iiii   I 


,i„ ,-    'hi 


li 


138 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


I 


;ii 


ing  the  darkest  period  of  its  history,  were  more  in  the 
interests  of  the  people  than  for  his  own. 

In  1873,  and  for  some  time  afterward,  even  the  pre- 
ferred stock  of  the  Northern  Pacific  was  regarded  as 
anything  but  a  safe  or  profitable  investment.  After 
the  failure  of  Jay  Cooke  and  company,  the  affairs  of 
the  association  sank  into  an  almost  hopeless  condition. 
Its  bonds  had  become  unsalable,  and  money  for  im- 
mediate wants  could  only  be  borrowed  in  small 
amounts  by  pledging  $2,000  or  $3,000  of  its  securities 
for  every  $1,000  advanced.  Its  best  friends  had 
turned  against  it,  and  by  the  newspapers  it  was  de- 
rided as  "a  scheme  to  build  a  railroad  from  nowhere, 
through  no  man's  land,  to  no  place."  It  was  with 
the  utmost  difficulty  that  the  company  retained  a 
hold  on  its  main  line  of  road,  by  cutting  down  all  ex- 
penses and  largely  reducing  its  operating  force. 
From  Lake  Superior  the  line  had  been  completed 
westward  to  the  Missouri,  a  distance  of  some  450 
miles,  and  though  running  through  a  fertile  region, 
there  was  little  as  vet  to  furnish  traffic,  for  farms 
were  few  and  far  between,  and  such  towns  as  had 
been  located  existed  only  on  paper.  Moreover,  the 
crash  of  1873  had  not  only  put  a  stop  to  railroad 
building,  but  had  checked  immigration  from  Europe, 
and  what  was  more,  had  checked  the  westward  migra- 
tion of  native-born  Americans.  On  the  Pacific  side  a 
small  section  had  been  completed,  from  a  point  on  the 
Columbia  river  to  New  Tacoma,  on  Puget  sound, 
then  but  an  embryo  town,  carved  out  of  the  woods, 
and  with  no  promise  of  its  future  greatness.  On  both 
sides  running  expenses  could  barely  be  earned,  a 
single  daily  train  of  freight  and  passenger  ears  serving 
for  the  entire  traffic  of  the  riorth  western  section. 

Meanwhile  the  interest  on  its  bonds,  at  the  rate  of 
seven  and  three  tenths  per  cent,  funded  and  com- 
pounded semi-annually,  was  adding  more  than  $2,~ 
000,000  a  year  to  the  company's  indebtedness.  As 
there  was  no  surplus,  it  was  impossible  otherwise  to 


FREDERICK  BILUNOS. 


129 


make  even  a  pretence  of  satisfying  the  claims  of  bond- 
holders, whose  patience  was  sorely  taxed  while  thus 
witnessing  the  gradual  annihilation  of  their  invest- 
ments. In  a  word,  the  company  was  on  the  verge  of 
insolvency,  and  this,  the  route  prepared  by  nature  as 
the  highway  to  the  Pacific,  must  as  it  seemed  be 
abandoned,  at  least  for  many  a  year  to  come. 

It  was  at  this  juncture  that  Mr  Billings  came  to 
the  rescue,  and  as  chairman  of  the  executive  commit- 
tee suggested  his  plan  of  reorganization,  a  financial 
measure  whose  soundness  won  for  him  the  admiration 
of  the  most  perfect  masters  of  finance.  As  to  the 
details  of  that  plan,  and  of  its  execution,  they  can  be 
best  explained  in  the  language  afterward  used  by  Mr 
Billings  himself,  before  the  committee  of  congress : 

"When  the  crash  came  there  were  three  parties  to  be  considered — those 
who  had  bought  the  bonds,  tiie  lioUlers  of  1  he  stock,  and  the  owners  of  what 
is  allied  'the  proprietary  interest.'  The  bondholders  were  scattered  from 
Maine  to  Texas,  and  at  that  time  numbered  about  11,000.  There  was  al^io 
a  considerable  floating  debt,  and  tlie  roid  was  but  little  more  tlian  paying 
its  expenses.  The  enterprise  had  reached  no  objectivo  point,  ami  it  was 
necessary  to  carry  it  further  to  make  what  had  been  invested  in  it  valuable. 
But  in  its  then  condition  no  additional  funds  could  be  raised,  and  so,  early  in 
the  spring  of  1875,  it  was  thought  best  to  foreclose  the  mortgage,  to  rid  the 
road  of  its  debt,  and  to  place  it  in  condition  for  further  development.  All 
the  parties  interested  were  brought  together,  and  in  order  that  there  might 
be  no  prolonged  litigation,  all  interests  were  harmonized,  and  in  a  few 
months  the  property  was  sold  under  a  plan  of  reorganization,  which  was 
made  part  of  the  decree  of  foreclosure,  and  thus  speedily  taken  out  of 
court. 

"The  agreement  which  harmonized  all  parties  was  this:  the  capital  stock, 
which  by  the  charter  was  authorized  to  be  $100,000,000,  was  divided  into 
$51,000,000  of  preferred  stock,  and  $49,000,000  of  common  stock.  The 
bondholders  were  to  have  $30,000,000  of  preferred  stock  for  their  $30,000,- 
000  of  bonds,  and  as  these  bonds  drew  seven  and  three  tenths  per  cent  in 
gold,  the  interest  was  called  eight  per  cent  in  currency.  Two  years'  interest 
had  already  accrued,  and  it  was  decided  to  give  to  the  preferred  stock- 
holders not  only  this  two  years'  interest,  but  three  years'  interest  in  advance 
— five  years'  interest  at  eight  per  cent,  making  forty  per  cent,  so  that  each 
holder  of  a  bond  of  $1,000  received  $1,400  of  preferred  stock.  This  absorbed, 
say,  $42,000,000  of  the  preferred  stock,  and  the  remaining  $9,000,000  was  to 
ha  in  the  treasury  for  the  general  purposes  of  the  company.  The  stock- 
holders were  to  receive  common  stock,  share  for  share;  were  not  to  be 
allowed  to  vote  for  several  years,  and  were  to  receive  no  dividends  until,  in 
each  year,  eight  per  cent  had  been  paid  on  the  preferred  stock.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  capital  stock,  after  deducting  tlie  $51,000,000  of  preferred 
stock,  and  also  the  common  stock,  was  to  be  distributed  among  the  own(;rs 
of  the  jjroprietary  interest." 

At  first  there  was  no  little  opposition  to  Mr  Bil- 
lings' project.     Among  other  objections  it  was  urged 

C.  B.— T.    9 


V        '! 


Ir^ 


'     ! 


lao 


CENTRALIZATION  OP  POWER. 


that  while  a  foreclosure  of  the  mortgage  would  include 
not  only  the  roadway  so  far  as  constructed,  but  the 
land  grant  so  far  as  earned,  together  with  all  equip- 
ments and  personal  property,  to  proceed  with  the 
work  of  construction  additional  legislation  must  be 
had,  together  with  new  congressional  subsidy.  But 
by  Mr  Billings'  and  the  company's  counsel,  the 
ground  was  taken  that  since  congress  had  authorized 
the  corporation  to  execute  a  mortgage  including 
everything,  even  to  its  franchise,  all  rights  under  the 
charter  would  pass,  together  with  the  property,  to  the 
purchasers  under  the  foreclosure,  who  would  thus  be- 
come virtually  the  Northern  Pacific  company  itself. 
If  this  purchase  could  be  made  on  equitable  terms, 
with  a  view  to  the  interests  of  the  parties  concerned 
— the  holders  of  the  bonds  and  stock  and  proprietary 
interest — then  the  entire  property  would  be  saved 
for  the  benefit  of  those  to  whom  of  right  it  belonged, 
and  the  company,  rid  of  its  enormous  debt,  could 
borrow  the  money  wherewith  to  push  its  road  to 
completion. 

On  the  16th  of  April,  1875,  proceedings  in  bank- 
ruptcy were  commenced  in  the  United  States  circuit 
court  of  New  York,  George  W.  Cass,  then  president 
of  the  company,  being  appointed  receiver.  A  few 
weeks  later  a  decree  of  foreclosure  was  signed.  Then 
the  plan  of  reorganization  was  carried  into  effect  by 
a  committee  appointed  by  the  bondholders,  in  whose 
interest  the  entire  property  was  purchased,  together 
with  all  the  company's  rights  and  privileges.  Thus 
did  the  bondholders,  represented  by  their  conjaiittee, 
among  whom  was  Mr  Billings,  become  themselves 
the  body  corporate  styled  the  Northern  Pacific  rail- 
road company. 

Before  the  end  of  the  year  more  than  eighty  per 
cent  of  the  bonds  had  been  converted  into  preferred 
stock ;  the  debt  had  been  extinguished,  and  the  cor- 
poration thus  reorganized  was  in  the  possession  of  at 
least  550  miles  of  roadway,  completed  and  equipped, 


FREDERICK  BILLINGS. 


181 


with  a  land  grant  already  earned  of  10,000,000  acres, 
and  with  the  right  to  earn,  by  the  completion  of  its 
line,  some  30,000,000  additional  acres.  The  cost  of 
the  proceedings  was  but  trifling,  for  with  such  skill 
and  judgment,  and  also  with  such  perfect  harmony 
had  they  been  conducted,  that  the  army  of  freeboot- 
ers who  hang  on  the  skirts  of  fallen  corporations  was 
entirely  baffled.  Through  the  efforts  of  Mr  Billings 
and  his  associates  the  company  had  now  been  relieved 
from  its  difficulties,  and  with  the  dawn  of  better  days 
the  confidence  of  the  public,  and  what  was  more, 
of  capitalists,  gradually  returned. 

Mr  Billings  services  in  framing  and  carrying  into 
effect  his  plan  of  reorganization  met  with  the  rec- 
ognitioh  due  to  one  of  the  most  brilliant  financial 
achievements  of  the  age.  At  a  meeting  of  the  board 
of  directors,  held  on  the  16th  of  December,  1875, 
the  following  tribute  was  offered  by  the  chairman  of 
the  purchasing  committee : 

"The  associates  of  Mr  Frederick  Billings  on  the  purchasing  committee, 
in  the  course  of  its  arduous  labors  to  reorganize  the  Northern  Pacitic  rail- 
road company,  became  acquainted  with  his  many  and  uncommon  qualifica- 
tions for  the  difficult  work  entrusted  to  us  by  the  bondholders,  and  required 
of  us  by  the  stockholders.  In  a  close  intercourse  of  eight  months,  in  which 
numerous  questions  of  law,  finance,  and  policy  were  discussed,  in  which 
doubtful  jurisdiction  of  courts,  and  novel  proceedings  in  foreclosure  were 
debated,  in  which  the  riglits  of  a  receiver  already  in  the  possession  of  the 
property  had  to  be  considered  and  respected,  in  which  the  conflicting  inter- 
ests of  bondholders  and  stockholders  had  to  be  harmonized,  and  the  holders 
of  a  large  floating  debt  provided  for;  in  which  the  future  success  of  this 
corporated  enterprise  had  to  be  kept  constantly  in  view;  in  which  the  title 
paper  of  the  property  of  one  hundred  millions  of  dollars  had  to  be  prepared 
and  scrutinized,  and  the  corporate  life  of  the  Northern  Pacific  railroad 
company  passed  unbroken  and  without  a  fiaw  through  the  purchasing  com- 
mittee to  the  preferred  stockholders  of  the  reorganized  corporation,  wu 
became  familiar  with  Mr  Billings'  devoted  industry,  rare  intelligence,  per- 
fect candor,  disinterestedness,  and  courage.  His  services  in  the  reorganiza- 
tion were  extraordinarily  valuable.  He  was  familiar  with  the  principles  of 
law,  and  quick  and  clear  in  applying  them.  He  was  fertile  and  practical  in 
suggestion.  In  discussion  he  went  to  the  bottom.  He  did  not  hesitate  to 
disagree  when  his  judgment  was  not  satisfied.  He  tested  everything.  He 
forecast  the  future  constantly;  rejected  temporary  expedients,  and  insisted 
on  building  solidly  and  cnduringly;  and  daily  he  brought  to  the  work  of  the 
committee  &  courage,  faith,  and  enthusiasm  which  strengthened  us  all. 
Eight  weeks  ago,  having  nearly  reached  the  close  of  our  trust,  Mr  Stark, 
Mr  Moorhead,  Mr  Denison,  Mr  Hutchinson  and  I  thought  that  some  marked 
recognition  of  Mr  Billings'  services,  and  some  acknowledgment  of  our  regard 
for  him,  should  properly  be  made.  We  determined  that  we  would  pay liim 
the  compliment  of  having  his  photographed  likeness  engraved  on  a  steel 


in 


•  m 


u 


I 


i       j 

J 

r 

!i 

i 

i 

i      ■ 

i 

J 

f 

It 
it 


isi 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


plate,  and  this  board  of  directors  consenting  that  it  should  be  printed  as  a 
vignette  on  the  certificates  of  stock  of  the  Northern  Pacific  rulroad  com- 
pany, which  he  had  so  well  and  faithfully  served." 

It  need  hardly  be  said  that  the  action  of  the 
committee  was  approved  by  the  board;  and  a  request 
was  then  forwarded  to  Mr  Billings,  asking  permis- 
sion to  use  his  likeness  for  the  purpose  mentioned. 
To  this  he  replied  in  a  characteristic  letter,  accepting 
the  compliment  as  a  token  of  esteem,  and  with  his 
usual  modesty  stating  as  the  only  drawback  that  it 
gave  to  himself  too  much  prominence  in  an  undertak- 
ing where  all  had  worked  with  a  will  and  most  effect- 
ively. 

In  Mr  Billings'  Woodstock  home  are  many  choice 
works  of  art,  many  choice  gems  of  literature,  but  in 
none  perhaps  did  he  take  such  pride  as  in  this  fitting 
testimonial  of  his  associates,  a  copy  of  which,  hand- 
somely framed  and  engrossed,  occupied  the  place  of 
honor  until  the  day  of  his  death. 

But  the  Northern  Pacific  was  not  yet  out  of  its 
difficulties.  Long  after  the  reorganization  plan  was 
carried  into  effect,  even  its  preferred  stock  was  diffi- 
cult of  sale  at  from  25  to  30  cents  on  the  dollar. 
Throughout  the  land  there  was  a  scarcity  of  money, 
or  rather  there  was  a  scarcitv  of  confidence,  and  in 
common  with  other  enterprises  the  company  suffered 
from  the  business  depression  which  followed  the  panic 
of  1873.  At  such  a  time  there  were  few  who  cared 
to  invest  their  surplus  funds  in  a  railroad  built  through 
an  uninhabited  region,  far  into  the  wilderness  of  the 
northwest. 

It  was  not  until  the  close  of  1878,  and  after  vain 
appeals  for  congressional  aid,  that  financial  measures 
were  devised  for  the  construction  of  the  Missouri 
division.  On  this  occasion  Mr  Billings  again  appears 
on  the  scene  as  the  savior  of  the  company,  the  success 
of  which  was  still  a  matter  of  doubt.  At  his  recom- 
mendation, and  largely  through  his  efforts,  bonds  wert; 
placed  to  the  amount  of  $2,500,000,   secured  by  a 


V 


fai 


I 


V 


FREDERICK  BILLINGS. 


m 


mortgage  on  the  section  lying  between  the  Missouri 
and  Yellowstone  rivers,  together  with  its  share  of 
the  land  grant,  at  the  rate  of  25,600  acres  for  each 
mile  of  completed  road.  Thus  at  length  the  line  was 
pushed  westward  from  the  Missouri. 

It  was  in  1879,  as  I  have  said,  that  Mr  Billings 
was  appointed  to  the  presidency  of  the  Northern 
Pacific,  and  then  came  the  most  active  period  in  the 
history  of  its  construction.  Under  his  advice  the 
directors  decided  to  resume  work  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
from  the  junction  of  the  Snake  and  Columbia  rivers, 
eastward  to  Lake  Pend  d'Oreille.  As  in  the  case  of 
the  Missouri  division,  bonds  were  issued,  secured  by 
a  mortgage  on  the  road  and  land  grant,  in  this 
instance  at  the  rate  of  $20,000  a  mile,  or  $4,500,000 
in  all.  In  the  following  year,  while  work  on  both 
divisions  was  still  in  progress,  construction  was  begun 
westward  from  the  Yellowstone,  and  preparations 
made  for  building  along  the  entire  line. 

Thus  by  his  system  of  division  mortgages  did  Mr 
Billings  carry  the  Northern  Pacific  through  the  crisis 
of  its  history.  To  him  is  especially  due  the  credit 
of  foreseeing  that,  in  the  then  condition  of  aflairs, 
a  general  mortgage,  including  the  entire  property, 
would  find  no  favor  with  the  public,  fearful,  as  they 
were,  that  new  disaster  would  befall  so  vast  a  project. 
Only  by  making  the  several  portions  of  the  line  re- 
sponsible for  the  debt  entailed  by  their  construction, 
and  even  then  by  the  offer  of  a  bonus,  could  subscrip- 
tions be  procured.  It  is,  indeed,  only  too  probable 
that,  save  for  the  financial  skill  of  Mr  Billings,  and 
for  his  persistent  efforts,  the  Northern  Pacific  would 
have  shared  the  disastrous  fate  of  many  another  rail- 
road enterprise,  would,  after  an  expenditure  of  many 
millions,  have  fallen  into  utter  ruin,  and  then  been 
purchased  for  a  trifle  and  carried  forward  to  com- 
pletion by  one  of  those  capitalists  or  syndicates  of 
capitalists  who  are  ever  on  the  watch  for  such  oppor- 
tunities.    But  the  masterpiece  of  his  career  was  the 


m4 


V 


!  i 


134 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


§ 


!  . 

t   ■ 


plan  of  reconstruction,  which,  as  a  financial  measure, 
will  compare  favorably  with  any  of  the  great  opera- 
tions of  the  day. 

The  time  was  near  at  hand,  however,  when  the 
Northern  Pacific  was  to  be  relieved  from  its  strait. 
In  the  autumn  of  1880  its  president  was  invited  to 
<'all  at  the  New  York  banking-house  of  Winslow, 
Lanier,  and  company,  who  for  years  had  been  watch- 
ing the  progress  of  affairs.  After  some  consultation 
on  the  subject  of  a  general  mortgage  loan,  the  firm 
decided  to  investigate  the  matter,  and  without  enter- 
ing into  details  it  may  simply  be  stated  that  their 
decision  being  favorable,  they  were  afterward  joined 
by  Drexel  Morgan  and  company  and  A.  Belmont  and 
company.  By  the  syndicate  thus  formed  a  loan  was 
negotiated,  and  by  the  company  a  mortgage  executed 
providing  for  the  issue  of  $40,000,000  in  bonds,  bear- 
ing interest  at  six  per  cent  and  redeemable  in  1921. 
The  entire  issue  was  taken  by  the  syndicate,  at  prices 
ranging  from  90  to  92^,  a  bonus  being  allowed  of  five 
per  cent  in  preferred  stock  as  a  part  of  the  considera- 
tion. At  the  time  there  were  many  who  regarded 
the  investment  as  a  doubtful  one ;  but  that  it  was  not 
so  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  before  the  road  was  com- 
pleted these  bonds  were  selling,  and  are  still  selling, 
at  a  premium. 

All  this,  and  more,  Mr  Billings  accomplished  dur- 
ing his  two  years'  term  of  office.  In  June  1881,  a 
controlling  interest  having  passed  into  the  hands  of 
Villard  and  his  associates,  he  was  only  too  glad  to 
resign  the  presidency.  His  health  was  seriously  im- 
paired by  overwork;  arrived  at  the  age  of  fifty-seven, 
he  desired  a  season  of  rest,  a  rest  long  needed,  and 
now  indeed  enjoined  b}'^  his  physician.  But  this  was 
not  yet  to  be.  Tendering  his  resignation  as  a  direc- 
tor, it  was  declined,  for  he  was  one  whose  name  and 
services  could  not  be  spared.  While  to  others  has 
been  accorded  the  fame  of  carrying  to  a  successful 
issue  a  project  long  regarded  as  hopeless,  to  him  is 


FREDERICK  BILLINGS. 


ll» 


none  the  less  due  the  credit  of  its  accomplishment. 
Here  was  the  true  master  spirit  of  the  enterprise, 
the  architect  of  its  fortunes,  the  man  who,  wresting 
victory  from  do  teat,  redeemed  the  company  from  u 
condition  of  hopeless  insolvency,  and  placed  it  on  a 
sound  financial  basis. 

Before  withdrawing  from  the  presidency,  his  plan 
of  reorganization  had  received  the  approval  of  the 
gpvernment,  and  passed  the  ordeal  of  the  courts. 
Each  class  of  stockholders  had  received  the  stock 
provided  for  it.  The  preferred  stock  hsd  risen  from 
$10  a  share  to  $80,  and  the  common  stock  from  $2 
to  $50,  the  latter  almost  the  highest  price  that  it 
ever  reached,  and  higher  than  that  for  which  were 
selling,  ten  years  later,  the  ordinary  shares  in  any  of 
our  transcontinental  lines.  Thanks  to  Mr  Billings, 
the  company  had  passed  through  the  darker  period 
of  its  history,  and  was  now  emerging  into  the  sun- 
light of  prosperity  and  success. 

Long  before  the  building  of  the  Northern  Pacific, 
or  indeed,  of  any  of  our  overland  lines,  Mr  Billings 
had  been  a  firm  supporter  of  the  project  for  an  intor- 
oceanic  canal  by  way  of  Lake  Nicaragua.  Though 
for  a  time  his  attention  had  been  diverted  from  this 
enterprise,  he  had  never  ceased  to  regard  it  as  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  the  interests  of  the  Pacific 
coast.  Largely  through  his  efforts  the  concessions 
were  secured  and  the  canal  company  formed,  of  which 
he  was  one  of  the  incorporators  and  directors,  and 
also  chairman  of  the  executive  committee.  With 
many  other  corporations  he  was  also  connected  as 
president,  director,  or  trustee,  including  banks  and 
trust  companies,  insurance  companies,  railroad  and 
canal  companies,  whose  operations  extended  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  Among  tlieni  were  the 
American  Exchange  national  bank,  the  Farmers'  loan 
and  trust  company,  the  Manhattan  savings  institution, 
the  Woodstock  national  bank,  the  Manhattan  life  in- 
surance company,  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  railroad, 


'■m 


1 ' 


I] 


h 


I' 


tlM 


1 


136 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


the  Overland  stage  company,  the  Delaware  and 
Hudson  canal  company,  the  Connecticut  river,  Ver- 
mont valley,  Connecticut  and  Passumpsic,  and  Rut- 
land railroad  companies. 

Thus  fled  along  his  busy  life ;  and  to  his  associates 
it  was  ever  a  cause  of  wonder  how  he  found  time  to 
dispose  of  the  enormous  load  of  work  entailed  by  his 
manifold  duties.  And  yet  he  not  only  found  the  time, 
but  his  services  were  ever  ready  at  the  call  of  human  - 
ity  or  of  charity.  To  reading  he  devoted  no  small 
portion  of  his  scanty  leisure,  and  while  never  a  book- 
worm was  always  in  touch  with  the  current  literature 
of  the  day. 

There  is  perhaps  no  act  or  incident  of  his  career 
that  will  cause  his  name  to  be  held  in  more  lasting 
esteem  than  the  gift  which  he  made  to  his  alma  mater, 
the  university  of  Vermont.  On  the  death,  in  1882, 
of  George  P.  Marsh,  United  States  minister  to  Italy, 
his  library  was  regarded  by  scholars  and  philologists 
as  one  of  the  finest  collections  extant.  This  Mr  Bil- 
lings purchased  and  presented  to  the  university,  at 
the  same  time  expressing  his  intention  to  erect  a  suit- 
able building  for  its  u«^commodation,  and  engaging  for 
that  purpose  the  services  of  H.  H.  Richardson,  then 
the  foremost  of  American  architects.  The  result  was 
a  donation  worthy  of  the  giver,  a  fitting  token  of  his 
munificence,  and  the  pride  of  the  city  of  Burlington, 
which,  apart  from  the  metropolis,  now  contains  per- 
haps the  choicest  library  in  all  the  New  England 
states.  A  few  months  before  his  death  he  gave  an 
additional  sum  of  $50,000  to  be  invested  as  an  endow- 
ment fund,  and  the  income  to  be  devoted  to  the  cur- 
rent expenses  of  the  institution  which  bears  his  name. 
To  Amherst  college  he  also  presented  $50,000  for  the 
founding  of  a  professorship  in  memory  of  his  son 
Parmly,  who  |y;raduated  in  the  class  of  1884,  and  to 
the  Mount  Hermon  school,  in  memory  of  his  eon 
Ehrick,  a  similar  amount. 

But  to  relate  all  tl»o  benefactions  with  which  Mr 


FRBDERICK  BILUNOS. 


la? 


Billings  is  accredited  would  occupy  many  times  the 
space  allotted  to  his  biography ;  and  yet  they  are  not 
a  tithe  of  those  which  he  actually  bestowed.  One  or 
two  further  instances  will  here  suffice. 

To  the  town  of  Billings,  the  seat  of  the  county  of 
Yellowstone,  in  the  state  •  of  Montana,  named  after 
himself,  he  presented  a  beautiful  church  edifice,  built 
at  his  own  expense,  and  at  a  cost  of  many  thousands 
of  dollars.  So  little  progress  had  then  been  made  in 
settlement,  that  from  its  site  the  bones  and  horns  of 
buffalo  were  cleared  away  before  the  foundation  was 
laid.  In  Woodstock  he  built  a  memorial  chapel  to 
his  father  and  mother,  and  a  few  weeks  before  his 
death,  finished  at  an  outlay  of  more  than  $40,000  the 
reconstruction  of  "the  old  white  meeting  house," 
where  in  his  boyhood  iays  he  worshipped.  In  the 
character  of  Mr  Billings  was  ever  a  deep  religious 
element,  one  inherited  largely  from  his  mother,  and 
fostered  by  her  influence  and  training.  It  was  in- 
deed at  one  time  his  intention  to  devote  his  life  to 
the  ministry,  and  a  minister  in  truth  he  was,  if  not 
in  name,  in  heart  and  deed :  one  in  whom  the  high- 
est qualities  of  Christian  stewardship  were  nobly 
exemplified. 

Of  the  churches  which  he  attended  he  was  a  most 
helpful  member,  and  whether  with  his  purse,  liia 
counsel,  or  his  services,  there  were  none  more  ready 
to  render  aid.  Especially  was  this  the  case  with  the 
first  presbyterian  church  in  San  Francisco,  of  which, 
indeed,  he  may  be  termed  the  founder,  placing  himself 
in  all  things  at  its  disposal  from  the  time  when,  with 
five  others,  he  collected  its  first  congregation.  All 
that  man  could  do  for  it  he  did,  even  to  acting  as  its 
janitor,  with  his  own  hands  sweeping  it  out  and  dust- 
ing it  in  order  to  save  expense.  Young  as  he  was, 
the  congregation  looked  up  to  hiui,  leaned  on  him, 
depended  on  him  in  all  things,  including  too  often  the 
payment  of  the  minister's  salary,  or  at  least  an  undue 
share  of  it. 


i    1 1 


1:^8 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


On  the  31st  of  March,  1862,  Mr  Billings  was  mar- 
ried to  Julia,  the  daughter  of  Eleazar  Parnily,  of 
New  York  city.  Miss  Parmly's  ancestors  belonged 
to  the  oldest  of  New  England  stock,  and  like  those  of 
her  husband,  were  residents  of  Vermont.  Her  father, 
a  dentist,  began  his  professional  career  in  London, 
but  the  damp  and  murky  atmosphere  of  that  city 
proving  injurious  to  his  health,  he  ran.  )ved  to  New 
York,  where  for  some  thirty  years  he  was  among  the 
leading  practitioners,  realizing  from  his  practice  and 
investments  a  fortune  of  more  than  a  million  and  a 
half.  He  was  a  man  of  strong  purpose,  of  high  social 
and  intellectual  aims,  and  of  earnest  Christian  char- 
acter. In  his  tastes,  no  less  than  in  his  maimers  and 
habits,  he  displayed  the  most  perfect  refinement,  and 
especially  in  kis  taste  for  literature.  In  this  depart- 
ment, had  he  so  inclined,  he  would  doubtless  himself 
have  won  distinction,  as  was  shown  by  the  ode  which 
he  penned  for  the  occasion  of  the  golden  wedding  of 
Mr  Billings*  parents  in  1867.  His  domestic  life  was 
an  ideal  one;  in  the  family  circle  no  angry  word  ever 
fell  from  his  lips,  and  to  each  member  of  that  family 
their  home  was  tlie  happit-st  spot  on  earth.  For  the 
poor  lie  had  always  a  helping  hand,  and  especially  for 
poor  relatives;  for  while  catholic  in  his  charity,  he 
believed  in  the  good  old  maxim  that  charity  begins  at 
homo.  Mrs  Billings'  mother  was  a  native  of  Charles- 
ton. S<juth  Carolina,  and  having  the  misfortune  to 
lose  her  own  mother  in  infancy,  was  reared  in  the 
family  of  friend.s,  to  whom  she  was  as  a  daughter, 
requiting  their  care  with  filial  duty  and  affection. 

Of  Mrs  Billings  herself  it  will  only  be  said  that 
while  her  culture  and  n^finement  were  in  thorough 
ke(!i)iiig  with  her  husband'is  character,  slie  was  one  to 
whom  all  other  cares  gave  way  to  the  cares  of  her 
funiilv  and  household.  With  her  husband  also  she 
shared  deep  religious  sentiments,  his  devotion  to  the 
cause  he  loved  so  well,  his  broad  and  unobtrusive 
charity.      Of  their  seven  children  two  ha\e  alnsady 


V 


FREDERICK  BILUNGS. 


139 


i 


passed  away,  the  eldest  son,  Parmly,  a  native  of  San 
Francisco,  in  1888,  and  the  third,  Ehrick,  in  the  fol- 
lowing year.  The  latter  was  a  young  man  of  seven- 
teen, one  possessed  of  a  philosophical  temperament, 
and  of  rare  maturity  of  thought.  It  was  on  account 
of  his  failing  health  that,  in  1887,  the  family  made  a 
trip  to  California,  but  without  avail.  Between  him 
and  his  father  there  existed  a  most  beautiful  and 
touching  affection,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  loss  of  his  two  sons,  within  so  brief  an  interval, 
hastened  his  own  end.  In  the  order  of  their  birth, 
Laura,  Frederick,  Mary,  Elizabeth,  and  Richard  are 
the  names  of  those  who  remain. 

In  less  than  two  years  after  his  marriage  Mr  Bill- 
ings closed  up  his  affairs  in  San  Francisco,  and  in 
1864  settled  himself  in  the  picturesque  village  of 
Woodstock.  In  1869  he  purchased  the  homestead  of 
Charles  Marsh,  the  father  of  George  P.  Marsh, 
together  with  its  adjoining  estate,  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  in  the  state  of  Vermont.  The  residence 
he  twice  rebuilt,  and,  says  the  historian  of  Wood- 
stock, "he  went  on  making  additions  and  improve- 
ments, till  at  length  in  the  extent  of  territory,  in 
the  variety  and  orderly  arrangements  of  the  various 
parts  of  thiM  wide  domain,  and  in  the  convenience  and 
elegance  of  the  buildings  erected  thereon,  his  hoii?*^ 
resembled  one  of  the  baronial  estates  of  the  old  world, 
and  was  not  surpassed  in  these  respects,  and  in 
beauty  of  situation,  by  any  similar  establishment  in 
New  England." 

To  this  home,  whenever  the  cares  of  business  per- 
mitted, he  returned  on  each  occasion  with  a  greater 
relish,  and  perliaps  among  ail  the  titles  whicli  he  held, 
as  president  or  trustee  of  some  of  the  most  powerful 
corporations  in  the  world,  tliere  were  none  that 
pleased  him  so  much  as  that  of  Frederick  Billings  of 
Woodstock.  Here  was  everthing  needed  for  the  en- 
tertainment of  his  guests,  as  welcome  as  they  were 
numerous,  and  nowhere  else  could  be  witnessed  greater 


'M. 


I   :li 


I  r 


CENTRAUZATION   OF  POWER. 


1 
III 


Ih 


hospitality.  And  yet  it  was  in  the  company  of*  his 
wife  and  children  that  his  heart  found  most  content. 
Never  was  there  a  more  affectionate  husband  and 
father;  never  a  more  devoted  son,  nor  one  more  care- 
ful to  provide  for  his  parents  every  comfort  that 
thought  could  devise.  Especially  between  himself 
and  his  mother  there  was  a  bond  of  attachment  such 
as  is  seldom  witnesbed  in  this  relationship.  She  was 
a  woman  of  noble  characteristics,  partaking  indeed  of 
the  heroic,  one  of  those  strong,  energetic  women  who 
have  given  to  New  England  so  many  of  the  great  ones 
of  the  earth.  While  an  admirable  managei',  keeping 
in  perfect  order,  from  cellar  to  attic,  everything  that 
her  household  contained,  she  was  yet  a  woman  of  cul- 
ture, well  read,  and  a  brilliant  conversationalist.  To 
her  influence  Mr  Billings  was  ever  loyal,  and  from  her 
he  inherited  his  strengtli  of  purpose,  his  promptness 
of  action,  and  above  all  his  religious  faith.  It  was,  as 
I  have  said,  at  one  time  his  intention  to  prepare  him- 
self for  the  ministry,  and  from  this  he  was  only  pre- 
vented by  the  death  of  liis  eldest  brother,  thus 
leaving  him  to  })rovide  in  part  ft)r  the  support  of  the 
family.  With  his  first  savings  he  purchased  for 
them  a  pleasant  home  in  Woodstock,  and  thenceforth 
left  nothing  undone  that  would  insure  their  comfort. 
*'  Mother,"  he  said,  when  about  to  set  forth  for  Cali- 
foriiia,  "you  shall  hear  from  mv.  constantly  unless  my 
right  hand  becomes  paralyzed." 

It  was  a  peaceful  and  happy  life  which  Mr  Billings 
led  in  liis  Woodstock  home,  one  in  which  the  only 
fault  was,  tliat  in  his  earnest  desire  for  the  happiness 
of  others,  he  assumed  too  many  cares  and  responsi- 
bilities. 

On  his  estate  he  might  be  seen  w>;rking  side  by  side 
with  his  ujcn,  in  th<^  spring  planting  the  hills  with 
trees,  which  he  set  out  by  the  hundred.  Forestry 
he  studied  from  the  writings  of  George  1*.  Marsh, 
especially  as  to  the  climatu-  clianges  caused  by  the  dev- 
astation of  forests,      hy  his  i  \aniple  th<!  neighboring 


FREDERICK  BILLINGS. 


141 


farmers  were  induced  to  preserve  their  woodlands, 
and  themselves  to  plant  with  trees  their  barren  hill- 
sides. In  the  management  of  his  farm  he  brought  to 
bear  the  same  faculty  of  organization  that  he  had 
displayed  in  the  control  of  railroads,  or  in  the  conduct 
of  lawsuits.  In  everything  he  was  a  thorough  man, 
an  exact  man,  and  whatsoever  his  hand  found  to 
do  he  did  with  all  his  might,  never  resting  satisfied 
with  anything  short  of  the  best.  Even  when  his  task 
was  so  accomplished  as  to  satisfy  his  own  critical 
judgment,  if  any  improvement  suggested  itself,  he  ^ 
spared  neither  time  nor  expense  in  carrying  it  out. 

A  man  of  such  intensity  of  nature  could  not  be 
otherwise  than  a  leader  of  men ;  nor,  while  ut- 
terly free  from  all  self-conceit,  did  he  fail  to  be  con- 
scious of  his  own  powers,  to  hold  them  in  just 
appreciation,  and  to  entertain  for  himself  that  self-re- 
spect without  which  no  one  can  gain  the  respect  of 
others.  Above  all  things  he  detested  shams  of  what- 
ever kind,  and  when  he  saw  men  living  a  fictitious 
life,  appearing  before  the  world,  or  attempting  to  ap- 
pear, other  than  they  were,  he  did  not  hesitate,  when 
occasion  required,  to  give  reproof  as  keen  as  the  sur- 
geon's blade.  And  yet  there  were  nouo  more  ready 
to  apologize  for  a  hasty  expression,  even  though  v.'cll 
deserved,  and  to  make  amends  to  the  person  aggrieved. 
Kindness  of  heart  was  one  of  the  distinguishing  traits 
of  his  character,  and  even  during  his  last  illness,  when- 
ever he  heard  of  a  case  of  distress,  he  would  forget 
his  own  sufferings  while  instructing  wife  or  daughter 
to  send  relief.  To  supply  the  needs  of  others  was  to 
him  a  privilege  rather  than  a  burden,  and  while  es- 
teemed for  the  number  and  magnitude  of  his  charities, 
he  was  none  the  less  esteemed  for  the  spirit  in  which 
they  were  bestowed. 

To  the  few  survivors  among  our  California  pioneers 
the  face  and  figure  of  Mr  Billings  are  already  familiar. 
Some  five  feet  ten  inches  in  stature,  in  youth  lie  was 
of  slender  build,  though  becoming  somewhat  portly 


142 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER, 


as  he  advanced  in  years.  His  features  were  massive, 
but  well  proportioned,  and  regular  in  contour,  with 
broad  expansive  brow,  and  the  head,  upward  from  the 
ears,  of  unusual  width,  its  formation  indicating  power, 
stability  of  character,  and  intellectuality.  His  ex- 
pression was  pleasing,  attractive,  and  magnetic.  His 
nature  was  the  reverse  of  combative,  and  of  all  things 
he  dreaded  a  controversy,  though  once  drawn  into  it 
he  would  never  fail  to  hold  his  own.  From  political 
conflicts  he  always  withdrew,  even  where  his  friends 
were  involved.  Thus  when  his  law  partner,  A.  C. 
Peachy,  was  a  candidate  for  Congress,  causing  no  lit- 
tle derangement  in  the  business  of  his  office,  he  took 
refuge  in  the  country  until  the  election  was  over. 

But  with  all  his  zeal  and  earnestness  of  character, 
Mr  Billings  was  by  no  means  given  to  austerity. 
On  the  contrary,  he  was  somewhat  luxurious  in  his 
habits,  and  by  no  means  averse  to  a  rational  enjoy- 
ment of  the  good  things  of  life.  When  a  bachelor — 
and  lie  did  not  marry  until  his  thirty-ninth  year — 
he  was  fond  of  his  club  and  of  club  life,  of  its  com- 
forts and  sociability,  and  was  accustomed  to  entertain 
with  hearty  and  lavish  hospitality.  His  cordiality, 
ready  wit,  and  brilliant  conversation  made  him  a  de- 
lightful host. 

And  now  we  must  take  our  leave  of  one,  over  the 
simple  record  of  whose  life  his  biographer  fain  would 
linger.  Coming  to  these  shores  with  the  argonauts, 
and  leaving  them  with  the  deepest  regret,  for  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  century  he  was  a  prominent  figure 
in  several  of  the  national  enterprises  for  which  the 
age  is  memorable.  During  all  these  years  he  labored 
incessantly,  and  never  could  he  find  relief  from  the 
grievous  load  of  his  responsibilities;  for  such  men  are 
rare  and  their  place  cannot  readily  be  filled,  men  who, 
with  the  faculty  to  organize,  combine  also  the  ability 
to  execute.  But  while  directing  son)e  of  the  greatest 
financial  and  railroad  (!iiterpris(!S  of  the  age,  his  time 
and  thoughts  were  required  also  for  other  purposes, 


FREDERICK   BILLINGS. 


143 


as  for  the  control  of  church  committees,  for  affairs 
relating  to  education,  to  charity,  to  science  and  art, 
to  politics,  and  to  many  other  matters,  in  all  of  which 
he  was  as  much  at  home  as  in  the  conduct  of  his 
own  business.  No  wonder  that  he  died  younger 
than  might  have  been  expected  of  a  man  of  his  vigor- 
ous constitution.  There  are  men  who  in  their  lifetimo 
can  accomplish  the  work  of  several  lives ;  and  such  a 
man  was  Frederick  BilHngs. 

For  many  years  Mr  Billings  had  been  suffering 
from  heart  disease,  and  from  other  ailments  caused  by 
the  strain  on  his  nervous  system,  and  by  the  stress  of 
overwork.  At  length,  so  infirm  became  his  health 
that  only  by  careful  dieting,  by  retiring  early,  and 
avoiding  all  social  gatherings,  could  he  preserve  such 
a  measure  of  strength  as  would  enable  him  to  per- 
form his  daily  task.  Thus  for  a  time  he  remained  at 
his  post,  until  on  Christmas  eve  of  1889  he  was 
stricken  with  paralysis.  Still  for  many  months  he 
lingered,  and  early  in  the  following  summer  there 
were  even  faint  hopes  of  his  recovery.  But  as  the 
summer  faded  into  autumn  his  vital  powers  declined, 
and  he  suffered  intensely  from  angina  pectoris.  At 
length,  on  the  evening  of  September  30,  1890,  he 
quietly  passed  away,  with  the  resignation  and  fortitude 
of  a  Christian. 

In  "  the  old  white  meeting  house,"  or  rather  in  the 
structure  which  Mr  Billings  had  erected  in  its  place, 
the  funeral  obsequies  were  held,  in  the  pres«^niee  of 
such  an  audience  as  had  never  before  been  asBt-aiblod 
in  the  quiet  village  of  Woodstock.  Among  them 
were  the  president  and  several  of  the  trustees  an»l 
faculty  of  the  university  of  Vermont:  leading  ofhi-ials 
of  the  Northern  Pacific  and  other  raih\>ads,  and  a 
number  of  prominent  men,  not  only  from  \\  ruiont,  but 
from  every  section  of  the  eastern  states.  After  ti>e 
opening  hymn,  an  invocation  was  d*;iwered  by  s^e 
Reverend  Moses  Kidder,  followed  by  a  !*ccond  hymn 
and  reading  of  scripture  by  the  pastor  ot"  the  chorch. 


i^  i 


144 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER. 


h 


ij  I 


Then  came  an  eloquent  and  touching  address  from 
Doctor  Buckham,  president  of  the  university,  who 
Belected  as  his  text  the  passage  from  the  second  book 
of  Samuel :  "  Know  ye  not  that  there  is  a  prince  and 
a  great  man  fallen  this  day  in  Israel  ?" 

"Standing  here  to-day,"  be  said,  "by  the  coffin  of  Mr  Billings,  not  to 
perform  the  duties  of  pastor  to  people,  but  rather  to  speak  among  friends 
of  a  friend  whom  we  have  all  loved,  I  shall  not  restrict  myself  to  the  forms 
of  funeral  discourse,  but  shall  give  free  voice  to  those  feeliugs  of  affection 
and  grief  of  which  all  our  hearts  are  full.  Let  friendsliip  have  her  first, 
natural,  impulsive  outburst;  with  calmness,  reflection,  and  sober  leminis- 
cence,  let  religion  afterwards  bring  her  solemn  teachings.  Do  not  think 
that  these  scripture  words  herald  an  elaborate  eulogy.  Nothing  is  farther 
from  my  intention,  as  nothing  nuuld  be  farther  from  his  wishes,  or  from  the 
quiet  and  simple  ordering  of  this  service.  Eulogy  will  have  a  fitting  place 
on  some  other  occasion.  And  rarely  has  eulogy  a  worthier  theme  than  that 
occasion  will  furnish.     Many  voices  will  mingle  in  it.     Commerce,  enter- 

Erisc,  art,  learning,  charity,  patriotism,  religion,  all  will  claim  the  right  to 
e  heard,  and  to  add  their  several  notes  to  the  full  harmony  of  the  strain. 
But  ours  to-day  is  a  humbler  and  yet  a  tenderer  and  more  sacred  office.  We, 
his  friends,  you,  his  neighbors  and  townsmen,  the  men  and  women  who 
have  grown  up  witii  him,  wlio  knew  him  in  days  of  youth  and  hardship,  and 
whom  with  growing  affection  he  has  loved  in  his  days  of  prosperity  and 
ripened  manhood,  we  have  gatiiered  here  in  this  church  which  he  built  in 
loving  memory  of  tlie  fathers  and  motliers,  his  and  yours,  whose  piety  was 
dear  to  him  and  to  you,  we  have  gatiiered  here,  not  to  speak  and  to  hear 
BUch  stately  words  of  well-deserved  praise  as  of  others  none  could  speak  so 
well  as  he,  but  to  talk  to  one  another  iu  homely,  heartfelt  praise  of  the  friend 
we  have  lost;  to  solace  our  grief  by  recounting  tlie  virtues  which  endeared 
him  to  us;  to  give  utterance  to  thnse  feelings  of  admiration,  of  gratitude, 
of  love,  which  both  nature  and  religion  encourage  in  us;  and  then  as  Chris- 
tians, Willi  Christian  submission,  and  faith,  and  hope,  to  lay  his  body  by  the 
bodies  of  his  parents,  and  his  children,  and  his  townsmen  of  many  genera- 
tions, in  that  beautiful  spot  where  many  of  you  will  aLso  in  due  time  be 
gathered  to  him  and  to  his  fathers  and  yours.  Thus  I  know,  and  you  know, 
he  wouM  have  bid  me  speak.  And  though,  as  one  of  old,  it  is  hard  to  set 
limits  to  oL.r  feelings  for  uuch  a  man,  I  shall  liope  not  to  offend  that  gentle 
and  motlest  spirit  whose  presence  is  all  about  us  to-day. 

"I  trust  now,  that  it  is  strictly  in  keeping  with  all  this,  to  say  that  this 
verso  of  scripture  not  only  descril)es  him  most  aptly  as  I  conceive  of  him, 
but  will  commend  itself  to  you  all  as  well-chosen  and  appropriate.  How 
many  times  has  it  already  been  said  of  him,  in  In.s  lifetime,  he  was  a 
princely  man,  a  man  of  royal  character,  and  kingly  actions.  It  is  not  ne- 
cessary to  describe  what  we  mean  by  these  expressions.  There  is  a  typo  of 
ciiaracter,  larire,  magnanimouM,  not  free  from  faults  hut  free  from  petty 
faults,  Abraham  not  Isaac,  Job  not  the  three  friends.  Lather  not  Erasmus, 
to  whom  we  all  with  one  consent  award  the  sceptre,  and  to  whose  sceptre  we 
willingly  bow.  The  coming  of  these  men  where  and  when  they  do,  is  the 
mystery  of  providence.  Happy  the  people  to  whom  they  come.  Happy 
and  i)roud  the  city,  or  more  likely  the  little  country  town,  in  which  they 
spring  up,  and  which  they  render  forever  memorable.  Mr  Billin'.>;s  belonged 
to  this  type  of  men.  Without  claiming  for  him  comparison  with  the  men 
alluded  to,  we  may  contitlently  say  of  liim  that  ho  was  of  their  mould. 
Like  his  own  house  on  the  hill  overtopping  with  unpretentious  and  benignant 
■uperiority  all  the  other  houses  of  the  village,  so  he  towers  above  the  rest 
of  us  in  native  magnitude  and  force  of  character.  And  one  very  interesting 
thing  about  this  eminence  ia  that  while  nobody  ever  questioned  it,  I  believe 


FREDERICK  BILLINGS. 


145 


1 


nobody  ever  resented  it.  I  doubt  if  the  man  lives  who  ever  grudged  Mr 
Billings  his  natural  superiority — mark  that  it  was  real  and  not  a  fictitious 
superiority,  thatOod  has  set  his  own  seal  on  him  to  give  the  world  assurance 
of  a  man. 

"I  note  this  princely  character  first  in  his  endowments.  In  his  intellect- 
ual, his  emotional,  his  moral,  his  executive  qualities,  he  was  a  gifted  man, 
and  his  gifts  were  of  the  large  and  royal  kind.  One  of  the  baffling  problems 
of  God's  moral  government  is  the  diversity  in  human  endowments.  The 
psalmist  was  perplexed  with  the  difference  in  men's  circumstances;  much 
more  perplexing,  oecause  seemingly  more  unequal  and  arbitrary,  is  the  dif- 
ference in  their  sifts.  It  is  so  easy  for  one  man  and  so  veiy  hard  for 
another  to  do  and  to  be  what  all  men  like  to  do  and  to  be.  But  Iiowever 
l.ard  it  may  be  to  reconcile  ourselves  to  this  fact,  it  is  open  to  us  to  make 
'^his  good  use  of  it:  we  can  dwell  with  generous  gratitude  upon  the  existence 
of  these  wonderful  gifts.  If  we  are  not  gifted,  somebody  else  is,  and  his 
gifts  greaten  and  glorify  the  whole  humanity  of  which  we  are  a  part.  And 
this  is  comparatively  easy  when  the  gifts  in  question  are  made  gracious  by 
iKiing  enveloped  in  a  winning  moral  character,  when  they  do  iiot  issue  in 
mere  intellectual  cleverness,  but  in  the  large-mindedness  and  large-hearted- 
iiess  of  the  man  who  is  gifted  on  all  siUes  of  his  nature. 

"You  will  all  agree  with  me  that  Mr  Bilhngs  had  great  emotional  gifts. 
He  was  richly  endowed  in  the  region  of  tiie  affections.  He  had  the  capacity 
for  deep  and  strong  love  for  kindred,  for  friends,  for  good  men  and  women, 
for  home,  and  country,  and  God.  His  susceptibilities  were  quick  and  tender, 
lie  was  easily  stirred  to  enthusiasm  by  the  sight  or  the  thought  of  anything 
noble  or  lovely:  and  correspondingly  intense  was  his  power  of  indignation 
against  anythin;.'  unworthy  or  wrong.  Herein  lay  the  secret  of  his  mar- 
vellous oratory. 

"  Probably  no  n»an  that  our  state  has  ever  produced,  and  few  men  of  our 
time,  had  such  power  to  arouse  and  move  and  sway  the  hearts  of  an  audience 
as  Mr  Billings  liad.  It  may  have  been  that  this  part  of  his  nature  was  in  ex- 
cess— tliat  his  vehement  and  passionate  affections  urged  him  into  utterances 
and  activities  tiiat  were  too  great  a  strain  upon  his  physical  powers.  But  it 
was  no  more  possible  for  him  to  restrain  and  silence  those  ardent  sympathies 
and  antipathies,  and  to  be  calm  and  impassive,  than  it  is  for  another  man  to 
call  into  exercise  emotions  which  he  has  not,  and  to  glow  and  bum  with  affec- 
tion when  he  ought.  I  can  imagine  that  with  a  less  fervid  temperament  he 
might  have  lived  ten  years  longer;  but  I  cannot  imagine  that  he  would  have 
consented  to  live  a  day  longer  by  being  untrue  to  that  warm,  loving,  affec- 
tionate nature  which  God  had  given  liim,  and  which  was  as  vital  a  part  of 
liim  as  the  blood  in  his  veins. 

"  Mr  Billings  was  great  and  princely  also  in  his  activities  and  enterprises. 
Most  men  soon  come  to  the  limit  of  their  abilities.  Up  to  a  certain  point 
they  grow  with  their  occupation  and  s.;uceed  in  it.  But  sooner  or  later  there 
comes  a  time  when  the  event,  the  con' plication  of  business,  the  case  in  court, 
the  monetary  crisis,  is  too  large  for  th.^  man,  and  ruins  liim.  Then  it  is  that 
the  great  man  shows  himself.  He  grows  with  events  and  always  outgrows 
them.  By  dint  of  struggling  with  a  great  enterprise  he  becomes  great  in 
capacity  and  power.  Numerous  and  towering  obstacles  which  daunt  other 
men  rouse  and  hearten  him.  Continental  enterprises  can  be  carriiut  tlu'ough 
only  liy  men  who  have,  so  to  speak,  c<mtinental  abilities.  Such  ahililiea, 
without  room  for  question,  Mr  Billings  possessed.  Of  the  great  projects  in 
the  business  world  with  which  he  was  connected,  and  in  which  his  part  was 
always  that  of  the  daring  and  masterful  executive  head  and  will,  it  is  u.it  in 
plaice  now  to  speak.  But  it  is  very  signitic.itit  that  having  .sigiutli/*'i  iii« 
l)usinea8  career  by  carrying  to  completion  a  great  transcontinental  railway 
he  shoiilil  in  his  last  years  have  bei'ome  deeply  interested  in  the  latest  pro- 
ject for  an  interoceanic  canal,  and  have  sighed  because  h<'  was  not  still  in  his 
40th  or  50th  year,  that  lie  might  have  tiuahed  that  also  to  a  sueuwssful  "^xult. 
What  such  a  man  might  have  accomplished  in  some  of  the  inuunierabie  pos- 
c.  It.-I    10 


V 


14« 


CENTRALIZATION  OF  POWER, 


i 


aibilities  which  still  await  the  man  of  power  to  oonceire  and  execute,  if  be 
could  have  had  twenty  years  more  of  phyaioal  vigor,  the  vigor  which  other 
men  of  the  same  age  will  have  to  spend  upon  triviauties,  it  almost  takes  away 
one's  breath  to  imagine. 

"Again,  Mr  Billings  was  princely,  yes,  royal,  in  his  munificence.  This  also 
has  been  said  of  him  a  thousand  times,  and  is  for  that  reason  the  more  im- 
pressive when  we  say  it  here  to-day.  And  though  many  and  many  others 
may  say  aad  do  say  this  of  him,  none  have  a  better  reason  for  saying  it  than 
you  and  I — than  X  ^ho  Bay  it  daily  with  gratitude  to  Ood  whose  special 
grace  it  is  that  makes  one  the  liberal  and  cheerful  giver  whom  the  Lord 
loveth,  and  whom  all  men  love.  A  nobler  gift,  a  gift  more  benign  and  beau- 
tiful in  every  feature  and  aspect  of  it,  than  that  which  Mr  Billings  has  made 
to  his  alma  mater,  no  most  affectionate  and  devoted  son  ever  miule  or  could 
make.  And  you,  in  order  to  be  reminded  of  his  munificence,  you  have  only 
to  look  arouna  you.  This  church  and  the  adjoining  chapel,  his  spontaneous 
and  unsolicited  gift  to  this  church,  his  offering  rather  to  filial  piety  and  the 
worship  of  God,  and  the  saving  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ,  this  tells  you  better 
than  any  words  can  tell,  in  language  through  which  he  being  dead  yet  speak- 
6th  and  will  long  speak  to  you,  what  a  joy  he  had  in  giving  and  spending 
that  others  may  be  helped  and  lifted  up  and  saved.  But  his  was  not  only  the 
munificence  that  poured  out  its  bounty  in  splendid  largesses  here  and  there; 
his  also  was  the  hand  that  scattered  benefits  every  day  like  the  gentle  rain 
upon  the  place  beneath.  Not  the  fewest  in  number,  nor  the  least  sincere 
of  those  who  mourn  to-day,  will  be  those  whose  prayers  for  daily  bread  have 
been  answered  through  Mr  Billings'  thoughtful  and  watchful  kindness. 

"And  now  it  only  remains  to  say  that  Mr  Billings  was  a  prince  in  his  faith. 
It  is  characteristic  of  a  large-minded  and  large-hearted  man  to  have  full  faith 
in  truth,  in  goodness,  in  good  men,  and  most  of  all  in  (jod.  A  timid,  dis- 
trustful, suspicious  spirit,  which  challenges  every  appeal  to  its  confidence, 
and  guards  every  concession  with  minute  and  elaborate  and  subtile  reserva- 
tions, such  a  temper  belongs  to  feeble  souls  and  small  natures.  A  true  man 
ii  faithful  to  his  own  trusts,  and  that  makes  it  easy  for  him  to  believe  that 
other  men  are  faithful,  and  that  God  is  supremely  faithful.  For  what  is 
religious  faith  but  b(3lieving  that  God  is  faithful,  and  committing  one's  soul 
to  him  in  well  doing  as  unto  a  faithful  creator  ?  I  am  not  sure  that  Mr  Bil- 
lings' faith  in  God  was  not  uninterrupted  and  serene.  Indeed,  I  believe 
that  God's  discipline  does  not  attain  its  highest  beneficence  without  bringing 
one's  faith  sometimes  to  that  point  of  tension  at  which  doubt  begins.  But 
I  am  sure  that  out  of  every  such  trial  his  faith  became  stronger  and  purer 
aud  simpler.  He  must  have  often  remem1>ered  his  own  question  to  his  dear 
Ehrick,  as  to  what  he  thought  about  during  his  lonely  and  sleepless  hours, 
and  the  heroic  reply  of  the  little  philosopher,  that  lie  thought  'about  the 
problems  of  life,'  and  the  cheerful  faith  which  prompted  him  to  write  on  the 
margin  of  a  magazine  which  had  been  left  with  him,  '  the  futuio  is  all  right,' 
and  have  prayed  that  he  might  have  the  child's  faitji.  And  we  believe  that 
lie  did  have  it;  that  this  long  period  of  bodily  disability  and  mental  clear- 
ness helped  him  to  attain  to  a  higher  degree  of  it;  that  suffering  instead 
of  obscuring  served  to  brighten  and  refine  it;  and  that  in  his  last  days,  as 
never  before,  he  humbled  himself  and  l)ecame  as  a  little  child,  and  entered 
into  the  kingdom  of  Heaven  with  a  child's  unqucHtioning,  unreserved,  con- 
tented faith.  And  so  this  energetic,  untiring  spirit,  which  esteemed  'noth- 
ing done  if  aught  remained  to  do,'  which  was  inclined  to  blame  itself  first, 
if  there  was  failure  anywhere,  settled  calmly  down  into  that  confiding 
acquiescence  which  knows  whom  it  believes,  and  that  he  is  able  to  keep  that 
which  is  committed  to  him,  and  rests  itself  and  all  dear  to  it,  lovingly  in  the 
arms  of  (iod. " 

Oil  its  conclusion,  a  prayer  was  offered  by  Doctor 
Van  Dyke,  who  afterward  remarked  of  the  deceased  : 


FREDERICK  BILLINGS. 


147 


"  While  his  was  a  full,  strong,  successful  life,  the  best 
thing  about  it  and  the  greatest  was  that  he  had  the 
grace  of  God  in  his  heart."  A  third  hymn  was  sung, 
commencing  with  the  line,  "  O,  holy  Savior,  friend 
unseen";  the  benediction  was  pronounced  by  the 
Reverend  J.  F.  Brodie,  and  then,  in  the  quiet 
churchyard  of  Woodstock,  overshadowed  by  the  eter- 
nal hills,  whose  autumnal  glories  were  radiant  with 
the  beams  of  the  noon-day  sun,  the  remains  of  Fred- 
erick Billings  were  laid  at  rest. 

In  truth,  a  great  man  and  a  prince  had  fallen  in 
Israel,  few  better  or  purer  have  passed  from  the 
scene  of  their  earthly  labors  to  enter  on  their  reward. 
In  the  record  of  his  life  will  be  found  an  example 
that  cannot  fail  to  reproduce  itself,  and  to  make  bet- 
ter the  lives  of  others  by  its  beauty,  its  graces,  and 
its  inspiration.  Not  for  his  wealth,  not  for  his 
worldly  success,  or  for  the  exalted  rank  which  he 
held  among  those  whom  the  world  delights  to  honor, 
but  for  his  noble.  Christian  manliness ;  for  his  devo- 
tion to  the  cause  of  his  country,  to  the  cause  of  God, 
to  the  benefits  he  has  conferred  on  mankind,  will  the 
name  of  Frederick  Billings  be  held  in  lasting  esteem. 


ir 


,-m 


V, 


1' 

ilp  I 


CHAPTER  III. 


f.  ■  ■ 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 

Dawn  of  the  Later  Age — Spain  and  heb  History — Potentates  ani» 
Popes— Extension  of  Discovery — A  New  World  Found — Hot  and 
Cold  Climates  as  Civilizebs — Indigenous  American  Culture — 
Spaniards  in  the  New  World— Kingcraft  and  Priestcrajt— 
The  Middle  Ages  in  Central  America — Three  Centuries  of  Dead 
Activities — Medieval  Mexico — Life  of  Benito  Juarez— Revolu- 
tionary Period  of  Mexico  and  Subsequently — The  Indian  Boy  of 
Oajaca— Lawyer,  Governor,  Chief  Justice,  and  President  of  the 
Republic — Struqolb  fob  Intellectual  Liberty — Pronunciamientos 
AND  Principles — French  Intervention — Firmness  of  Juarez  under 
Trials— Failure  and  Death  of  Maximilian — Later  Measures — 
Close  of  a  Glorious  Career. 

Thus  far  we  have  considered  the  elements  of  domi- 
nation throughout  the  world  of  matter  and  of  mind, 
glancing  first  at  the  forces  inherent  in  nature,  then 
following  the  pathway  of  human  development  from 
the  earliest  historic  record  to  the  exaltation  of  western 
Europe  prior  to  the  period  of  trans- Atlantic  discovery. 
We  will  now  cross  this  Sea  of  Darkness,  aqd  continue 
the  same  line  of  thought  as  we  enter  upon  the  some- 
what more  specific  illustrations  demanded  by  the  sub- 
ject in  relation  to  America,  and  particularly  to  the 
latest  developed  portioiis  of  the  continent. 

At  the  dawn  of  the  modern  era  of  development, 
when  saltpetre,  movable  types,  and  the  magnetic 
needle  appeared  to  aid  man  in  casting  off  the  media3va! 
fetters,  the  Iberian  peninsula  stood  foremost  hi  enter 
prising  achievements,  particularly  in  starting  anew 
the  soul-stirring  migrations  of  the  Aryan  race.  For 
this  it  was  well  adapted,  both  by  political  supremacy 


\ 


4 


('HUISTIAN,  M08LKM,  AND  JKW. 


149 


and  geographic  position.  Its  people  possessed  the 
ambition,  hardihood,  and  energy  instilled  by  long  and 
victorious  campaigns,  which  had  left  in  them  a  thirst 
for  fresh  conquests,  and  for  adventure  beyond  the 
narrow  limits  of  their  horizon,  while  far  to  the  west  and 
south  was  an  unswept  sea,  challenging  investigation. 

They  were  a  strong  race,  these  Spaniards,  before 
degeneration  set  in,  even  though  their  vigor  was  less 
enduring  than  susceptible  of  a  momentary  but  extreme 
tension  of  will  and  nerve;  their  origin  a  mixture  of 
probably  aboriginal  Turanians  with  different  Aryan 
races  leavened  with  Phoenician  and  Carthaginian 
colonists,  and  especially  with  Roman  conquerors,  who 
left  the  impress  of  their  language  and  customs  upon 
the  people.  Then  poured  in  the  Teuton  hordes  to 
check  incipient  culture  and  corrupt  the  language.  An 
upland  region,  broken  by  mountains,  kept  apart  the 
native  tribes,  and  fostered  a  diversity  of  traits,  and  a 
heterogeneity  which  opened  the  way  for  invasion  and 
subjugation  by  the  Mohammedans.  In  the  north- 
western Pyrenees,  liberty  and  a  remnant  of  the  old 
nationality  were  nursed  by  heroes  like  Pelayo,  and 
gradually,  with  dismemberment,  and  a  flagging  war- 
rior spirit  among  the  Moors,  they  pressed  outward  to 
regain  the  lost  ground,  breaking  the  strength  of  the 
foe  at  Tolosa  early  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and 
finally  by  the  capture  of  Granada  terminating  a  con- 
test of  eight  centuries. 

It  was  an  anomalous  race,  a  medley  of  Christian, 
Moslem,  and  Jew,  of  infidel  and  believer;  the  Chris- 
tian with  his  sombre  garb  and  proselyting  tendencies, 
the  Mohammedan  with  his  fanaticism  and  his  seclu- 
sion of  women,  and  the  Jew  with  his  ancient  faith  and 
customs,  and  his  eager  enterprise.  Pastoral  life,  so 
widely  prevalent,  imparted  a  tendency  to  roaming  and 
adventure ;  the  long  fight  for  liberty  had  fostered  a 
sense  of  equality,  as  well  as  obstinacy  and  cruelty, 
the  latter  being  kept  alive  by  the  inquisition,  bull- 
baiting,  and  other  bloodv  entertainments.  Successful 


i  I' i 


ilH 


r\ 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


l^|Z8 

■50    ■"* 


us 


140 


IL25  i  1.4 


Eh 

H2.0 


1.6 


Photographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


23  WIST  MACN -4  WiT 

WHSTIR.N.Y.  USM 

(716)  •73-4S03 


. 


:4^ 


^o 


I'^ 


I  i 


i 


!  i   i ' 


150 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN   AMERICA. 


reconquests  had  brought  forth  a  large  class  of  nobles, 
with  Uie  attendant  pride  of  rank  and  chivalry,  the 
former  restrained  within  the  bounds  of  a  punctilious- 
ness enforced  by  the  wide  claim  to  hidalgoship.  In 
course  of  time,  the  Castilian  stepped  to  the  front  as 
the  leader  in  arms,  his  preeminence  being  also  dis- 
played in  more  refined  speech  and  manners. 

Such  was  the  nation  which  during  the  sixteenth 
century  extended  its  sway  over  half  the  world,  but 
only  to  decline  through  the  enervation  of  wealth  and 
indolence,  aided  by  ignorance  and  superstition. 

Portugal  lay  nearest  the  ocean,  into  which  adjacent 
Africa  and  its  isles  lured  her  mariners,  under  the 
leadership  of  Prince  Henry,  a  noble  embodiment  of 
the  dawning  revival  in  lofty  speculation,  and  love  for 
science  and  adventure.  Notwithstanding  the  timidity 
of  dimly-lighted  intelligence,  manifested  here  by  the 
slow  advance  of  navigation,  ships  were  surely  ap- 
proaching that  turning  point  round  Africa  which,  be- 
fore the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  to  lead 
the  Portuguese  to  golden  fields. 

With  less  practical  enterprise,  and  absorbed  by 
campaigns  against  the  Moors  and  the  consolidation 
of  her  empire,  Spain  might  have  remained  far  behind 
her  neighbor,  but  for  the  ripeness  of  time  pressing  to 
the  front  a  great  instrument  to  guide  her  people  into 
fresh  paths.  In  the  aspiring  nature  of  Columbus, 
strengthened  by  studies  and  struggles  in  knowledge, 
the  budding  idea  of  the  spherity  of  the  earth  found  an 
active  champion.  This  idea  grew,  and  became  in- 
tensified under  the  morbid  broodings  of  genius,  and  a 
belief  in  divine  instrumentality,  exciting  a  fervid  de- 
sire to  find  a  sea  route  to  the  Indies  by  sailing 
westward.  After  many  rebuffs,  jealousy  and  avarice 
at  length  induced  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  to  grant 
him  a  hearing.  Their  cooperation  gained,  Co- 
lumbus had  yet  to  overcome  the  obstacles  raised  by 
the  superstitious  dread  of  unknown  dangers.  But 
the  enthusiast  triumphed.     A  new  continent  was  dis- 


SPAIN  AND  PORTUOAL. 


m 


cJosed,  which  afforded  fresh  pastures  for  Europe's  sur- 
plus population.  The  pope  presumed,  indeed,  to  divide 
it  between  Spain  and  Portugal,  but  England  and 
others  chose  to  help  themselves  to  portions,  therein 
to  plant  the  germ  of  ennobling  liberty. 

The  desire  to  colonize  was  with  the  Spaniards  sec- 
ondary to  the  appetite  for  gold  and  lands,  with  do- 
minion over  the  natives.  Gold,  with  the  watchwords 
glory  and  godliness,  was  the  incentive  which  led  to 
enterprise,  to  fresh  discoveries  of  isles  and  continental 
shores,  and  to  the  attendant  pacifications,  as  conquest 
was  called.  Colonization,  nevertheless,  found  encour- 
agement in  connection  with  the  traffic  which  sprang 
up  with  the  aborigines.  The  docility  and  feebleness 
of  the  natives  led  to  their  oppression,  with  enforced 
labor  upon  their  own  soil.  The  collection  of  taxes 
authorized  by  the  government,  and  the  mandate  to 
convert  and  civilize  them,  were  the  legal  excuse  for 
planting  encomiendas,  under  which  the  Indians  were 
reduced  to  serfdom.  As  the  slaves  thus  made  cost 
nothing,  the  taskmasters  hesitated  not  upon  the 
slightest  provocation  freely  to  shed  the  blood  of  beings 
to  whom  a  soul  was  conceded  chiefly  through  the  in- 
fluence of  religion  and  lust;  for  if  the  savages  had  not 
souls,  they  were  beasts,  and  outside  the  pale  both  of 
piety  and  prostitution. 

lias  Casas  signalized  himself  as  the  apostle  of  the 
Indies,  but  in  his  pity  for  the  savages,  he  blindly  lent 
himself  to  the  introduction  of  the  hardier  negro  slaves. 
The  less  favorable  prospects  of  Africa  as  a  missionary 
field,  where  the  Mohammedans  held  the  advantage, 
withdrew  from  the  black  man  Christian  sympathy. 
This  and  other  selfish  measures  of  Spain  bore  bitter 
fruit  in  the  ultimate  loss  of  nearly  all  of  her  American 
provinces. 

The  Spaniards  in  their  discoveries  first  encountered 
land  in  tropical  America,  and  their  possessions  and 
operations  were  for  the  most  part  round  that  centre, 


;  il 


EJ 


•  I 


152 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


li; 


1 1 


though  extending  over  both  continents  far  to  the 
south  and  to  the  north.  But  however  favorable  a 
hot  climate  may  be  as  a  cradle  for  Infant  civilization, 
temperate  climates  develop  a  more  vigorous  race,  both 
in  body  and  mind.  The  south  basks  in  prolific  sun- 
shine, but  the  north  rules.  Nevertheless,  such  con- 
ditions partake  more  or  less  of  the  artificial  and 
temporary,  rather  than  of  the  natural  and  stable. 
Transplantation  can  be  successful  only  within  certain 
limits.  The  highest  culture,  modern  as  well  as  ancient, 
develops  best  in  the  open  air ;  witness  the  most  re- 
markable of  all  migrations,  that  to  southern  California 
to-day, — a  migration,  not  of  poor  adventurers  for  land, 
or  gold,  or  furs,  but  of  the  wealthy  and  refined,  for  a 
warm,  dry  climate,  with  healthful  surroundings. 
Avarice  no  longer  rules  supreme  in  America,  but 
other  influences  are  at  work,  with  promises  of  a  higher 
and  purer  culture.  There  are  three  causes  why 
Canada  is  so  slow  to  develop :  the  climate  is  cold,  the 
people  do  not  kill  off  their  savages,  and  nobody  can 
be  a  man  until  he  lets  loose  his  hold  on  his  mother's 
apron-strings. 

A  country  yielding  in  abundance '  and  variety  the 
staples  of  life  nmst  become  the  seat  of  a  large  popula- 
tion, unless  there  are  present  counteracting  causes. 
That  the  table-lands  of  Central  America  and  Mexico 
are  suited  to  the  wants  of  civilization  has  already  been 
demonstrated.  There  lived  the  Mayas  and  the  Na- 
huas,  each  with  an  indigenous  culture  far  above  any 
other  upon  the  continent  of  North  America.  That 
the  level  of  humanity  is  so  low  in  these  sections  at  the 
present  time  is  owing  to  several  causes.  First,  the 
mongrel  race;  the  Indians  were  not  killed  off  as  in 
the  United  States,  but  were  allowed  to  mix  their 
blood  with  that  of  the  rapidly  deteriorating  Spaniards, 
who  to  this  day  have  held  the  mastery,  grinding  into 
the  dust  the  weak  and  powerless,  and  preventing  the 
rise  of  a  sturdy  and  intelligent  middle  class,  which 
must  ever  be  the  bulwark  of  a  nation.    Add  to  this 


■ 


CLIMATE  CONDUCIVE  TO  CIVIUZATION. 


IM 


I    \ 


the  withering  effect  of  a  religion  whose  tenets  were 
all  opposed  to  free  thought  and  intellectual  advance- 
ment, and  we  have  cause  enough  why  the  people  are 
debased,  mentally  and   morally.     That  as  a  nation 
they  are  no  more  enterprising,  commercially  and  indus- 
trially, is  due  in  a  measure  to  the  miasmatic  border, 
which  checks  maritime  enterprise,  and  renders  life  and 
industry  on  the  seaboard  to  a  great  extent  impossible. 
Mexico,  situated  under  the  tropics,  though  at  such 
elevation  in  her  vast  interior  as  to  be  outside  of  the 
miasmatic  levels,  and  to  be  blessed  with  light  and 
pure  airs,  has  a  climate  at  once  uniform  and  diversi- 
fied.   The  temperature  of  any  locclity  is  almost  always 
the  same ;  but  several  localities  present  a  large  num- 
ber of  different  temperatures.     Comparatively  speak- 
ing, there  is  but  little  difference  between  winter  and 
summer,  except  that  one  is  dry  and  the  other  wet. 
On  the  border  are  always  found  the  tierras  calientes, 
hot,  damp,  insalubrious,  with  their  fertile  soil  impreg- 
nated with  a  superabundance  of  decayed  vegetable 
matter,  and  with    the   air   soft,  voluptuous,    febrile, 
tempting  to  indolence  and  repose.    Up  upon  the  cold 
levels  may  be  found  every  pocsible  degree  of  temper- 
ature.    Rain  is  common  in  the  eastern  slope  through- 
out the  year,  though  more  abundant  in  winter.     In 
regard  to  Central  America,  the  climate  on  the  Atlan- 
tic coast  is  mostly  insalubrious;  that  of  the  Pacific 
coast  nmch  better  in  every  respect,  the  h<eat  being 
less  oppressive,  because  the  atmosphere  is  drier  and 
purer.     Hence  the  latter  is  lined  with  towns  and  set- 
tlements, while  the  former  is  almost  uninhabited.    The 
average  temperature  of  Guatemala  city  is  72°,  Vera  Paz 
being  10°  warmer.     In  the  highlands,  there  is  a  lower 
temperature  than  in  any  other  part  of  Central  Amer- 
ica, and  the  people  are  noted  for  their  energy.     Sal- 
vador has  a  higher  temperature  than  Guatemala  and 
Honduraj,  but  the  heat  is  oppressive  only  in  some 
portions  of  the  coast.     Honduras  has  a  fine  climate, 
except  on  the  Atlantic  coast.     Nicaragua,  apart  from 


'i 


'11 


h 


k  I    i 
11         ( 


IM 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


Segovia,  which  borders  on  Honduras,  has  an  average 
temperature  in  the  lake  regions  of  80".  In  Costa 
Rica  there  is  almost  every  degree  of  temperature 
desired,  from  the  intense  heat  of  Punta  Arenas  to 
the  constp^nt  spring  of  San  Josd,  or  the  perpetual  au- 
tumn of  the  belt  above  Cartago.  Properly  speaking, 
there  is  no  dry  season  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Central 
America.  From  June  to  December,  the  Pacific  slope 
has  its  season  of  brief  rains.  No  portion  of  the  earth  pre- 
sents a  greaterdiversity  of  contour,  on  an  equal  extent 
of  surface,  or  a  greater  variety  of  climate.  An  un- 
broken chain  of  mountains,  at  least  to  Nicaragua  lake, 
covered  with  diversified  vegetation,  connects  the 
Andes  and  the  Rocky  mountains.  On  the  slopes  and 
summits  are  fine  table-lands,  some  of  them  very  ex- 
tensive, and  all  exceedingly  fertile.  Most  of  the 
highest  summits  are  volcanoes. 

We  see  that  generous  nature  provides  in  these 
countries  not  only  the  staples  for  food  and  raiment, 
but  likewise  the  means  of  recreation  and  unlimited 
instruction.  There  is  hardly  any  occupation  out  of 
which  an  energetic  and  intelligent  man  with  some 
capital  ma}'-  not  derive  profit.  Take  agriculture,  for 
instance ;  throw  away  the  old  sticks  the  natives  have 
used  from  pre-conquest  times  to  scratch  the  ground 
with,  bring  modern  ploughs  into  play,  and  the  differ- 
ence will  soon  be  apparent  in  increased  production. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  every  other  industry  in  the 
lines  of  marmfacture  and  trade.  The  natives  are  in- 
dustrious, well  disposed,  and  possess  facility  to  learn. 
But  they  must  be  taught  the  better  methods. 

It  was  predestined  that  America  should  be  con- 
quered by  European  monarchies,  and  held  in  depend- 
ency by  them.  The  Latin  races  of  southern  Europe 
took  Central  and  South  America.  Those  of  northern 
Europe  came  a  century  later  for  their  share  of  New 
World  territory,  and  appropriated  to  themselves  the 
northern  regions.  It  was  equally  predestined  that 
this  America  should  not  remain  forever  harnessed  to 


-6 


CENTRAL  AMERICA. 


m 


\  . 


:  i 


•<' 


those  monarchies.  The  Spanish- American  colonies 
were  ruled  upon  somewhat  contradictory  principles 
and  blind  traditions ;  with  selfish  preferences  for  the 
mother  country  and  those  born  therein ;  but  in  the 
early  part  of  the  present  century  seeds  were  sown 
of  political  and  ecclesiastical  reform,  which  were  to 
bear  good  fruit.  The  division  of  the  people  into 
castes  is  an  obstacle  to  progress.  In  the  empires  of 
the  world  this  is  the  comer-stone  of  despotism. 

With  the  independence  of  colonies  came  republican 
institutions,  recognizing  personal  liberty,  freedom  of 
thought,  no  less  than  national  independence.  These 
principles  were  proclaimed  long  before  the  people 
could  appreciate  them,  but  in  course  of  time  they 
will  better  understand  them.  American  institutions 
are  therefore  no  longer  in  danger  from  abroad.  Nor 
have  they  stopped  here ;  they  have  been  felt  by  the 
people  of  Europe,  who  are  fast  throwing  off  their 
effete  ideas,  and  enforcing  their  rights  as  freemen. 
The  danger  to  be  most  apprehended  lies  at  home,  in 
excessive  prosperity,  overweening  pride,  and  too  much 
confidence  in  our  own  powers  to  detect  and  ward  off 
dangers.  Much  can  be  done  to  counteract  conceit  and 
ignorance,  but  they  will  continue  to  be  the  foes  of  our 
new  civilization. 

In  studying  causes  and  effects  in  Mexico  and  Cen- 
tral America,  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  difficul- 
ties which  have  beset  their  people  in  the  task  of  con- 
solidating their  political  institutions,  and  developing 
their  material  interests.  In  strong  contrast  with  the 
immigrants  who  settled  in  the  regions  now  embraced 
in  the  United  States  of  America,  and  who  were  wont 
to  work  with  their  own  hands,  thus  becoming  pro- 
ducers, the  Spanish  settlers  compelled  the  aborigines 
to  work  for  them,  and  were  therefore  consumers 
without  being  producers.  Prior  to  the  war  of  seces- 
sion from  the  mother  country,  much  more  than  at  the 
present  time,  there  were  only  two  classes,  masters 
and  serfs,  the  former  ruling  over  and  living  by  the 


f 


'H: 


f  "Pi 


>-  4     Ir 


V 


106 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


:    t 


■  !!l 


labor  of  the  latter.  This  state  of  things  continued 
for  years  after  the  independence,  leaving  the  impress  of 
ignorant  servility,  in  which  the  masses  had  been  held 
for  centuries,  vividly  stamped  on  the  character  of  the 
poorer  classes.  Nevertheless,  a  change  for  the  better 
is  seen  in  later  years,  and  is  constantly  gaining  ground, 
as  a  result  of  the  diffusion  of  light  through  the  com- 
mon schools.  Hence  a  greater  degree  of  contentment 
and  a  consequent  greater  difficulty  in  arousing  public 
disturbances.  Anything  like  perfection  in  the  admin- 
istration of  government  has  not  been  reached,  but 
rulers  now  acknowledge  themselves,  in  pretence  at 
least,  to  be  the  servants  of  the  people,  and  appreciate 
the  fullness  of  their  responsibilities;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  masses,  having  availed  themselves  to 
some  extent  of  the  facilities  afforded  for  acquiring  in- 
struction, manifest  a  greater  interest  in  public  aftairs, 
from  those  of  the  municipality  to  the  administration 
of  the  supreme  executive  government.  Better  men 
are  called  to  the  front,  and  there  is  hardly  a  chance 
left  for  Santa  Annas,  Carreras,  or  other  dictators  or 
despots. 

The  church  from  the  old  colonial  times  had  been 
clothed  with  privileges,  owing  to  the  exemplary  labors 
in  some  respects,  of  its  founders,  and  the  mission- 
aries retained  until  recent  times  a  great  influ- 
ence with  the  masses.  Had  it  used  its  power  for 
good,  the  blessings  it  might  have  conferred  are  incal- 
culable; but  unfortunately,  like  all  human  powers,  in 
time  the  clergy  degenerated,  became  worldly,  caring 
more  for  their  privileges  and  rights  than  for  the  good 
of  souls.  Religion  in  Mexico  was  chiefly  exter- 
nal ceremonies,  adoration  of  images,  processions,  and 
other  spectacles.  The  old  pagan  and  idolatrous  prac- 
tices were  not  wholly  done  away  with,  and  new  ones 
had  been  introduced  which  brought  shekels  to  the 
clergy.  Hence  an  indifference  toward  religion  pre- 
vailed in  the  educated,  and  even  in  the  semi-educated, 
classes.     The  church  being  leagued  with  the  state,  the 


V. 


MEXICO. 


167 


priests  controlled  temporal  as  well  as  spiritual  affairs, 
using  the  government  as  a  tool;  in  which  preten- 
sion they  were  generally  upheld  by  despots  of  the 
Santa  Anna  type,  and  by  the  ignorant  and  fanatical 
masses.  The  people  at  last  opened  their  eyes  to  the 
fact  that  the  true  interests  of  religion  and  good  gov- 
ernment demanded  that  the  ministers  of  the  former 
should  no  longer  interfere  in  secular  affairs.  The 
struggle  was  long,  and  costly,  both  in  blood  and  treas- 
ure, but  the  good  cause  triumphed,  and  church  and 
state  were  separated,  to  the  improvement  of  both, 
religion  being  better  preserved  from  vicious  practices, 
the  church  being  purer,  while  the  state  is  showing 
how  judicious  was  its  action  in  that  direction  by  pay- 
ing due  attention  to  sanitary  laws,  asylums,  hospitals, 
etc. 

The  impulse  given  to  industries  and  trade,  espe- 
cially by  the  facilities  of  transportation,  telegraphic 
lines,  and  other  material  improvements,  has  tended  to 
render  labor  honorable,  affording  a  greater  variety  of 
occupations,  suited  to  individual  taste  and  fitness,  and 
increasing  compensation,  thus  heightening  ambition 
to  excel,  and  bringing  within  the  reach  of  the  intelli- 
gent and  industrious  comforts  of  which  they  were 
formerly  deprived. 

Mining  is  still  one  of  the  great  industries  of  Mexico, 
and  to  a  limited  extent  of  Central  America.  During 
the  Spanish  domination,  immense  quantities  of  precious 
metals  were  taken  out,  the  industry  being  the  life  of 
the  country.  It  afforded  labor,  though  poorly  re- 
quited, for  many  thousands  of  natives;  it  was  the 
supporter  of  agriculture  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mines, 
of  some  manufacturing,  and  of  transportation  of  sup- 
plies to  the  mining  camps,  and  of  the  metal  to  the 
ports  of  exportation.  Most  of  the  products  of  the 
mines  went  to  Spain,  the  real  benefit  to  Mexico  being 
small,  and  to  Spain  not  much  more.  Before  she  be- 
gan to  receive  the  enormous  products  of  the  American 
mines,  Spain  was  a  manufacturing  country,  but  with 


L 


>.      I'D 


I  li 


V. 


158 


DOMINATINCi  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


111: 


I; 


the  influx  of  precious  metals,  labor  and  every  kind  of 
industry  grew  vexatious;  men  became  indolent,  proud, 
and  foolish.  Foreigners  had  to  be  permitted  to  bring 
in  their  manufactured  goods,  to  pay  for  which  Spain 
and  her  colonies  were  drained  of  their  specie.  How- 
ever, it  is  generally  expected  that  some  of  the  benefits 
of  mining  when  carried  on  by  the  people  of  the 
country,  will  remain  at  home,  in  the  form  of  better 
developed  agriculture  and  commerce,  of  dwellings, 
gardens,  and  orchards ;  the  establishment  of  manumc- 
tories  and  foundries,  and  of  everything  conducive  to 
progress  and  wealth,  all  providing  comforts  of  life  for 
those  who  industriously  employ  their  brains  and 
hands. 

A  large  portion  of  the  poorer  classes  of  Mexico 
and  Central  America  occupy  a  peculiar  position ;  they 
are  not  slaves,  nor  are  they  free;  they  are  neither 
positively  progressive,  nor  absolutely  stationary. 
Still  they  are  now  more  free  and  progressive  than 
they  have  ever  before  been  since  the  coming  of  the 
Spaniards,  and  their  development  is  more  healthful 
than  it  was  for  a  time  immediately  succeeding  the 
war  of  independence.  During  the  three  centuries  of 
Spanish  domination,  the  government  and  clergy  kept 
the  masses  in  ignorance  and  inaction.  Now  they 
have  more  light  and  more  liberty.  In  the  education 
of  the  masses  lies  their  brightest  prospects,  but  their 
development,  intellectually  and  politically  must  neces- 
sarily be  slow.  Education  means  elevation  ;  it  is  the 
strength  of  a  nation,  which  alone  will  save  it  from 
internecine  wars,  foreign  invasions,  and  other  destruc- 
tive dangers.  To  climate  are  attributed  many  of  the 
drawbacks  experienced  by  these  countries ;  but 
climate  has  not  been  the  only  factor.  Civil  wars 
have  been  often  fomented  by  the  mestizo  element. 
This  shows,  however,  that  the  people  have  vivacity 
and  energy,  which  should  be  guided  in  the  right  di- 
rection and  to  better  purposes.  The  mestizos  have 
existed  as  an  element  of  population  so  many  centuries, 


SOCIETY  AND  PROGRESS. 


159 


that  they  may  rightly  be  considered  as  practically  in- 
digenous. The  Indians  are  patient,  laborious,  and 
rather  intelligent.  Their  capabilities  are  revealed  in 
many  ways,  and  especially  in  the  talented  men  emerg- 
ing from  their  ranks.  The  white  Creoles,  while  they 
live  comparatively  isolated  from  the  outward  world, 
entertain  the  conceit  of  their  own  excellence  and  su- 
periority, but  even  these  are  of  late  improving. 

The  general  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  a  jtudy 
of  the  Mexicans  and  Central  Americans  under  the 
influence  of  their  institutions,  and  of  their  frequent 
contact  with  other  nationalities  resulting  from  educa- 
tion and  facilities  of  communication,  is  that  they 
have  reached  a  point  where  progress  is  a  necessity. 
With  the  natural  increase  of  an  industrious  native 
population,  and  a  judicious  encouragement  of  the  im- 
migration of  a  desirable  class,  the  vast  resources  of 
these  countries  will  in  the  near  future  be  utilized  for 
their  own  advantage,  and  the  advantage  of  the  world. 

Spanish  occupation  of  the  northern  portions  of 
Mexico  was  not  attended  with  that  rapid  growth  of 
a  civilized  population  which  marked  the  possession  by 
the  white  race  of  the  territories  in  the  south.  Two 
causes  operated  against  the  possibility  of  these  regions 
being  thickly  inhabited,  namely,  the  nature  of  the 
country,  and  the  obstinate  hostility  of  the  natives. 
Arid  wastes,  and  streamless  deserts  intersected  by 
systems  of  bare  and  rugged  mountains  seamed  with 
dark  ravines,  were  not  inviting  features  of  nature; 
and  had  it  not  been  for  the  Spaniards*  ceaseless 
search  for  the  precious  metals,  their  occupancy  of 
this  land  would  probably  have  been  confined  to  a  few 
missions  and  military  posts.  But  in  the  bowels  of 
these  stern  sierras,  gold  and  silver  lay  hidden  in  mar- 
vellous abundance,  and  could  not  escape  the  scrutiny 
of  the  explorers.  Settlement  followed  discovery,  and 
sparsely  scattered  towns  sprang  up  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  rich  mines,  Durango  being  the  gateway. 


*  ! 


180 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN   AMERICA. 


rn 


Nor  must  it  be  understood  that  there  were  no  lo- 
calities favorable  to  colonization  in  this  vast  region ; 
on  the  contrary,  there  were  well-watered,  fertile  val- 
leys, where  agriculture  could  be  carried  on  with  suc- 
cess, and  rich  grazing  lands  of  vast  extent,  on  which, 
in  time,  herds  of  cattle  were  pastured.  Mining  and 
agriculture  advanced  together,  the  latter  being  a  con- 
sequence of  the  former.  Thus  these  provinces  ac- 
quired in  time  such  importance,  that  toward  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century  their  government 
was  made  independent  of  the  viceroy,  and  Sonora, 
Nueva  Vizcaya — now  Chihuahua  and  Durango — New 
Mexico,  Coahuila,  and  Texas  were  formed  into  the 
Provincias  Internas  under  the  separate  government  of 
a  comandante-general  responsible  to  the  king  of 
Spain  alone. 

During  the  colonial  period  the  savages  made  no 
great  headway  against  the  intruders  on  their  domains, 
and  though  many  bloody  encounters  took  place,  they 
were  compelled  to  retire  before  the  steady  advance  of 
the  whites,  who  came  mostly  from  Biscay,  Navarre, 
and  Catalonia,  and  their  Mexican  followers.  But 
after  Mexico  had  gained  her  independence,  and  be- 
came distracted  by  civil  war,  the  North  Mexican 
States  were  left,  to  some  extent,  to  take  care  of  them- 
si»lves.  Then  the  savages  sallied  from  t^eir  homes 
in  unexplored  regions  and  became  the  assailants. 
Favored  by  the  long  distances  intervening  between 
the  populated  settlements,  and  the  weakness  of  the 
country  ranchos,  they  desolated  extensive  districts  in 
Chihuahua  and  northern  Sonora,  killing,  destroying, 
and  driving  off  cattle.  Their  depredations  were 
continued  for  decades,  and  were  even  carried  into 
Durango  and  Zacatecas.  During  this  struggle  for 
supremacy,  the  vicinities  of  large  towns  were  raided, 
mines  and  settlements  were  abandoned,  haciendas 
devastated,  and  whole  regions  depopulated,  as  the 
whites  were  thrust  back  from  point  to  point.  But 
when  Mexico  emerged  from  her  chronic  condition  of 


NORTH  MEXICAN   STATES. 


161 


civil  strife,  under  the  able  adminiBtration  of  her  late 
rulers,  the  murderous  Apaches  were  swept  from  the 
land,  and  the  lost  ground  was  recovered. 

While  Sonora  was  harassed  by  the  natives  in  the 
north,  repeated  trouble  was  caused  in  the  south  by 
the  nominally  subjugated  Yaquis,  who  frequently 
broke  out  in  revolt.  Their  mc>st  prominent  leader 
was  Juan  Ignacio  Juzucanca,  better  known  by  the 
name  of  Banderas,  from  a  banner  borne  by  him,  and 
which  he  represented  as  having  belonged  to  Monte- 
zuma. This  chief,  though  small  in  stature  avd  of  un- 
prepossessing countenance,  was  gifted  with  jm-c  elo- 
quence and  great  administrative  ability,  whi'h  made 
him  the  most  influential  leader  in  his  nation  L^d  bv 
this  chieftain,  the  Yaquis  during  1825-V  wag-^d  uar 
against  tLc  <vhites,  practically  gaining  their  iiulepen- 
dep'^e.  Banderas'  ambition  now  urged  him  to  prose- 
cute a  scheme,  the  failure  of  which  entailed  upoi:  him 
the  penalty  of  death.  It  was  to  form  a  confederation 
of  the  native  nations  in  Sonora  with  himself  as  king. 
Envoys  were  sent  to  the  different  chieftains,  and 
support  being  promised  him  he  took  the  field  toward 
the  close  of  1832.  His  allies,  however,  failed  him, 
and  he  was  defeated  at  Soyopa  by  Leonardo  Esca- 
lante  after  an  obstinate  battle.  Banderas  was  cap- 
tured, quickly  tried,  and  shot  at  Arizpe  early  in  the 
following  year.  After  this  frequent  wars  were  waged 
with  this  obdurate  nation. 

In  1837  Manual  M.  Gdndara  became  governor  of 
Sonora,  and  during  his  administration  and  afterward, 
in  the  political  strife  which  was  maintained  for  years 
between  centralists  and  federalists,  did  not  hesitate  to 
rouse  the  Yaquis  again  and  again  in  his  efforts 
against  his  liberal  opponents.  Encouraged  by  this 
unscrupulous  man,  they  took  paH  in  almost  every 
military  movement  with  which  Sonora  was  agitated 
during  a  series  of  decades,  maintaining  their  local  in- 
dependence, until  finally  they  were  subdued  during 
the  second  administration  of  Diaz,  after  several  years 


c.  r.-i.   n 


Ml 


^.  1 


S  Jit 


it 


i'  'I 


!l         I 


Fil 


m 


I   'I 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


of  warfare.  Their  chief,  Cajeme,  who  had  made  him- 
self celebrated  by  his  daring  valor,  strategy,  and 
political  and  military  abilities,  was  captured  and  put 
to  death  before  the  eyes  of  his  people  in  April  1887. 
Though  vast  regions  of  the  North  Mexican  States 
are  still  awaiting  the  advent  of  settlers  to  unfold  their 
native  wealth,  the  conquest  of  its  numerous  physical 
difficulties  has  already  begun.  The  same  allurement 
is  as  attractive  to  the  people  of  to-day  as  it  was  to  the 
Spaniards  of  old ;  the  abandoned  mines,  and  still  un- 
discovered but  well  recognized  riches  of  the  sierras, 
are  drawing  attention  to  them,  as  the  magnet  draws 
the  steel,  and  companies  are  already  at  work  at  the 
labor  of  redevelopment.  These  countries  will  again 
become  inhabited,  but  with  a  denser  population,  and 
with  a  permanent  occupancy. 

.  Among  the  privileges  of  the  biographer  is  the  op- 
portunity of  presenting  an  important  episode,  or  illus- 
trating a  great  principle,  by  the  history  of  a  single  life. 
Such  an  opportunity  offers  in  the  case  of  Benito  Juarez, 
and  the  progressional  phenomena  illustrated  are  the 
events  evolved  in  the  emancipation  of  intellect  and 
secularization  of  society  in  Mexico. 

For  the  greatest  achievement  of  the  Mexican  peo- 
ple was  not  their  independence  from  Spain,  nor  the 
evolution  out  of  chaos  of  constitutional  government, 
nor  anything  which  war,  rapine,  or  political  jugglery 
could  accomplish;  it  was  the  declaration  of  intellec- 
tual independence,  self-deliverance  of  mind,  raising 
themselves  out  of  the  realm  of  darkness  by  their  own 
inherent  strength  and  volition.  He  that  hath  eyes 
may  see;  but  how  shall  the  blind  from  the  enfolding 
darkness  perceive  the  distant  light?  To  his  people 
God  sent  angels  in  time  past;  priests  have  had  visions 
in  Mexico;  but  we  seldom  hear  of  a  miracle  performed 
for  the  advancement  of  civilization.  Yet  if  ever 
there  was  a  miracle,  it  was  in  bringing  out  of  the 
wilderness  an  ignorant   Indian  boy,  a  shock-headed 


V. 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


163 


American  aboriginal  of  the  pure  blood,  of  blood  un- 
contaminated  by  any  European  intermixture,  and  so 
steeped  in  illiteracy  that,  at  the  age  of  eleven  years 
he  could  not  speak  the  Spanish  language,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  reading  or  writing — the  bringing  out  of  the 
wilderness  a  being  like  this  to  perform  the  wonder  of 
the  age,  of  any  age;  for  Benito  Juarez  was  not  only 
a  political  revolutionist,  but  a  reformer,  whose  great 
aim  was  the  improvement  of  his  race,  both  morallv  and 
materially,  and  who  contributed  his  life  to  the  deliver- 
ance of  his  people  from  the  infamy  of  ignorance,  from 
a  subordination  of  soul,  of  which,  to  a  great  extent, 
they  were  stupidly  indiflerent,  or  even  unconscious. 

Society  during  the  viceregal  period  was  a  strange 
conglomeration  of  European,  African,  and  American, 
the  intermixture  being  no  less  distinctly  marked  and 
separated  one  from  the  other  than  the  three  original 
races.  Out  of  all  these  crystallized,  or  is  crystalliz- 
ing, a  new  race,  to-day  called  the  Mexican,  or  the 
Spanish- American.  Of  the  original  stocks  and  end- 
less intermixtures,  Spaniards  born  in  Spain  stood  first; 
next,  those  born  of  Spanish  parents  in  America;  after 
these,  men  in  whose  veins  was  the  largest  admix- 
ture of  Spanish  blood  were  held  in  most  esteem;  the 
pure-blooded  American  ranking  superior  to  the  pure- 
blooded  African,  but  not  to  the  European  and  Amer- 
ican intermixture. 

These  class  distinctions  were  based  purely  on  acci- 
dents of  birth,  and  not  on  merit,  wealth,  or  mental  or 
moral  qualifications.  Color  was  more  a  criterion  of 
caste  than  of  inherent  quality,  white  being  the  stan- 
dard of  respectability;  for  if  the  skin  of  the  native 
Spaniard  happened  to  be  darker  than  the  skin  of  the 
native  American,  the  fact  did  not  affect  public  esti- 
mation, aside  from  the  superiority  of  birth,  Euro- 
peans have  ever  claimed  a  mental  superiority  to 
barbarians,  that  is  to  say,  to  any  or  all  people  not 
Europeans.  But  that  the  pure-blooded  Spaniard, 
with  all  his  high  breeding  and  learning,  possessed  or 


n{tij;j.'4:..V^'.^i 


twvtmw^m  i^iMH^-^^nm;|iepf^iM||MWlf<^ 


164 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


t 


possesses  native  capabilities  of  mind  superior  to  those 
of  the  unlearned  Indian,  the  history  of  America,  par- 
ticularly  the  history  of  American  aboriginal  civiliza- 
tion, does  not  sh'^w.  In  the  life  of  many  a  Mexican 
besides  Juarez,  both  before  and  after  the  conquest, 
we  have  striking  illustrations  of  the  powers  of  native 
American  aboriginal  intellect,  as  compared  with 
European.  Savages,  it  is  true,  are  children,  and 
their  minds  the  minds  of  the  untutored,  the  inexpe- 
rienced, and  the  undisciplined;  but  not  all  American 
Indians  are  savages. 

Some  of  the  blackest  crimes  within  the  power  of 
tyranny  to  perpetuate — intellectual  slavery,  the  en- 
forcement of  beliefs,  the  degradation  of  the  mental 
and  spiritual  faculties  of  man — are  charged  upon 
Spain  as  causes  of  the  Spanish- American  revolution. 
Moral  and  mental  disease,  however,  was  not  confined 
to  Spain,  but  lay  around  the  roots  of  Spanish- Ameri- 
can society  as  well.  Not  all  of  the  ignorance,  vice, 
and  superstition  of  the  New  World  should  be  charged 
to  the  king  of  Spain ;  the  powers  of  darkness  held 
sway  in  America  no  less  than  in  Europe,  and  ruled 
here  with  an  iron  hand  long  after  the  achievement  of 
national  independence.  So  ingrained  in  their  nature 
by  centuries  of  oppression  was  the  doctrine  of  the 
divine  right  of  rulers,  temporal  and  spiritual,  and  that 
whether  king  or  president  or  general,  whether  pope, 
priest,  or  sorcerer;  so  imprisoned  were  they  by  the 
thick  black  darkness — that  naught  but  some  almighty 
arm,  of  whatsoever  denomination,  could  release  them. 
Many  of  the  evils  of  Spain  were  continued  under 
republican  rule,  and  in  the  name  of  liberty,  long  after 
the  power  of  Spain  in  America  was  broken — the  op- 
pression of  the  stranger,  whether  of  church  or  state, 
caste  distinctions,  military  and  guerilla  law,  govern- 
ment restrictions  and  impositions,  forced  loans,  or 
other  of  the  innumerable  impositions  of  misrule. 

Glancing  backward  a  few  score  years,  from  the 
time  when  in  Europe  the  man  of  Corsica  was  mak- 


v 


-'.'IM'^H':!'''!" 


y 


1   11 


,<  ; 


^'>*-'i>  safcrj  fca  »»•»■'• 


(t 


- 


;/ 


y^^i-^M^-^^^^/u^^ 


\\ 


t 


I 


N., 


BENITO  .IIJAREZ. 


166 


ing  all  tlio  world  t<>  tronible,  and  Spain's  decadence 
was  at  liAHtd.  Spaia's  natural  rulers  beooroinj;^-  proHi- 
gato,  and  ultnost  inibecilc,  one  abdi(!a':ing,  another 
riyin^j  'n  tuj-e  the  fury  of  ilie  populace,  another, 
Fernando  VII.,  idle,  iut ^Miif'fU'nt,  and  j'aiti.iisw,  a 
*owaid  and  a  !iyp<'crit,f',  bi*.-i« ,  trick \.  md  u.  ih- 
bauchee,  as  hi«<torj  calls  him,  and  at  ids  doath,  a 
brother  dcsolatino-  the  land  with  war  in  opposing"  the 
succession  of  a  daughter  to  the  throne — is  it  not 
time  that  yVmericta  should  become  ashamed  of  such 
parentage,  and  that  sparks  of  revolution  in  Mexico  be 
presently  kindled  into  a  purifying  thime  ■ 

The  sul;)jects  of  Spain  in  America  had  suffered 
almost  every  form  of  oppression  that  (n-er  a  people 
was  called  upon  to  undergo  at  the  hand  of  despotism. 
Yet  tlie  cutting  aloof  from  the  motJier  country  was 
not  altogether  because  the  Spanish  government  made 
the  children  of  Spaniards  born  in  the  New  World 
politically  and  socially  inferior  to  the  chddren  of 
Spaniards  born  in  Spain,  nor  altogether  because  of 
tlie  odious  system  of  commercial  monopoly  wlucli 
fe|>aiu  imposed.  These  and  liki'  impositions  had  ex- 
isted for  two  centuries,  with  no  a|>parent  disposition 
on  the  part  of  the  coloidsts  to  r(?bel;  yet  when  the 
opportunity  cam(\  all  these  wrongs  had  their  intluence. 
And  tiiat  o|_)portunity  arose  from  Spain's  weakness 
rather  than  America's  strength;  from  Spain's  degra- 
diHion  rather  tha)>  A.m(a'ica's  enlijxhtenment.  That 
€  'iienment  was  destined  to  come  later,  and  one  of 
1X3  chief  apostles  was  Tienito  Juarez. 

Unliki)  the  Anglo-Americau  idea  of  freedom,  with 
its  sacred  rights  a,nd  firm  principles,  and  th<  uiateriHl 
Eiid  iiitelledual  inthqu-ndence  essential  there uuti, 
Spanish- A  nu-rican  independence  was*  r.vtiier  a  cliitUi^fo 
of  niasters,  and  that  not  always  for  ihe  bett*r,  wifcli 
rt;VoIution  as  a  chnjuic  condition.  In  the  SjranJHh- 
Auierii'au  revolutions  f<»r  4ndependon<,e  tJere  was 
Mttlt'  princijdfc'  involved,  no  j»a,rtieular  change  in  chun;h 
matters,    priests   of  the    jirevailing    faith     fietpiently 


w 


•w 


MM 


t' 


^i^:h 


mM 


i    1  :■ 


•    t 


, 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


166 


ing  all  the  world  to  tremble,  and  Spam's  decadence 
was  at  hand,  Spain's  natural  rulers  becoming  profli- 
gate, and  almost  imbecile,  one  abdicating,  another 
flying  before  the  fury  of  the  populace,  another, 
Fernando  VII.,  idle,  incompetent,  and  faithless,  a 
coward  and  a  hypocrite,  base,  tricky,  and  a  de- 
bauchee, as  history  calls  him,  and  at  his  death,  a 
brother  desolating  the  land  with  war  in  opposing  the 
succession  of  a  daughter  to  the  throne — is  it  not 
time  that  America  should  become  ashamed  of  such 
parentage,  and  that  sparks  of  revolution  in  Mexico  be 
presently  kindled  into  a  purifying  flame? 

The  subjects  of  Spain  in  America  had  suffered 
almost  every  form  of  oppression  that  ever  a  people 
was  called  upon  to  undergo  at  the  hand  of  despotism. 
Yet  the  cutting  aloof  from  the  mother  country  was 
not  altogether  because  the  Spanish  government  made 
the  children  of  Spaniards  born  in  the  New  World 
politically  and  socially  inferior  to  the  children  of 
Spaniards  born  in  Spain,  nor  altogether  because  of 
the  odious  system  of  commercial  monopoly  which 
Spain  imposed.  These  and  like  impositions  had  ex- 
isted for  two  centuries,  with  no  apparent  disposition 
on  the  part  of  the  colonists  to  rebel;  yet  when  the 
opportunity  came,  all  these  wrongs  had  their  influence. 
And  that  opportunity  arose  from  Spain's  weakness 
rather  than  America's  strength;  from  Spain's  degra- 
dation rather  than  America's  enlightenment.  That 
enlightenment  M'as  destined  to  come  later,  and  one  of 
its  chief  apostles  was  Benito  Juarez. 

Unlike  the  Anglo-American  idea  of  freedom,  with 
its  sacred  rights  and  firm  principles,  and  the  material 
and  intellectual  independence  essential  thereunto, 
Spanish- American  independence  was  rather  a  change 
of  masters,  and  tliat  not  always  for  the  better,  with 
revolution  as  a  chronic  condition.  In  the  Spanish- 
American  revolutions  for  independence  there  was 
little  principle  involved,  no  particular  change  in  church 
matters,    priests  of  the   prevailing   faith    frequently 


4'  '";■' 
■  '  ■  y 
%  % 


I      t 


...  ,  .! 


'  J  • 


I', 


f'i 


166 


DOMINAXn^O  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


taking  part  as  leaders  of  popular  uprisings,  and  the 
government  which  followed  was  little  less  arbitrary, 
and  scarcely  more  republican,  than  it  had  been  under 
the  viceroys.  Indeed,  so  ground  into  their  being  had 
become  the  doctrine  of  loyalty,  the  divinity  of  kings, 
that  obedience  to  rulers  in  some  very  pronounced  form 
had  become  a  necessity.  To  repudiate  the  idea  of 
divine  rulership  in  some  form  was  to  defy  the  author- 
ity of  the  almighty,  and  incur  the  penalties  of  hell. 
Such  was  the  atmosphere  breathed  into  the  brain  of 
Benito  Juarez,  as  he  emerged,  an  Indian  boy  of  the 
blood  pure,  from  the  wilds  of  Oajaca. 

The  venal  viceroy  Iturriga**ay  was  deposed  for  dis- 
loyalty shortly  after  Juarez  was  born.  After  Iturri- 
garay,  came,  as  chief  ruler  under  Spain,  Garibay, 
infirm  of  body  and  weak  of  will;  Archbishop  Lizana, 
old,  sickly,  and  as  feeble  in  mind  as  in  body;  and  then 
Venegas,  during  whose  term  began  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence. 

Meanwhile,  hatred  of  the  Spaniards — this  name  be- 
ing applied  to  the  later  comers  of  Spain  by  the  earlier 
arrivals,  and  by  the  natives  and  mixed  breeds — in- 
creases, until  in  1810  the  grito  de  Dolores  is  raised, 
and  the  cura  leads  forth  his  flock  to  battle.  Iturbide 
appears,  as  a  lieutenant  of  Venegas,  opposing  Hidalgo, 
who  forms  a  government  in  opposition  to  that  of  the 
viceroy.  Upon  the  death  of  Hidalgo  another  ecclesi- 
astic, Morelos,  becomes  the  revolutionary  leader,  whose 
colleague,  Rayon,  organizes  a  supreme  national  junta, 
which  constitutes  the  revolutionary  government,  and 
of  which  Rayon  is  president.  A  national  constitu- 
tion is  adopted,  and  in  1813  the  suprema  junta 
develops  into  a  so-called  congress,  controlled  by 
Morelos,  but  under  the  presidency,  first  of  Murguia, 
and  then  of  Liceaga,  and  chased  hither  and  thither 
in  the  vicinity  of  Pucbla  and  Vera  Cruz  by  the 
royalists  under  Calleja  and  Iturbide.  Morelos  meets 
his  death  in  1815,  and  the  insurgent  congress  con- 
tinues for  a  time  its  migrations,  and  is  forcibly  dis- 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


m 


solved.  Royalty  is  represented  for  a  time  by  Calleja 
and  Apodaca,  while  the  plan  of  Iguala  is  proclaimed, 
pointing  toward  independence. 

The  viceroy  Apodaca  is  deposed,  whereupon 
Novella  fans  the  dying  embers  of  royalty;  then 
O'Donojii  poses  as  viceroy  for  a  time,  and  at  his 
death  the  last  shadow  of  viceregal  authority  dis- 
appeared from  Mexico  forever.  Bravo,  Victoria, 
Guerrero,  and  Santa  Anna  appear  championing  with 
their  own  cause  the  cause  of  republican  liberty.  The 
death  of  O'Donojii  follows  hard  upon  the  declaration 
of  independence  on  one  hand  and  the  appointment  of 
a  self-constituted  regency  to  represent  the  king  of 
Spain  on  the  other.  The  viceregal  government  is 
dissolved,  and  a  general  flight  of  Spaniards  follows. 
A  sovereign  provisional  junta  is  formed,  presently  to 
give  place  to  a  national  congress.  Central  America 
declares  independence,  and  forms  a  union  with  the 
Mexican  empire,  as  it  may  for  a  moment  be   called. 

Then  comes  a  counter-revolution,  followed  by  new 
issues  as  the  nation  enters  the  transition  period  from 
political  and  intellectual  despotism  into  the  elemental 
conditions  of  a  free  people.  Somewhat  as  Iturbide  de- 
throned the  viceroy  Apodaca,  Santa  Anna  dethrones 
Iturbide,  who  pays  the  penalty  of  attempted  impe- 
rialism with  his  life.  The  victorious  republicans  or- 
ganize anew  and  form  two  parties,  federalists  and 
centralists,  the  former  preferring  a  form  of  govern- 
ment like  that  of  the  United  States,  and  the  latter 
comprising  masons  of  the  Scottish  rite,  and  the  old 
monarchists.  Revolutions  of  various  intent  fellow 
thickly,  the  disease  having  become  chronic. 

During  these  years  of  strife,  which  follow  a  yet 
longer  period  of  political  and  ecclesiastical  despotism, 
the  state  of  the  country  was  most  lamentable.  Since 
the  beginning  of  the  century  there  had  been  a 
marked  retrogression.  While  large  salaries  were 
granted  to  officials,  the  revenue  fell  far  short  of 
the  expenses  of  the  new  government.     Forced  loans 


-^^ 


1  li 


V 


Lt '  ■ 


llii 


1«8 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


were  frequent.  Commerce  experienced  violent  con- 
vulsions. Import  duties  were  reduced,  the  old  ar- 
rangements with  Spain  terminated,  and  trade  with 
other  nations  established — beneficial  measures  in 
themselves,  but  not  tending,  when  united  with  war 
and  anarchy  at  home,  toward  immediate  large  re- 
turns. All  industries  had  fallen  into  decay,  particu- 
larly mining.  The  church  owned  or  controlled  two 
thirds  of  all  the  property  in  the  country. 

The  war-cry  of  Hidalgo  was,  Death  to  the  Span- 
iards! To  the  masses,  who  were  partly  native  and 
partly  of  mixed  blood.  New  Spain  Wi,s  not  only  a  col- 
ony, but  a  conquered  country.  Morelos  sought  to 
impart  form  to  Hidalgo's  idea.  The  royalists,  at  first 
impelled  by  a  sense  of  self-preservation,  were  finally 
roused  by  the  bandit-like  raids  of  the  guerillas. 

Both  sides  professed  to  be  champions  of  the  church, 
and  the  church  was  on  both  sides,  the  upper  clergy 
being  royalists,  while  those  who  ministered  to  the 
masses  were  revolutionists.  Yet,  in  the  end,  the  ex- 
tremes met,  the  upper  '  lergy  finally  turning  the  scale 
by  which  the  revolutionists  triumphed. 

The  revolutionists  were  mainly  composed  of  mes- 
tizos, the  newly  developed  race,  some  of  them  ambi- 
tious and  comparatively  intelligent,  though  many  of 
them  steeped  in  stupidity  and  prejudice;  all  of  rest- 
less though  uneven  energy,  with  a  keen  sense  of  their 
own  rights  and  of  the  wrongs  inflicted  by  others,  and 
with  aspirations  roused  by  mingled  Spanish  pride  and 
aboriginal  pretensions. 

The  Indian  regarded  the  issue  with  less  interest 
than  the  others.  So  far  as  he  could  yet  see,  the  gain 
to  him  was  an  indefinite  quantity,  whichever  side 
should  win.  Even  the  Creole  often  wavered  between 
a  longing  for  control  and  a  fear  for  imperilled  wealth. 

Under  the  constitution  of  1824,  Guadalupe  Vic- 
toria is  chosen  president  and  Nicolds  Bravo  vice- 
president  of  the  republic.  Nineteen  states  and  four 
territories  comprise  the  Estados  Unidos  Mejicanos, 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


169 


besides  Tlaxcala  and  the  later  federal  district.  The 
government  is  divided  into  legislative,  executive,  and 
judicial  powers,  the  first  being  vested  in  a  congress, 
consisting  of  a  senate  and  house  of  deputies.  All  re- 
ligions, except  the  Roman  catholic,  are  excluded.  It 
is  not  a  republic  of  the  people,  ruled  by  an  intelligent 
and  educated  middle  class,  for  there  is  none  such ; 
the  masses  are  still  thriftless  and  illiterate,  and  too 
habituated  to  centuries  of  leading-strings,  too  dazzled 
and  preoccupied  by  military  achievement,  to  apply 
themselves  to  the  study  of  self-government.  Soldiers 
become  the  tools  of  officers,  who  manipulate  the  power. 
Nevertheless,  the  income  of  the  church  is  curtailed, 
and  priests  made  to  do  more  work  for  less  pay.  A 
Spanish  invasion  in  1829  is  quickly  repulsed;  Guer- 
rero, who  had  been  made  president  the  year  previous, 
is  overthrown  by  the  vice-president,  Bustamente,  who 
takes  the  place  of  his  victim,  and  in  his  turn  is  forced 
to  give  way  before  Santa  Anna,  executive  power  for 
a  time  being  in  tbe  hands  of  Pedraza  and  Farias. 
Joining  forces  with  the  clerical  powers,  Santa  Anna  in 
1835  enters  the  capital  as  dictator,  but  is  presently 
sent  into  exile.  Then  comes  the  war  with  the  United 
States,  and  loss  of  territory;  Herrera  is  president, 
and  after  him  Arista;  then  Santa  Anna,  having 
been  recalled,  resumes  powers,  yet  only  the  lower  to 
fall  and  give  place  to  Alvarez,  whose  cabinet  em- 
braced, besides  Comonfort,  pronounced  liberals  like 
Juarez  and  Ocampo,  Prieto  and  Miguel  Lerdo. 

Some  twenty-two  miles  northeast  of  Oajaca,  in  the 
midst  of  the  labyrinth  of  ranges  at  the  conjunction 
of  the  sierras,  lies  the  district  of  Ixtlan,  and  in  it 
the  hamlet  of  San  Pablo  Guelatao,  on  the  bank  of 
the  water  known  as  Laguna  Encantada,  or  the  en- 
chanted lake,  from  its  crystal  clearness  and  unfathom- 
able depth. 

All  around  rise  rugged  peaks,  sheltering  the  scat- 
tering cottages  at  their  base,  which  stand  in  patches 
of  cultivated  soil  and  groves  of  fruit-trees.     The  set- 


tV. 


P    t 
£•'/;• 


170 


POMINATINO  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


Mi 


tlemcnt  numbers  less  than  two  hundred  souls;  in  the 
centre  are  found  a  few  adobe  huts  and  sheds,  with 
still  more  humble  belongings,  a  modest  chapel,  and  a 
temple  ruined  by  one  of  the  earthquakes  that  occa- 
sionally disturb  the  otherwise  unbroken  tranquillity  of 
the  district.  In  one  of  these  cottages,  on  the  21st 
of  March,  1806,  was  born  Benito  Pablo,  the  son  of 
Marcelino  Juarez  and  his  wife  Brfgida  Garcia,  both 
of  pure  Indian  blood. 

Benito  was  one  of  several  children,  and  a  posthu- 
mous child.  His  mother  died  in  giving  him  birth, 
leaving  him  to  the  care  of  a  grandmother,  from  whom 
he  passed  to  the  family  of  Pablo,  his  father's  brother. 
It  cannot  be  said  that  his  prospects  in  life  were  al- 
tered by  the  transfer,  for  he  had  no  prospects  in  the 
first  place,  and  in  the  ordinary  course  of  events  he 
would  never  have  passed  beyond  the  narrow  confines 
of  a  peasant's  sphere.  As  it  was,  Benito  grew  up 
without  any  education,  as  I  have  said  before,  even 
Spanish  being  to  him  an  unknown  tongue  as  late  as 
his  eleventii  year. 

At  this  time  an  incident  occurred  upon  which 
turned  his  future.  He  and  a  somewhat  elder  boy, 
named  Juan  Luna,  were  one  day  herding  Pablo's  few 
cattle,  when  the  fruit  of  a  neighbor's  garden  tempted 
them  to  pick  and  eat.  Absorbed  by  this  enjoyment 
they  forgot  the  cattle,  which  followed  their  example, 
and  were  soon  discussing  the  excellency  of  mal-ap- 
propriated  green  corn.  The  less-guarded  movements 
of  the  animals  roused  the  owner,  who  reached  the 
spot  in  time  to  catch  the  boys  and  administer  to  them 
an  angry  reproof  He  did  not  beat  th  m,  but  he  did 
what  for  Benito  seemed  worse — he  thro  "-ened  to  tell 
his  guardian. 

Pablo  had  no  particular  affection  for  the  c  phan  boy, 
and  frequently  maltreated  him  for  sligh\  offences. 
The  present  misdemeanor  was  more  serious  than 
usual;  and  if  for  nothing  poor  Benito  received  severe 
chastisements,  what  would  be  proportionate  punish- 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


171 


ment  in  this  case  ?  He  had  a  good  head  for  logic ;  he 
did  not  Hke  the  conclusions  his  judgment  arrived  at, 
80  he  resolved  to  run  away.  Abandoning  the  cattle  to 
their  fate,  he  hurried  across  the  hills,  and  soon  fell  hi 
with  some  market-men  on  their  way  to  Oajaca.  It  is 
a  common  habit  among  these  otherwise  secluded  peo- 
ple to  undertake  long  journeys  to  some  leading  town 
in  order  to  dispose  of  a  few  artic  Ics  of  their  manufac- 
ture, or  sell  a  little  produce,  the  returns  from  which 
may  perhaps  be  dissipated  in  a  few  hours'  carousal. 
Yet  they  will  jog  contentedly  for  days  at  a  swinging 
pace,  carrying  their  burden  over  hill  and  ravine,  on  to 
their  pred- termined  destination,  and  past  the  inter- 
mediate towns,  where  likely  enough  a  comparatively 
better  sale  might  be  effected. 

Informed  of  his  adventure,  the  men  sought  to  per- 
suade him  to  return;  but  by  this  time  his  distracted 
wits  had  come  back  to  him — for  he  had  plenty  of 
them — and  he  said  he  would  go  to  his  sister,  who  was 
serving  in  a  family  at  Oajaca,  and  seek  her  counsel. 
The  resul'}  was,  that  on  his  arrival  in  the  city,  a  Sefior 
Perez  interested  himself  in  the  boy,  and  found  him 
a  home  with  Antonio  Salanueva,  a  benevolent  man, 
connected  with  one  of  the  Franciscan  orders. 

Perceiving  the  intelligence  of  the  lad,  and  the  fa- 
cility with  which  he  acquired  the  rudiments  of  learn- 
ing, he  enlisted  the  sympathies  of  a  rich  trader,  Diego 
Chavez,  who  had  him  sent  to  the  seminario.  In  re- 
turn, Juarez  assisted,  so  far  as  he  was  able,  in  book- 
keeping and  other  details  of  the  shop.  These  worthy 
men  little  knew  that  they  were  preparing  this  poor 
Indian  boy  for  the  presidency  of  the  republic. 

Juarez  completed  his  course  with  honor,  and  the 
pious  Salanueva  sought  to  persuade  him  to  study  for 
the  church,  which  in  his  opinion  was  the  most  exalted 
and  promising  of  the  professions;  but  Juarez  had 
already  imbibed  liberal  ideas,  and  the  civil  institute, 
with  its  chairs  of  jurisprudence,  being  just  at  that 
time  established,  he  resolved  to  prepare  for  the  law. 


'r 


p  f^ 


Ifi: 


ii 


{.  I 


172 


DOMINATING  INPIUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


There  was  a  large  secession  from  the  seminario  on  the 
same  occasion,  the  Oajaca  youths  being  allured  by 
the  wider  and  more  advantageous  curriculum  at  the 
new  college. 

About  this  time  the  strife  of  rival  political  factions, 
which  during  the  following  half-century  racked  this 
unhappy  land  with  pronunciamientos,  outrages,  ^rd 
ravaging  wars  in  unbroken  succession,  had  reached 
fever-heat.  The  cause  of  all  these  social  convulsions 
lay  partly  in  the  impetuous  and  volatile  disposition 
of  the  people,  bewildered  at  first  by  their  escape  from 
the  leading-string  of  the  paternal  Spanish  govern- 
ment, and  impelled  by  reckless  ambition  and  jealous- 
ies among  themselves. 

Itself  the  result  of  upheaval,  the  ever-changing 
government  failed  to  acquire  sufficient  strength  to 
control  succeeding  movements.  Temporary  peace  was 
purchased  by  a  distribution  of  offices  and  other  favors 
among  the  supporters  as  well  as  the  opponents  of 
a  successful  movement,  a  policy  which  served  only 
to  excite  the  cupidity  of  all  non-participants  in  the 
spoils.  Revolution  came  to  be  looked  upon  as  the 
only  available  means  to  promotion;  seniority,  ser- 
vices, and  talent  counted  for  nothing.  By  a  skilful 
or  lucky  pronunciamicnto,  the  corporal  of  to-day 
might  bo  the  general  of  to-morrow,  and  the  embez- 
zling official  could  readily  cloak  his  misfloeds  by  th3 
same  means,  and  gain  tJie  opportunity  for  still  larger 
peculations  for  himself  and  friends.  Liberty  was 
misconstrued  into  license;  everybody  claimed  the 
right  to  protest  in  any  manner  lie  pleased  against  a 
totterino:  <rovernment :  congress  and  lejnslaturcs  were 
torn  by  factions,  and  a  disobedient  army  lay  placidly 
regarding  affairs,  while  fattening  on  the  substance  of 
the  country. 

The  leading  parties  at  this  time  were  the  Escoceses 
and  Yorkinos,  both  taking  their  name  from  masonic 
lodges  instituted  respectively  in  accordance  W'tli 
Scotch  and  York  rites.     The  former  was  started  iu 


Ml 


EENTTO  JUAREZ. 


173 


Spain  in  1813,  by  army  officers,  to  promote  popular, 
or  rather  aristocratic,  representation  and  ecclesiastical 
restriction.  In  New  Spain  it  achieved  in  1820  the 
reestablishment  of  tlic  liberal  constitution  of  1812. 

The  clergy  managed  to  modify  the  threatening  as- 
pect, as  we  have  seen,  by  forming  a  monarchy  under 
Iturbide.  The  main  faction  of  the  now  divided  Es- 
coceses  soon  overthrew  him,  however,  and  labored  for 
a  central  republic  ;  but  jealous  of  their  privileges,  the 
states  succeeded  in  framing  a  federal  system,  assisted 
by  defeated  Iturbidists. 

Two  years  later,  in  182G,  the  Yorkinos  suddenly 
appeared,  headed  by  such  men  as  Zavala,  Esteva,  and 
Arizpe.  Their  origin  lay  in  the  Aguila  Negra  so- 
ciety, formed  under  President  Victoria  to  counteract 
the  Escoceses.  A  division  took  place,  and  the  main 
body  joined  the  York  lodge,  instituted  by  Poinsett, 
figuring  later  also  under  the  terms  of  puros,  liberals, 
progressists,  reds,  and  even  Jacobins.  This  movement 
caused  the  revival  of  the  almost  extinguished  Escoces 
party,  known  also  under  the  appellations  of  aristo- 
crats, conservatives,  and  retrogrades,  to  which  rich 
persons,  land-owners,  the  clergy,  and  cognate  classes 
preferred  to  belong.  The  terms  indicate  their  aims, 
foremost  among  which  were  office  and  power,  and 
the  results  were  lamentable  strife  and  disorder,  the 
parties  sinking  now  and  then,  only  to  rise  again  with 
principles  somewhat  modified  to  suit  the  changing 
political  as[)ect. 

The  term  of  Victoria,  the  first  president  under  the 
constitution  of  1824,  expired  in  1828,  and  both  par- 
ties hurried  headlong  into  the  election  campaign.  The 
aristocratic  element,  even  among  the  Yorkinos,  joined 
the  Escoceses,  now  called  Novenarios,  and  succeeded 
in  elect!  nir  Pedraza  to  the  chief  magistracy.  The  other 
side,  nicknamed  for  a  while  as  anarquistas,  canallas, 
araifros  de  los  cambios,  managed,  with  the  aid  of  the 
soldiers,  to  defeat  the  government  troops,  set  aside  the 
election,  and  install  as  presid(;nt  Vicente  Guerrevo. 


-jh 


!   '  ! 


174 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


% 


This  remarkable  man  was  born  about  1783,  of  an 
humble  family  mainly  of  Indian  blood,  near  Tixtla,  in 
the  state  subsequently  named  after  him.  Without 
education,  but  possessed  of  marked  military  instincts, 
he  had  risen  during  the  war  of  independence  to  the 
rank  of  general.  At  one  time  the  leading  spirit  of 
the  insurgents,  he  had  now  become  the  representative 
of  the  early  revolutionary  soldiers,  whom  the  masses 
were  beginning  to  recognize  as  their  foremost  heroes, 
rather  than  the  later  and  more  aristocratic  claimants 
headed  by  Iturbide. 

The  Escoceses  had  to  accept  their  defeat;  but  under 
the  designation  of  partido  del  orden,  or  law  and  order 
party,  which  embraced  all  the  influential  clergy  and 
the  greater  portion  of  the  militia,  formed  by  the  so- 
called  ** decent  people"  and  hombres  de  bien,  they 
began  to  labor  for  a  central  form  of  government,  with 
aristocratic  control,  while  the  progresistas  advocated 
an  unrestrained  press,  the  abolition  of  clerical  and 
military  privileges,  the  suppression  of  convents,  civil 
marriage,  and  other  innovations. 

It  may  readily  be  conceived  that  Guerrero  found 
many  adherents  in  Oajaca,  wliich  was  so  largely  lib- 
eral, and  embraced  at  that  time  part  of  his  state. 
The  seminario  naturally  leaned  to  the  Escoceses,  and 
the  institute  to  the  liberal  side.  The  students  of  both 
took  active  part  in  politics,  and  among  the  latter  were 
Miguel  Mcndez,  a  talented  Indian  from  the  moun- 
tains, ^larcos  Perez,  and  Juarez.  The  result  was, 
that  Guerrero's  triumph  gave  ^lendez  the  presidency 
of  tlie  Oajaca  tril)unal,  and  Juarez  a  magistracy,  al- 
thougli  neither  Jiad  as  yet  completed  the  re()uired 
course.  Both  cotitinued  their  studies,  however,  Juarez 
miianwhile  filling  at  the  institute  the  chair  of  experi- 
mental pliysics,  and  in  the  city  council  the  positicm  of 
regidor,  or  alderman.  In  IH.'VJ  he  took  the  degree  of 
bachelor  of  law,  was  elected  deputy  to  the  legislature, 
and  two  years  later  passed  as  an  advocate. 

Such  was  the  rapid  advancement  of  the  humble 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


youth,  who,  up  to  his  twelfth  year,  had  toiled  in  the 
mountains,  halt-naked,  and  whose  prospects  then  for 
education,  position,  and  fame  were  about  as  good  as 
those  of  the  cattle  he  tended.  Now,  at  the  age  of 
twenty-two,  we  find  him  using  with  force  and  fluency 
from  the  maoisterial  bench  the  langfuafje  of  which  ten 
years  before  he  had  scarcely  known  a  syllable.  His 
brothers  clung  to  their  village  with  its  old,  odd  ways ; 
but  his  sister,  named  Soledad,  became,  later,  companion 
to  his  wife,  w^ho  was  a  woman  of  refinement.  The 
cruel  uncle  received  aid  to  improve  his  home,  and  a 
promising  nephew  was  educated,  only  to  join  the  op- 
posing party  and  be  shot. 

Guerrero  did  not  remain  long  at  the  head  of  affairs. 
Regardless  of  his  distinguished  claims  as  patriot, 
leader,  and  president,  his  enemies  treacherously  seized 
and  shot  him.  The  centralists  gradually  regained 
control,  and  held  the  liberals  in  check,  Juarez  among 
others  being  both  watched  and  imprisoned  for  sup- 
posed conspiracy.  In  1842  his  party  began  to  acquire 
advantages,  and  he  was  appointed  judge.  Two  years 
later,  Governor  Leon  made  him  secretary  of  state,  a 
position  which  was  shortly  changed  for  that  of  fiscal 
in  the  supreme  court  of  the  republic.  The  federal 
system  had  been  reestablished,  and  in  184G  Juarez 
was  cliosen  one  of  a  triumvirate  of  rulers  for  Oajaca, 
going  shortly  afterward  as  its  most  popular  deputy  to 


congress. 


Meanwhile,  the  church,  roused  by  an  attempt  to 
levy  upon  their  vast  estates  toward  the  defence  of  the 
country  against  invaders  from  the  United  States  of 
the  north,  had  stirred  up  several  revolutions,  one  of 
them  in  Oajaca.  This  was  defeated,  not  without  re- 
vealing the  inefficiency  of  Governor  Arteaga,  who 
thought  it  prudent  to  resign.  Among  the  candidates 
to  replace  him  was  Juarez ;  and  with  the  supi)ort  of 
the  interior  towns  and  the  militia,  he  assumed  office 
in  November  1847. 

During  five  years  of  administration,  Juarez  intro- 


^JiUi 


m 


176 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN   AMERICA. 


1' 


N 


I" 


duced  many  reforms,  developed  resources,  paid  off  the 
state  debt,  which  had  been  growing  for  nearly  a  score 
of  years,  and  left  a  surplus  in  the  treasury.  Oajaca 
became  known  as  a  prosperous  commonwealth,  and 
Juarez  as  a  public  benefactor. 

The  constitution  of  Oajaca  forbade  reelection  to 
governing  positions,  and  Juarez,  unlike  many  an- 
other, quietly  retired  to  his  law  office,  yet  retain- 
ing the  post  of  director  at  the  institute.  Ignacio 
Meji'a,  one  of  his   later  followers,  succeeded  him  as 


governor. 


It  was  a  revolution  begun  in  Jalisco  which  brougnt 
Santa  Anna  to  tlie  head  of  affairs  in  1853,  as  dictator. 
A  man  of  strong  passion,  he  could  not  avoid  the 
temptation  to  retaliate  upon  his  enemies,  to  whom  he 
ascribed  his  former  reverses  and  humiliations.  Re- 
gardless of  his  oaths,  he  issued  a  law  against  conspir- 
ators, the  aim  of  which  could  readily  be  interpreted. 
Juarez  had  been  too  prominent  among  the  new  ruler's 
opponents  to  be  overlooked. 

One  day  in  ^lay  1853,  while  engaged  in  some  law 
business  at  Etla,  Juarez  was  arrested  and  hurried  away 
to  N'era  Cruz,  and  after  severe  treatment  in  several  dun- 
geons, he  was  shi})ped  for  Habana,  without  means, 
and  without  permission  even  to  communicate  with  his 
family.  Accom])aniod  by  (leneral  ]M()ntenegro,  ho  pro- 
ceeded to  New  Orleans,  and  there  lived  in  poverty,  sus- 
tained by  the  small  remittances  which  his  wife  and 
friends  could  spare,  l^ut  the  exile  proved  of  l)enefit  to 
him,  for  he  there  availed  himself  of  the  opportunity  to 
study  laws  and  institutions  which  were  afterward  to 
bo  apj)lied  for  the  adv^ancement  of  ^lexico.  Indeed, 
Washington  and  l^olivar  became  his  models. 

He  iiad  married  in  1343  Dona  ^[argarita  ^laza,  a 
woman  with  education,  with  noble  sentiments,  and  of 
great  beauty.  By  the  sale  of  his  small  library  and 
other  effects,  she  was  enabled  to  open  a  little  sho})  at 
Etla,  and  with  this,  and  a  small  allowance  gra.ited  by 
Governor  Mejia,  she  nianaged  to  maintain  lierself  and 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


17X 


children.     This  generosity  on  the  part  of  Mejia  was 
not  forgotten. 

The  law  business  of  Juarez  was  transferred  to  his 
partner,  Marcos  Perez;  but  the  latter  being  shortly 
afterward  arrested  for  corresponding  with  the  enemies 
of  Santa  Anna,  Porfirio  Diaz,  as  student  and  clerk  of 
the  firm,  came  into  sole  charge.  It  was  a  proud  trust 
for  one  so  young;  yet  fitly  bestowed,  for  Porfirio  was 
not  only  proving  himself  honest  and  industrious,  but 
was  now  filling  the  chair  of  Roman  law  at  the  insti- 
tute, and  was  receiving  a  fair  income  by  means  of  his 
recognized  ability  in  the  profession. 

We  hear  much  said  as  to  the  benefit  of  early  oppor- 
tunities, and  about  those  who  have  succeeded  in  life 
without  them,  have  succeeded  without  any  advantages 
whatsoever,  without  even  an  education.  There  are 
men  who  boast  of  this  imperfection,  as  if  their  igno- 
rance were  something  of  which  to  be  proud;  but 
such  boasting  is  by  no  means  an  indication  that  the 
defects  of  their  youth  have  been  remedied  in  later 
years. 

It  is  now  accepted,  almost  as  an  axiom,  that  men 
are  born  about  equal ;  that  the  education  offered  by 
schools  and  colleges  is  in  every  instance  a  good 
thing  ;  and  that  the  individual  by  his  superior  energy 
or  abiUty  does  for  himself  what  others  have  failed  to 
do  for  him. 

All  three  of  the  propositions  are  in  some  re- 
spects unsound.  Men  are  not  born  equal.  Some 
have  more  [)l)ysical  strength  than  others ;  some 
more  mind.  So  far  as  rights  arc  concerned,  all  are 
equal ;  but  the  man  of  mind  is  more  noble,  more 
powerful,  than  the  man  of  mere  clay.  Nature  de- 
lights in  variety,  as  well  as  in  wild  prodigality. 
Millions  of  animals,  birds,  and  fishes  she  makes, 
only  to  feed  other  animals,  birds,  and  fishes;  ai:d 
these,  again,  to  feed  others.  Hillside  and  plain  she 
colors  with  flowers,  only  to  wipe  them  out  with  a 
single  night's  frost  or  a  day's  scorching  sun.  For- 
i'.  li.-i.  11 


178 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


'.4 


'i     I 


f. 


'*., 


m 


ests  she  raises,  only  to  serve  as  fertilizers  of  new 
forests. 

And  amidst  all  this  diversity  and  superfluity,  there 
are  also  innumerable  shades  of  quality.  One  is  no 
better  for  being  born  rich  than  poor;  generally,  one  is 
much  the  worse  for  bei  ig  lapped  in  unearned  wealth. 
Education,  as  bestowed  by  schools,  may  be  beneficial  or 
detrimental;  it  may  lead  to  improving  or  making  more 
efficient  native  ability,  or  it  may  exercise  so  narrow- 
ing and  restricting  an  influence  as  wholly  to  kill  bud- 
ding talents.  Socrates  could  interpret  the  oracle  of 
Apollo  at  Delphi,  which  pronounced  him  the  wisest 
of  men,  not  because  he  knew  more  than  others,  but 
because  he  alone  of  all  men  was  fully  conscious  of 
his  own  ignorance. 

The  boy  Benito  did  not  make  himself;  he  was  a 
product  of  nature;  and  in  his  native  hills  of  Ixtlan 
there  may  have  been  a  thousand  others  his  equals  in 
brain-power  and  inherent  ability  at  or  a  thousand 
years  before  his  time.  But  in  his  (^ase,  accident,  cir- 
cumstances, luck,  or  providence  brought  out  his  talents 
and  held  them  up  before  the  world,  while  the  others 
were  permitted  to  come  and  go  in  the  way  usual  to 
universal  thincTS. 

It  is  true  that  not  one  man  in  a  nillion  circum- 
stanced as  he  was  would  have  developed  as  he  did. 
Environment  acts  on  different  objects  differently. 
Some  things  become  tender  by  cooking  ;  otlu^rs  tough. 
Eggs  arc  made  hard  and  potatoes  soft  by  the  applica- 
tion of  lieat;  wliile  corn  is  first  softened  and  tlien  hard- 
ened by  the  same  process.  The  Pleiades,  assured  by 
Medea  tliat  tims  tlioy  miglit  restore  to  their  father 
Iiis  youtliful  vigor,  cut  him  into  pieces,  and  boiled  and 
boikd  and  boiled  tlieni;  but  alas  I  the  longer  tliey 
boiltMl  the  old  gentleman,  the  tougher  he  became. 

Application  is  more  than  education.  We  cannot 
always  follow  our  teachings.  There  is  a  duality  in  all 
things,  and  a  many-sided  significance  and  way  of  ap- 
plication to  all  rules. 


■  V     ;■■■ 


V     i' 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


^ 


For  example,  we  are  told  that  two  and  two  make  four ; 
but  iu  our  anomalous  social  life  we  sometimes  find  that 
two  and  two  do  not  make  four.  Two  house-servants 
will  not  do  twice  as  much  as  one,  and  often  three  will 
accomplish  less  than  two.  One  may  possess  many 
books,  and  know  little  of  literature;  one  may  read 
much,  and  acquire  little  learning.  Similar  sicknesses  do 
not  produce  suffering  alike  in  all;  a  healthy  mind  in  a 
diseased  body  throws  ofl*  the  pain  which  a  diseased 
mind  in  a  usually  healthy  body  nurses.  The  sua 
sliiniug  on  water,  while  causing  the  rivulet  to  sparkle, 
envelops  the  stagnant  pool  in  noisome  vapor,  so 
upon  two  human  beings  the  same  happenings  will  act, 
on  one  so  as  to  bring  forth  joy  and  golden  fruit,  while 
rendering  the  other,  like  a  dead  moon,  melancholy, 
pale,  and  sepulchral. 

Poverty  is  a  strong  factor  in  progress.  If  Juarez 
had  not  been  poor,  he  had  not  been  president.  When 
with  his  relatives  he  had  nothing,  and  during  his 
studies  at  Oajaca  he  was  reduced  almost  as  low  as  Beli- 
sarius  begging  an  obolus.  Neither  had  his  mind  been 
so  crammed  with  antiquated  facts  and  notions  called 
learning  as  to  destroy  all  freshness  and  originality  of 
tliought,  and  prevent  the  entry  of  practical  truths 
and  progressive  ideas. 

Juarez  was  a  perfect  type  of  the  pure  Zapotec,  al- 
tliouo^h  somewhat  below  medium  height,  and  with 
skin  of  darker  copper-color.  Hands  and  feet  small; 
head  not  round  nor  very  large  ;  hair  straight,  coarse, 
and  black;  forehead  high  and  prominent;  eyes  oblong, 
black,  and  full  of  lire;  nose  straight,  though  not  finely 
chiselled;  face  clean  shaven;  and  over  all  was  spread 
an  expression  of  thoughtfulness  and  refinement. 

Sucli  is  a  specimen  of  the  aboriginal  American  in 
the  region  of  Oajaca,  a  race  in  some  quarters  regarded 
as  savages.  While  not  a  handsome  man,  his  face  had 
an  alluring  stamp  of  discreet  gentleness,  from  which 
a  large  scar  by  no  means  detracted.  There  was  little 
to  distinguish  him  from  a  European;  and  one  may  see 


•^ 


m-  ! 


m 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


skins  as  dark  in  Italy  and  Spain;  while  the  east  of 
the  face,  though  a  little  peculiar  and  characteristic,  is 
by  no  means  unattractive. 

So  much  for  the  physical;  his  life  as  portrayed  in 
history  is  a  better  commentary  on  his  intellectual 
abilities  than  any  I  can  make;  suffice  it  to  say,  that 
it  compares  not  unfavorably  with  those  of  the  fore- 
most statesmen  and  reformers,  in  various  ages,  of 
Europe  and  America.  This  matter  of  race  and  color 
is  of  minor  importance,  and  goes  now  for  little  in 
Mexico.  Men  are  very  sensibly  regai  Jed  for  what 
they  are  and  what  they  can  do.  Why  is  it  any  more 
wonderful  that  genius  should  spring  up  in  the  moun- 
tains of  America  than  in  the  mountains  of  Asia?  Let 
those  answer  who  have  only  race  and  color  of  which 
to  boast. 

In  summing  up  the  character  of  Benito  Juarez,  we 
note,  first,  that  although  not  without  valor  and  other 
qualities  which  would  have  rendered  him  distinguished 
in  the  field,  he  was  a  statesman  rather  than  a  soldier. 
Of  a  lymphatic  temperament,  and  exceedingly  reti- 
cent on  all  important  matters,  in  reaching  conclusions 
his  mind  seemed  to  depend  upon  itself.  Original  in 
the  conception  of  his  plans,  there  was  no  lack  of  force 
for  their  execution ;  and  liowever  hotly  burned  the 
fires  of  patriotism  and  ambition  within,  outwardly 
there  was  an  ever-present  calm. 

Referring  once  more  to  the  condition  of  politics  and 
society  at  the  time  of  Juarez,  which  must  ever  con- 
stitute the  true  framework  for  sucii  a  portrait,  we  find 
that  during  the  period  from  1821  to  1857,  Mexico  was 
ruled  under  divers  forms  of  government,  with  at  lea«t 
fifty  different  administrations,  these  incessant  charges 
in  the  affairs  of  state  being  attended  by  more  tiian 
two  hundred  and  fifty  revolutions. 

The  last  effort  of  the  conservative  party  was  the 
invitation  extended  to  Maximilian  of  Austria  to  rees- 
tablish the  Mexican  empire,  and  the  failure  of  this  ill- 
judged  enterprise,  in  1867,  presently  to  be  present'jd, 


BENITO  JUARP:Z. 


Ill 


if^j 


was  the  death-blow  to  centraUsm.  Since  that  time 
repubHcan  principles  under  the  federal  system  have 
gradually  gained,  represented,  it  is  true,  by  various 
political  parties,  but  all  more  or  less  j)rogressive  and 
of  distinctive  character,  the  several  factions  being 
designated  after  their  respective  leaders,  as  Juaristas, 
Lerdistas,  and  Porfiristas.  Reforms  have  followed  in 
quick  succession.  From  the  church  has  been  wrested 
a  large  portion  of  her  power,  religious  tolerance  has 
been  proclaimed,  and  marriage  by  civil  contract  legal- 
ized ;  while  vast  improvement  has  been  made  in  the 
material  condition  of  the  country,  which,  during  the 
colonial  period,  languished  under  oppressive  restric- 
tions, and  in  later  days  was  depressed  by  chronic 
internal  strife. 

It  was  one  of  the  chief  purposes  of  Juarez  to  redis- 
tribute the  wealth  of  the  country,  which,  before  the 
revolution,  was  so  largely  in  the  hands  of  the 
clergy.  And  during  his  career  several  important  de- 
crees were  issued  to  curtail  the  power  of  the  clergy. 
One  of  his  first  acts  on  taking  his  place  at  the  capital, 
as  we  shall  see,  was  to  expel  the  papal  delegate, 
Luigi  Clementi,  as  well  as  the  archbishop  of  Mexico, 
and  bishops  Madrid,  Murgula,  Barajas,  and  Espinosa. 
On  the  arrival  at  Vera  Cruz  of  these  high  ecclesiastics, 
their  carriages  were  stoned,  while  the  populace  cried 
out  for  their  confinement  in  prison,  which,  however,  the 
government  would  not  permit.  Most  of  those  who 
could  properly  be  called  Spaniards  had  long  before 
this  left  the  country,  taking  with  them  all  the  money 
and  valuables  they  could  collect,  or  rather  all  that 
they  were  permitted  to  remove.  As  for  the  rest, 
there  was  not  always,  and  there  is  not  to-day,  the 
difference  which  the  abject  conditicni  of  the  poorer 
classes  and  the  extravagant  luxury  of  the  rich  would 
seem  to  indicate. 

It  is  all  the  more  remarkable,  the  liberalizing  ge- 
nius of  Juarez,  when  we  consider  the  race  problem,  and 
the  social  position  of  the  Indians  in  Mexico.     Once 


■Villi 


,^g^gjj^^t^m^^^ 


182 


DOMINATING  INBXUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


m 


lords  aboriginal  of  the  soil,  they  could  not  forget  that 
they  were  a  conquered  pcoj)le,  and  for  three  cen- 
turies had  been  servants,  if  not  slaves — had  been 
wholly  under  the  political  and  religious  domination  of 
the  white  race.  All  this  time  they  had  been  in  a 
state  of  tutelage,  and  were  treated  in  many  respects 
as  irrational  beings.  But  the  rise  into  prominence  of 
such  men  as  Juarez,  whose  ability  and  energy  cast  a 
redeeming  lustre  on  their  race,  have  removed,  and 
are  yet  removing,  many  social  obstacles. 

The  peaceful,  semi-dormant  period  of  viceregal  rule 
was  favorable  to  the  evolution  of  a  race,  which  ad- 
vanced the  Indian  and  Spanish  stock  toward  a  tixed 
type.  If  left  to  themselves,  the  mestizos  must  in  time 
become  the  national  race;  but  Mexico  is  peculiarly 
exposed  to  the  encroachments  of  progress,  whose  in- 
fluence tends  toward  a  white  race. 

Between  1832  and  1860  the  clergy  sold  property 
valued  at  $85,000,000  for  $42,000,000.  During  this 
time,  and  previously,  tlie  churcli  had  suffered  greatly 
from  seizures  and  forced  loans,  botli  by  revolutionary 
leaders  and  the  ijcovernment. 

After  the  independence,  the  Mexican  church  was 
for  many  years  in  an  anomalous  condition.  Failing 
to  induce  the  faithful  to  renew  allegiance  to  the 
Spanish  crown,  the  pope  at  first  refused  to  confirm 
bishops  nominated  by  the  Mexican  government,  but 
finally  assented.  There  were  two  tliousand  priests 
outside  of  the  regular  orders,  and  a  large  part  of  the 
secular  clergy  were  deemed  by  their  superiors  as 
scarcely  within  the  pale  of  resj)e(tability.  The  rev- 
enue went  largely  to  the  city  clergy  and  high  eccle- 
siastics, while  country  priests  were  kept  poor — 
doubtless  without  detriment  to  their  piety.  Though 
among  the  priesthood  were  some  good  men,  it  is  un- 
questionably true  that  many  were  incompetent  and 
iunuoral,  and  brought  disrepute  upon  the  profession. 

It  was  not  wholly  as  the  church  claimed,  that  the 
people  were  becoming  irreligious,  though  there  were 


f    ? 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


188 


many  among  the  educated  class  who  rejected  all 
religion,  calling  themselves  natural istas,  but  the 
ancient  supremacy  of  the  church  had  departed 
forever.  But  even  now,  particularly  in  the  rural 
districts,  the  clergy  retain  many  of  their  privileges 
and  prerogatives,  directing  the  conscience  not  only  in 
religious  but  in  secular  matters,  and  by  their  wealth 
and  patronage  commanding  the  masses. 

And  now  begins  in  earnest  the  figfht  for  intellectual 
liberty.  After  two  years  of  exile,  Juarez  receives 
news  at  New  Orleans  of  the  revolution  of  Ayutla,  de- 
posing Santa  Anna,  whereupon  he  proceeds  by  way 
of  Panamd  to  Acapulco,  joins  Alvarez,  and  accom- 
panies the  forces  of  the  south,  until  he  is  appointed  at 
Iguala  councillor  of  state,  and  shortly  afterward  min- 
ister of  justice  and  ecclesiastical  affairs. 

The  first  heavy  blow  against  ecclesiastical  and  mili- 
tary supremacy  is  struck  by  what  is  known  as  tlie  ley 
Juarez,  upon  the  administration  of  justice,  promul- 
gated on  the  22d  of  November,  1855.  By  this  law  is 
ordered  suppressed  all  special  tribunals,  together  with 
the  fueros  and  privileges  of  the  clergy  and  military. 

The  atmosphere  of  intrigue  and  contempt  for  true 
principles,  in  which  Alvarez  finds  himself  enveloped 
on  reaching  the  capital,  is  not  suited  to  the  character 
and  temperament  of  the  old  soldier  of  the  inde[)en- 
dence  war,  and  he  resigns  his  power  to  Comonfort,  his 
ministers  resigning  with  him,  and  Juarci  being  made 
governor  of  Oajaca. 

Ignacio  Comonfort  was  born  in  Puebla  on  the  1 2th 
of  March,  1812,  his  father,  Mariano,  having  been  a 
lieutenant-colonel  of  the  Spanish  royal  army.  He  re- 
ceived his  education  at  a  Jesuit  college.  As  a  rule, 
in  his  political  career,  he  was  amiable  and  conciliatory, 
yet  firm  of  purpose;  though  slow  in  resolve,  he  was 
energetic  in  action.  Of  his  bravery  and  coolness  in 
danger  no  doubt  was  ever  entertained.  Though  of  a 
religious  turn  of  mind,  and  devoted  to  the  faith  of  his 
forefathers,  he  was  not  bigoted,  nor  disposed  to  toler- 


•  <r 


vj 


'    1 


m 


II 


f  f 


iij. 


]f|  DOMINATING   INFLUENCES  IN   AMERICA. 

ate  ecclesiastical  despotism.  Such  was  the  man  iti 
whose  hands  were  now  intrusted  the  destinies  of  the 
repubhc,  at  the  dawn  of  the  era  of  true  UberaHsm ;  and 
in  Comonfort  and  his  advisers  the  supporters  of  oh- 
garchy  and  clerical  power  find  opponents  whom  they 
can  neither  cajole  nor  overthrow.  All  efforts  to  re- 
store the  old  order  of  things  fail ;  the  popular  cry  is 
for  progressive  measures,  and  the  ley  de  desmortiza- 
ci6n  civil  y  eclesiiistica,  or  ley  Lerdo,  is  promulgated. 

The  signification  of  this  measure  I  will  explain. 
[Most  of  the  landed  property  in  Mexico  at  this  time 
was  vested  in  mortmain.  The  Lerdo  law  enabled  the 
tenants  to  become  owners  in  fee-simple  of  the  estates 
they  held  in  lease  from  civil  or  ecclesiastical  corpora- 
tions ;  other  persons  holding  property  in  emphyteusis 
were  granted  the  same  privilege,  by  capitalizing  at  six 
per  cent  a  year  the  rent  they  were  paying,  to  arrive 
at  the  value  of  the  property.  The  latter  was  secured 
at  six  per  cent  in  favor  of  the  former  owners,  and 
made  redeemable  at  the  purchasers'  convenience.  The 
buildings  immediately  applied  to  the  service  of  a  cor- 
poration were  exempted  from  the  effects  of  the  law. 
Estates  conveyed  under  the  latter  were  not  to  revert 
to  the  corporations  at  any  future  time,  and  corpora- 
tions were  forbidden  to  own  or  administer  upon 
landed  propcjrty. 

Next  in  the  progress  of  liberalizatior'  comes  the 
adoption  of  a  new  constitution  in  1857,  wherein  are 
declared  the  rights  of  man  upon  Dm  roundest  basis, 
as  adopted  hy  the  most  enlightened  nations.  Equality 
before  the  law  is  ])ronmlgated  as  a  fundamental  prin- 
ciple ;  special  privileges  and  prerogatives  are  forbidden. 
]\lilitary  and  ecclesiastical  fueros,  the  last  remnants 
of  monarchial  despotism,  are  declared  incompatible 
with  republican  institutions.  Among  those  who  take 
a  prominent  part  in  the  framing  and  adoption  of  these 
advanced  ideas  is  that  patriarch  of  reform,  V^alentin 
(lomez  Farias,  who,  as  the  acting  executive  in  1834, 
had  failed  in  his  efforts  to  curtail  the  power  of  the 


BENITO  JUAKhZ. 


isa 


military  and  clergy.  All  eleiuents  hostile  to  progress 
united  to  reestablish  despotism,  or  at  least  to  destroy 
liberalism,  and  in.  this  the  clergy,  by  the  use  of  the 
pulpit  and  the  confessional,  were  powerful  factors. 

In  an  evil  hour  Comonfort,  despairing  of  conquer- 
ing a  peace,  fancied  he  might  secure  the  desired  end 
by  the  amalgamation  of  parties  bitterly  hostik  to  each 
other,  over  whom  he  would  hold  &upreme  control. 
This  swerving  from  the  straight  path  Drought  about 
his  ruin. 

Juarez  had  long  before  abandoned  the  cabinet,  as 
we  have  seen,  to  become  governor  of  Oajaca,  from 
whose  territory  he  expelled  all  priests  who  refused 
Christian  sepulture  to  the  supporters  of  the  new 
constitution  and  tiie  reform  laws.  At  the  same  time 
that  he  was  elected  by  112,000  votes  governor  of 
Oajaca,  the  people  throughout  the  republic  had  given 
him  their  suffrages  for  president  of  the  supreme  court 
of  justice,  into  which  office  he  was  inducted  on  the 
1st  of  December,  1857,  and  at  the  same  time,  by  per- 
mission of  congress,  held  the  office  of  minister  of 
government.  Juarez  was  deceived  in  regard  to  Co- 
monfort's  intention  to  bring  about  a  change  of  system, 
and  in  the  president's  name  declared  groundless  all 
reports  to  that  effect.  The  conservatives  adopted 
during  this  same  December  a  plan  at  Tacubaya  to 
bring  about  the  framing  of  another  constitution,  and 
proposed  to  Comonfort  that,  pending  the  acceptance 
of  the  new  organic  law,  he  should  rule  with  a  coun- 
cil composed  of  one  representative  from  each  state. 
Upon  hearing  of  this,  Juarez  forthwith  advised  the 
president  to  reject  the  r61e  which  was  tendered  him. 
But  nothing  availed;  the  conspirators  made  a  pronun- 
ciamiento  under  Felix  Zuloaga,  and  shortly  afterward 
took  possession  of  the  capital,  Comonfort  departing 
from  the  republic.  After  the  war  of  French  inter- 
vention, he  returned  to  take  part  in  the  defence  of 
national  independence  and  republican  principles,  ac- 
cepted the  position  of  secretary  of  war  under  Presi- 


f';!''     I 


^      ^ffl*!ffBW^(B**IW<*W 


■'mfm^:iiigm^- 


IW 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


*'  i{ 


iiHf 


f 


dent  Juarez,  and  on  a  journey  to  Guanajuato,  was 
waylaid  by  a  party  of  imperialists  and  killed,  on  the 
14th  of  November,  1863. 

Zuloaga,  made  president  ad  interim,  was  superseded 
by  Miguel  Miram6n,  whose  energy  of  character  and 
military  ability  not  only  restored  at  the  capital  and 
over  a  large  portion  of  the  republic  the  supremacy  of 
the  conservatives,  but  paved  the  way  for  foreign  in- 
tervention in  the  affairs  of  the  country,  and  for  an  at- 
tempt to  implant  therein  monarchial  principles  under 
an  imported  superior.  The  plana  to  supplant  repub- 
licanism, first  with  an  unmitigated  despotism,  and 
next  with  a  monarchy,  cost  Mexico  years  of  anguish, 
and  the  loss  of  thousands  of  her  children ;  but  these 
ill-advised  efforts  eventually  fell,  as  we  shall  see,  be- 
fore the  patriotism,  perseverance,  and  indomitable 
will  of  the  great  Indian  champion  of  nationality  and 
democracy,  Benito  Juarez. 

Upon  Comonfort's  acceptance  of  the  plan  of  Tacu- 
baya,  annulling  the  constitution  of  1857,  under  which 
he  had  accepted  the  presidency,  thus  practically  aban- 
doning the  purposes  and  principles  of  liberalization, 
and  to  which  Juarez  had  interposed  strenuous  objec- 
tions, the  president  had  held  him  confined  to  his  room 
in  the  palace.  But  when  Comonfort,  upon  realizing  that 
he  had  been  used  as  a  tool  by  the  opposing  party,  aud 
in  the  endeavor  to  retrace  his  steps  had  failed,  to  the 
loss  of  his  power  and  position,  he  released  Juarjez, 
who  thereupon  fled  from  the  capital  to  Guanajuato, 
and  on  the  19th  of  January,  1858,  proclaimed  him- 
self the  constitutional  president  of  the  republic,  and 
established  there  his  government,  which  was  unhesi- 
tatingly recognized  by  a  majority  of  the  Htates,  and 
became  the  centre  of  the  liberal  element  in  the  coun- 
try. The  step  thus  taken  by  Juarez  was  in  accord- 
ance with  the  constitution,  which  devolved  upon  the 
president  of  the  supreme  court  the  executive  office 
m  default  of  the  chief  magistrate,  who  by  his  defection 
had  forfeited  his  office.     The  matter  was  yet  more 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


m 


definitely  determined  when  Comonfort  departed  from 
the  territory  of  the  republic  on  the  7th  of  February. 
A  succession  of  disasters  having  befallen  the  arms 
of  the  constitutionalists,  Juarez  and  his  government 
found  it  necessary  to  transfer  themselves  to  Guadala- 
jara, and  while  there  the  troops  under  Lieutenant- 
colonel  Landa  revolted,  and  made  prisoners  of  the 
president  and  several  ministers  and  officials,  whom 
they  confined  in  one  room,  threatening  them  with 
death  if  they  did  not  recognize  the  government  of  the 
reactionists,  as  those  were  called  who  turned  back 
from  the  constitution  of  1857.  Upon  the  coolness 
and  courage  of  this  Indian,  whose  characteristic  sto- 
icism never  for  a  moment  deserted  him,  the  fate  of 
the  republic  hung.  Had  he  shown  the  slightest 
weakness,  the  least  indication  of  giving  way,  his  cap- 
tors would  have  resorted  to  any  means  within  their 
power  to  make  him  yield.  But  though  they  held 
him  prisoner,  his  lift-  in  their  hands,  they  felt  con- 
vinced that  not  only  was  his  will  adamant,  but  that 
to  kill  him  would  not  kill  his  cause.  Would  he  but 
yield,  turn  traitor  to  the  principles  of  liberalism,  dis- 
solve his  government  and  his  party,  and  the  oligarchs 
might  be  sure  of  control  for  years  to  come,  if  not  for- 
If  to  kill  the  leader  were  to  kill  tha  cause,  his 


ever. 


life  would  not  have  been  left  to  him  an  hour. 

And  fortunate  it  was,  again,  that  he  was  not  killed, 
accidentally  or  inter/ tionally,  when  a  portion  of  the  cav- 
alry and  national  gaard  who  had  refused  to  join  Landa 
went  to  the  rescue  of  the  prisoners.  When  hard- 
pressed  by  the  rescuing  party,  Peraza,  the  officer  in 
charge,  ordered  his  men  to  point  their  muskets  at  the 
prisoners,  but  at  the  persuasion  of  Prieto,  one  of  the 
t'^.urez  cabinet,  they  did  not  fire.  A  moment  later, 
when  Landa  in  his  turn  requested  Juarez  to  forbid 
the  royal  troops  from  firing  on  the  nutineers,  with  no 
small  shrewdness  and  bravery,  Juarez  replied,  "  Pardon 
me,  seller;  I  am  a  prisoner,  and  may  not  give  orders." 

An  arrangement  was  finally  agreed  upon  by  which 


M 


\^ 


-■■4 


fm  »i>ww».i)«,'i^w 


i!" 


'h, 


F' 


188 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


Juarez  and  his  companions  were  to  be  set  free  and 
permitted  to  leave  Guadalajara,  exempt  from  recap- 
ture in  any  place  within  ten  leagues  of  the  city. 
Turning  their  steps  toward  Coloma,  news  of  fresh 
dangers  from  the  fall  of  Guadalajara  overtook  them, 
whereupon  Juarez  resolved  to  establish  his  govern- 
ment at  Vera  Cruz.  Embarking  at  Manzanillo  on  the 
14th  of  April,  with  his  ministry,  Ocampo,  Ruiz,  Prieto, 
and  Guzmdn,  on  the  American  steamship  John  L. 
Stevens,  he  reached  Panamd,  and  thence  via  Colon, 
Habana,  and  New  Orleans,  they  arrived  at  Vera 
Cruz  on  the  4th  of  May,  1858.  On  the  same  day  the 
government  was  duly  installed,  and  the  fact  was  com- 
municated by  Ocampo  to  the  governors  and  others. 

Meantime  the  f  fc^'uggle  for  supremacy  continued 
elsewhere.  The  liberals  were  numerous  enough,  but 
thus  far  lacked  able  commanders;  hence  the  conserva- 
tives had  within  four  months  made  themselves  mas- 
ters of  the  most  populous  cities.  Even  Vera  Cruz, 
Juarez'  present  capital,  was  debarred  from  communi- 
cation with  the  interior.  He  was  recognized  at  ports 
both  on  the  gulf  of  Mexico  and  on  the  Pacific,  but 
his  enemies  were  using  all  possible  means  to  close 
them.  But  however  precarious  became  the  situation, 
it  was  not  in  his  nature  to  become  disheartened. 

When,  in  February  1859,  Miram6n  assumed  the 
reins  of  government  in  Mexico,  owing  to  the  inability 
of  Zuloaga  to  provide  a  constitution,  he  placed  at  the 
head  of  his  cabinet  Santa  Anna's  favorite  counsellor 
and  minister,  Manuel  Diez  de  Bonilla.  Miramon  was 
a  native  of  Mexico,  in  which  city  he  was  born  on  the 
29th  of  September,  1832.  He  was  intelligent,  am- 
bitious, and  brave,  as  well  as  an  able  military  chief- 
tain, though  we  must  admit  that  fortune  had  no  small 
share  in  his  brilliant  successes.  The  great  services 
he  had  rendered  the  reactionists  since  the  fall  of 
Comonfort  had  won  him  the  high  regard  of  the  clergy ; 
and  upon  his  expressing  an  intention  of  attackir'T 
Vera  Cruz,  they  at  once  advanced  him  a  large  sum  jl 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


189 


money  for  that  purpose.  Juarez  had  not  been  idle,  but 
had  made  preparations  to  meet  the  coming  onslaught. 
The  constitutional  forces  occupying  the  defiles  of  the 
sierra  were  brought  together  at  the  port,  to  resist 
the  attack  of  Miram6n's  army,  consisting  of  5,000 
well-provided  men,  with  28  pieces  of  artillery.  The 
constitutionalists  harassed  it  at  all  points,  while  others 
threatened  the  capital,  and  thus  prevented  the  con- 
centration of  forces  against  Vera  Cruz.  The  result 
was,  that  at  a  council  of  war  Miram6n's  officers  de- 
clared the  capture  of  Juarez'  stronghold  by  assault  to 
be  impracticable.  The  siege  was  therefore  abandoned 
on  the  29th  of  March. 

On  the  12th  of  July,  1859,  Juarez  issued  a  decree 
confiscating  the  church  property,  on  the  ground  that 
th  e  church  had  been  the  main  support  of  the  royalists 
during  the  war  of  independence,  and  since  then  the  most 
powerful  opponent  of  liberal  ideas,  promoting  the 
present  fatricidal  war,  with  the  selfish  aims  of  escap- 
ing submission  to  civil  authority,  and  retaining  the 
supremacy  in  both  civil  and  religious  matters,  to  effect 
which  it  was  using  the  property  placed  in  its  hands 
by  the  people  for  benevolent  and  religious  purposes. 
TlK  J<3cree  restored  to  the  nation  all  the  property 
h'id  ')}  the  secular  and  regular  clergy,  established  in- 
dopeflence  between  church  and  state,  and  extended 
government  protection  to  public  worship  of  all  de- 
poiLi  riat'cns. 

Tile  liberal  arms,  though  successful  at  times,  were 
not,  ^dnorally  speaking,  favored  by  fortune.  On  the 
other  hand,  Juarez  was  recognized  as  the  legithnate 
chief  magistrate  of  the  Mexican  republic  by  the 
United  States,  who  accredited  a  minister  plenipoten- 
tiary near  his  government.  This  was  a  point  in  his 
favor,  giving  him  prestige.  Though  not  despairing 
*?f  final  success,  Juarez  began  to  fear  that  he  would 
bv3  left  without  means  to  maintain  his  cause,  which 
was  the  cause  of  his  country.  Hence  his  acceptance 
of  a  proposition   from    the   United   States  minister. 


v<  '- 


^*i 


r 


I  i\ 


II*  ' 

h 


11: 


m< 


■■'i 

'4 

ill 


190 


OOMINATINa  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


McLane,  to  admit  American  volunteers  in  the  liberal 
army.  McLane's  government  had  permitted  the  ex- 
portation of  war  material  for  the  use  of  the  liberals, 
and  further  to  aid  Juarez  with  its  support,  had  author- 
ized the  negotiations  culminating  in  the  McLane- 
Ocampo  treaty,  signed  DecemOe*  14,  1859,  which 
contained  among  its  provisions  one  authorizing  the 
United  States  to  defend  its  citizens  and  their  inter- 
ests, by  force  of  arms,  within  Mexican  territory.  And 
it  was  alleged  that  b 7  inother  clause  Mexico  might, 
under  certain  contingv  r  accept  in  a  certain  forta 

the  protectorate  of  the  V  jed  States.  The  enemies 
of  Juarez  have  accused  him  of  an  undue  subservience 
to  the  pretensions  of  the  neighboring  republic,  thus 
jeopardizing  the  independence  and  dignity  of  his 
country.  However  that  may  be,  the  treaty  never 
came  into  effect,  as  notwithstanding  the  arguments 
adduced  in  its  favor  by  President  Buchanan  and 
others,  it  was  rejected  by  the  United  States  senate. 

In  the  mean  time  the  belligerents  increased  their 
forces,  and  early  in  1860  those  of  the  constitutionalists 
were  quite  numerous,  while  Miram6n  concluded  that 
the  time  had  come  to  make  a  simultaneous  assault 
against  Vera  Cruz  by  land  and  sea,  to  facilitate  which 
operation  a  small  squadron  under  Mexican  colors,  and 
commanded  by  General  Marin,  had  been  fitted  out  at 
Habana,  and  was  expected  to  arrive  off  Vera  Cruz 
about  the  end  of  Feburary.  Juarez  was  well  ap- 
prised of  the  movements  of  the  enemy,  and  in  a  forci- 
ble proclamation  of  the  23d  of  that  month  declared 
Marin's  expedition  a  piratical  one.  Miramdn,  with 
5,000  men,  had  his  headquarters  at  Medellin,  and 
awaited  the  arrival  of  the  s(juadron  to  push  his  opera- 
tions against  the  capital  of  the  liberals  with  the 
utmost  vigor.  An  atttenipt  was  at  this;  time  made 
by  Captain  Aldham,  of  the  British  war-ship  Valorous, 
to  bring  about  a  com[)romise  between  the  belligerents, 
accompanying  his  proposition  with  a  threat  that  if 
they  failed  to  heed  it,  his  government  would  demand 


ii 


(        !i 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


191 


reparation  of  all  damages  inflicted  on  its  subjects  by 
either  belligerent.     Among   the  clauses  of  the  pro- 
posed arrangement  was,  that  an  assembly,  composed 
of  men  who  had  filled  public  trusts  from  1822  to  1853, 
should  be  convened,  and  intrusted  with  the  task  of 
reorganizing  the  country.     Miram6n  assented  to  the 
armistice  under  the  combined  mediation  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, France,  Spain,  and  the  United   States.     Juarez 
declined  to  enter  into  any  arrangement  savoring  of 
compromise,  and  issued  a  proclamation  to  that  effect. 
The  squadron  expected  by  Miram6n,  consisting  of 
the  steamers  General  Miramdn  and  Marques  de  la  Ha,- 
bana,  were  descried  in  the  offing  in  the  afternoon  of 
March  6th.     But  it  was  not  permitted  to  render  the 
service  for  which  it  had  come,  for  as  soon  as  the  two 
steamers  passed  the  fortress  of  San  Juan  de  UMa, 
they  were  signalled  to  show  their  colors,  which  they 
failed  to  do  until  they  were  opposite  the  Spanish  ves- 
sels at  Ant6n  Lizardo.    At  this  time  there  were  three 
United  States  war-ships  anchored  in  the  port,  namely, 
the  frigate  Savannah,  and  the  corvettes  Saratoga  and 
Preble,  besides  two  steamers,  the  Indianola  and  Wave, 
which  were  under  charter  to  the  lil^eral  government. 
Captain  Jarvis,  the  senior  officer  of  the    American 
squadron,  must  have  had  orders  from  his  government 
to  cooperate  with  Juarez,  for  he  forthwith  sent  an 
officer  with   80  men  to  the  hidianolaf  and  an  equal 
force  to  the  Wave,  and  th'^se  steamers,  with  the  Sara- 
toga in  tow,  proceeded  to  attack   Marin's   squadron, 
with  the  result  that  at  midnight  his  two  vessels  were 
a  prize  of  the  United  States  force,  and  were  shortly 
after  sent  to  New  Orleans  for  adjudication  by  an  ad- 
miralty court.     The  right  of  the  United  States  to  in- 
terfere in  this  manner  in  the  Mexican  quarrel  is  not 
clear.     In  fact,  the  capture  of  those  vessels  was  even- 
tually pronounced  illegal  by  the  United  States  court 
at  New  Orleans,  but  the  injury  inflicted  on  Miram6n's 
cause,  in  depriving  him  of  the  services  of  his  ships, 
and  of  the  war  material  they  had  brought,  was  past 


M 


^^B> 


^ 


m 


m 

1 1  i  I; 


IP 
ill 


y. 

'A 

i: 

1 

■ 

t 

.^1 

1'  j^"  ^. 

!    i 


192 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


all  remedy.  The  operations  of  the  siege  brought  him 
no  satisfactorj^  results.  Negotiations  were  again  at- 
tempted to  bring  about  a  peaceful  arrangement,  but 
they  failed  before  the  fixed  determination  of  Juarez  to 
listen  to  no  proposition  whose  terms  were  not  fully  in 
accord  with  the  constitution  of  1857,  nor  would  he 
assent  to  foreign  intervention  in  the  settlement  of  his 
country's  affairs. 

The  besiegers  bombarded  Vera  Cruz  from  the  15  th 
to  the  20th  of  March,  without  inflicting  serious  dam- 
age, while  their  own  casualties  from  warfare  and 
disease  were  quite  large.  Miram6n  became  convinced 
that  his  enemy  had  foiled  him,  and  he  began  his  re- 
treat on  the  21st  toward  his  lines  at  Orizaba  and 
Jalapa,  the  liberal  guerillas  constantly  harassing 
him.  On  the  march  a  large  number  of  his  men  de- 
serted and  joined  the  liberal  army. 

The  tide  of  Miram6n's  fortune  was  now  turning 
against  him.  President  Zuloaga,  whom  Miram6n  had 
virtually  kept  a  prisoner,  made  his  escape  from  Leon, 
which  was  a  cause  of  much  alarm.  The  disappearance 
of  the  man  who  gave  Miram6n  a  legal  status  was  a 
serious  affair,  for  he  might  recall  his  decree  of  1859, 
under  which  that  general  was  acting  as  president,  and 
reassume  his  office,  or  appoint  some  one  else  his  sub- 
stitute. This  difficulty  was,  however,  overcome  by 
the  council  of  state  slurring  over  the  plan  of  Tacubaya, 
which  created  it,  and  declaring  that  Miramon  should 
continue  in  charge  of  the  government.  Zuloaga's 
pretensions  being  thus  ignored,  Miram6n  was  chosen 
president  ad  interim  by  a  board  of  departmental  rep- 
resentatives. The  liberals  now  felt  confident  that  the 
resources  of  their  enemies  were  fast  becoming  ex- 
hausted. The  latter  had  been  forced  to  abandon 
several  important  strongholds,  in  addition  to  their  re- 
treats from  Vera  Cruz  and  Sayula.  The  triumph  of 
the  liberals  appeared  certain  in  the  near  future,  and 
hope  began  to  be  entertained  that  notwithstanding 
the  hostile  attitude  of  England,  France,  and  Spain 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


Mi 


m 


I 


toward  the  Juarez  government,  Mexico  would  soon 
reach  the  welcome  day  of  free  institutions,  law,  and 
order. 

The  reactionists  under  Miramon's  immediate  com- 
mand mot  with  a  terrible  disaster  at  Silao  on  the 
10th  of  August,  and  the  victors  advanced  upon  Que- 
retaro,  constantly  augmenting  their  strength  on  the 
march.  Nothing  daunted  by  the  reverse,  Miramc^n 
reorganized  his  forces  with  his  characteristic  energy, 
resolving  that  the  final  decision  of  arms  should  be  in 
the  valley  of  Mexico.  In  the  midst  of  the  turmoil, 
arrived  at  Vera  Cruz  Joaquin  Francisco  Pacheco, 
accredited  as  Spanish  minister  plenipotentiary  to 
Mexico.  He  concluded  to  present  his  credentials  to 
Miramdn  at  the  city  of  Mexico,  thus  ignoring  the 
legitimacy  of  Juarez  as  chief  magistrate  of  the  re- 
public. By  means  not  altogethe."  honorau'v^  he  ob- 
tained permission  of  Juarez  to  pass  into  the  interior, 
and  was  received  at  the  capiti^l  with  great  pomp. 
Toward  the  end  of  November  came  Dubois  de  Sa- 
ligny,  the  new  French  minister,  whose  instructions 
were  to  recognize  Miramdn's  government.  A  con- 
vention had  been  already  entered  into  by  Great 
Britain,  France,  and  Spain,  in  which  Prussia  was  also 
to  have  a  part,  for  assisting  in  the  affairs  of  Mexico, 
even  if  the  United  States  government  objected  to  it. 
They  proposed  an  armistice  for  one  year,  to  enable 
the  Mexican  people  freely  to  express  through  a  con- 
stituent congress  their  preference  as  to  the  principles 
that  should  underlie  their  government.  To  the 
American  government  they  represented  that  in  view 
of  the  weakness  of  the  two  contending  parties,  and  of 
the  fact  that  neither  the  United  States  nor  Spain  had 
consented  to  act  solely,  they  had  undertaken  a  humane 
mission  in  their  endeavor  to  restore  peace  to  distracted 
Mexico.  But  this  proposal,  like  other  similar  ones, 
found  no  favor  with  Juarez,  who  would  take  no  action 
whatever  not  grounded  on  the  constitution  of  1857, 
from  which  his  authority  emanated. 

C.B.-L    18 


^i 


¥> 


;■  si 


iy 


|i|; 


■fit  < 


\    I 


191 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


And  now  the  star  of  the  liberals  is  seen  in  the  as- 
cendant. Gonzalez  Ortega,  with  seventeen  thousand 
men,  lays  siege  to  Guadalajara,  and  compels  the  reac- 
tionist Castillo  and  the  garrison  of  seven  thousand  to 
evacuate  the  place  without  arms.  The  constitution- 
alists afterward,  on  the  10th  of  November,  1860,  rout 
the  army  of  Marquez  at  Calder6n.  Marquez  and 
Velez  take  to  Mexico  the  news  of  their  own  defeat. 
Mirani6n  calls  a  council  of  prominent  citizens,  among 
whom  are  the  archbishop  of  Mexico,  the  bishop  of 
Monterey,  several  other  high  ecclesiastics,  and  a  num- 
ber of  generals,  and  frankly  lays  before  them  on  the 
30th  of  November  the  exact  situation,  and  the  meet- 
ing resolves  that  the  city  shall  be  defended  to  the  last. 
The  reactionary  government  had  never  established  any 
financial  system ;  its  resources  had  proceeded  from 
contributions  of  the  city,  or  forced  loans.  Miram6n, 
being  now  without  means  to  support  his  troops, 
allows  the  chief  of  police  and  a  force  of  workmen  to 
break  into  the  housi^  of  a  Mr  Barton,  on  whose  doors 
were  the  seals  of  the  British  legation,  and  to  carry 
away  some  seven  hundred  thousand  dollars  against  all 
protests,  and  in  disregard  of  the  fact  that  the  money 
belonged  to  British  bondholders.  With  these  funds, 
Miram6n  reorganizes  his  army,  and  makes  prepara- 
tions to  fight  the  hosts,  marching  to  attack  the  capi- 
tal. On  the  8th  of  December  he  makes  a  sally,  and 
gains  a  victory,  which  facilitates  the  carriage  of  pro- 
visions into  Mexico. 

What  are  these  petty  successes,  however,  to  the 
coming  hither  of  Ortega  with  10,000  men  and  44 
pieces  of  artillery?  Leaving  Queretaro  on  the  10th 
of  December,  he  meets  the  enemy  on  the  heights  of 
San  Miguel  Calpuldlpan,  and  at  eight  o'clock  on  the 
morning  of  the  2 2d  a  battle  begins,  which  in  two  hours 
ends  the  three  years'  war  for  the  intellectual  emanci- 

{)ation  of  Mexico.     It  is  a  repetition  of  the  old  Napo- 
eonic  tactics;  Ortega  drives  straight  for  Miramdn's 
centre,  breaks  the  army  of  the  enemy,  who  abandons 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


195 


his  artillery,  trains,  ammunition,  and  wounded.  The 
army  is  utterly  routed.  Kcligious  despotism  lies  for- 
ever crushed. 

The  defeated  General  Miram6n  reached  the  capital 
at  two  o'clock  the  following  morning,  and  summoned  a 
council  of  ministers,  at  which  were  present  the  represent- 
atives of  France  and  Spain.  The  result  of  their  delib- 
erations was,  that  two  diplomates,  with  the  liberal  gen- 
erals Berriozdbal  and  Ayestardn,  whom  Miramon  had 
taken  prisoners  in  the  battle  of  December  8th,  repaired 
to  Ortega's  headquarters  to  treat  regarding  the  terms  of 
capitulation.  The  liberal  commander-in-chief  declined 
to  listen  to  anything  short  of  unconditional  surrender. 
When  the  commissioners  returned  on  the  24th,  it  was 
quickly  understood  that  each  must  look  out  for  him- 
self. Miram6n  surrendered  the  city  to  DegoUado  and 
Berriozdbal,  and  then,  with  Zuloaga  and  other  prom- 
inent reactionists,  assembled  at  the  Ciudadela,  where 
they  divided  among  themselves  the  sum  of  $140,000, 
after  which  they  staHed  off  together  on  the  Joluca 
road.  Miram6n  remained  in  concealment  some  time 
at  Jalapa,  and  finally  reached  the  coast,  when  a  French 
man-of-war's  boat  conveyed  him  to  the  ship  Mercure, 
which  bore  him  away  to  Europe,  whence  he  returned, 
not  long  after,  to  play  a  most  important  r61e  in  subse- 
quent events. 

The  victorious  army,  now  25,000  strong,  entered 
the  capital  on  the  1st  of  January,  1861,  amid  the 
plaudits  of  the  people,  who  had  draped  their  houses 
in  white,  and  now  cast  flowers  and  laurel  wreaths 
upon  the  brave  men  who  had  risked  their  lives  to  se- 
cure this  magna  charta  of  their  country's  liberties,  and 
the  restoration  of  the  reign  of  law  and  justice. 

President  Juarez  hastened  to  reach  the  capital, 
where  he  arrived  on  the  11th  of  January.  His  par- 
tisans, and  a  large  number  of  high  military  and  civil  offi- 
cers, went  out  as  far  at  Guadalupe  to  meet  him.  He 
entered  the  city  in  an  open  carriage,  amid  the  accla- 
mations of  the  people,  while  the  artillery  saluted  in 


\ 


P! 


196 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


l!  ' 


his  person  the  chief  magistrate  of  the  repubhc.  In  a 
manifesto  to  the  nation,  after  congratulations  on  the 
success  of  the  constitutional  cause,  he  solemnly  pledged 
himself  to  surrender  the  executive  authority  to  the 
elect  of  the  people,  as  he  had  ever  regarded  it  as  a 
sacred  trust  for  which  he  must  render  a  strict  ac- 
count. 

Mark  the  nobility  of  these  sentiments,  so  diflferent 
from  the  wrangling  demagogues  who  spend  their  lives 
in  selfish  grasping  at  power  I 

Legality  and  reform  indeed  had  triumphed.  A  few 
scattered  bands  still  roamed  at  large,  committing  dep- 
redations, but  the  war  was  at  an  end.  Juarez  and 
his  counsellors  had  now  the  task  of  administrative  re- 
construction, which  presented  many  difficulties,  chief 
among  which  was  the  carrying  out  of  the  laws  issued 
at  Vera  Cruz,  and  the  reorganization  of  the  public 
powers.  No  act  of  the  government  which  had  ema- 
nated from  the  law  of  Tacubaya  could  be  recognized  as 
valid;  hence  orders  were  issued  to  dismiss  from  the 
service  all  officers  of  high  rank  who  had  served  in  the 
reactionary  army,  and  to  prosecute  officials  and  others 
who  had  supported  it. 

Among  the  first  measures  adopted  by  Juarez  was 
the  expulsion  of  the  Spanish  ambassador,  the  minister 
of  Guatemala,  and  the  pope's  nuncio.  The  same 
action  was  taken  with  regard  to  the  mission  of  Ecua- 
dor, but  it  was  rescinded  a  few  days  later.  The  order 
addressed  to  Luis  Clemente,  archbishop  of  Damascus, 
and  papal  nuncio,  was  couched  in  the  following  words: 
"  It  is  by  no  means  proper  that  the  supreme  govern- 
ment should  permit  your  residence  here,  after  what 
you  have  made  this  people  suffer,  after  what  you  have 
cost  this  nation,  after  so  much  blood  has  been  shed 
on  this  soil  because  of  the  scandalous  participation  of 
the  clergy  in  this  most  unholy  civil  war.  Now  that 
constitutional  order  has  been  established,  his  excel- 
lency the  president  has  ordered  that  you  leave  the 
republic  in  as  brief  a  time  as  may  be  necessary  for 


BKNITO  JUAREZ. 


197 


making  preparation  for  your  journey."  Likewise  the 
ministers  plenipotentiary  were  ordered  to  depart,  be- 
cause of  the  efforts  they  had  made  on  behalf  of  the 
enemies  to  liberalism,  who  for  three  years  had  occu- 
pied the  city  of  Mexico.  The  principal  instigators  of 
the  revolution,  however,  had  been  the  bishops  and 
their  clergy.  A  great  majority  of  the  liberal  party 
demanded  that  they  should  be  prosecuted,  and  such 
as  were  convicted  of  treason  to  the  nation,  punished; 
but  the  government  resolved  on  milder  measures, — 
the  exile  of  the  archbishop  of  Mexico,  the  bishops  of 
Michoacdn  and  of  Potosi,  and  the  bishop  of  Tenagra, 
in  partibus  infidelium. 

At  this  time  the  ministers  of  Juarez,  Ocampo, 
Llave,  Ortega,  and  Empdran  resigned  their  portfolios 
in  order  to  leave  free  action  to  the  president,  and 
their  successors  were,  Ignacio  Ramirez,  Guillermo 
Prieto,  Miguel  Anza,  and  Jesus  Gonzalez  Ortega. 
The  new  cabinet  continued  the  work  of  reform,  among 
which  were  the  organization  of  public  instruction,  and 
the  gathering  of  the  nuns  into  a  smaller  number  of 
convents.  Military  operations  were  limited  to  the 
pursuit  of  the  reactionary  bands  which  were  preying 
upon  defenceless  towns.  One  of  these  marauding 
bands  operated  in  the  state  of  Mexico  under  the  lead- 
ership of  Leonardo  Marquez,  one  of  the  ablest  among 
the  Mexican  commanders,  in  whose  company  was  ex- 
General  Zuloaga,  still  calling  himself  president  of  the 
republic. 

Meantime  the  elections  for  chief  magistrate,  art! 
for  deputies  to  the  national  congress,  called  for  by 
Jaurez  from  Vera  Cruz  on  the  6th  of  November, 
1860,  took  place,  resulting  in  a  large  majority  for 
Juarez,  his  only  formidable  rival,  the  able  and  stanch 
Miguel  Lerdo  de  Tejada,  having  suddenly  died  before 
the  election. 

In  the  first  flush  of  victory,  the  government  had 
ordered,  on  the  11th  of  January,  1861,  that  the  lead- 
ers of  the  reaction  should  be  brought  to  trial  under 


ill! 


d 


iM 


s 


1 

I 


iifh: 


i  ^ 


Hill 


hi    ■ 


IM 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


the  law  against  conspirators,  and  on  conviction  should 
be  put  to  death.  The  fin^t  person  to  fall  under  this 
rule  was  one  of  Mirara6n'8  late  ministers,  Isidor  Dias, 
who  was  convicted  and  st^ntenced  to  be  shot.  But 
Juarez,  being  neither  vindictive  nor  bloodthirsty,  at 
once  commuted  the  sentence  to  the  very  mild  punish- 
ment of  exile  for  five  years.  This  action  caused  alarm 
in  thb  liberal  ranks,  most  of  whom  regarded  such  leni- 
ency as  rank  injustice,  while  those  guilty  of  lesser 
crimes  were  often  punished  with  death.  But  Juarez 
was  re  Jolved  that  bloodshed  and  persecution  should 
cease;  he  would  not  rear  an  edifice  to  liberty  on  the 
bones  even  of  traitors.  Hence,  early  in  March  a  de- 
cree of  amnesty  was  issued,  from  the  benefits  of  which 
were  excepted  only  a  few  of  the  principal  reactionists. 
But  congress  took  a  different  view,  and  on  the  4th  of 
June  passed  an  act  of  outlawry  against  prominent 
reactionists,  among  whom  were  Zuloaga,  Marquez, 
Meji'a,  Cobos,  and  Lozada,  for  whose  capture  large 
rewards  were  offered.  About  this  time  the  kidnap- 
ping and  murder  of  Melchor  Ocampo,  Juarez'  former 
secretary  of  relations  at  Tepejf  del  Rio,  brought  on 
great  feeling,  and  many  conservative  leaders  would 
have  answered  with  their  lives  but  for  Juarez. 
Ocampo  was  a  man  of  broad  and  cultivated  intellect, 
and  he  had  rendered  valuable  services  to  his  country 
as  deputy,  senator,  governor  of  Michoacifn,  and  min- 
ister of  state.  He  had  ever  led  a  pure  life,  and  was 
an  unselfish  reformer.  His  death  was  universally  de- 
plored. Marquez,  Zuloaga,  and  Cajiga  were  accused 
of  being  concerned  with  the  "execrables  asesinos," 
who  had  executed  Ocampo  on  the  3d  of  June,  1861. 
Marquez'  band  also  murdered  General  Leandro  Valle 
in  the  monte  de  las  Cruces.  Degollado  likewise  be- 
came the  victim  of  a  cowardly  assassin. 

At  the  opening  of  congress,  Juarez  in  his  address 
spoke  of  what  the  liberal  party  had  done,  claiming 
no  merit  for  himself,  and  added:  "The  government 
believed  it  to  be  its  duty  to  place  itself  at  the  head  of 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


199 


the  national  sentiment  in  colors  indicative  of  the 
abuses  of  the  past  and  the  hopes  of  the  future. 
Hence  sprang  the  reform  laws,  the  nationalization  of 
mortmain  estates,  freedom  of  worship,  absolute  inde- 
pendence of  the  civil  and  spiritual  powers,  the  secular- 
ization of  society,  whose  forward  march  was  checked 
by  a  bastard  alliance  in  which  the  name  of  God  was 
profaned,  and  human  dignity  outraged.  The  reform 
imparted  energy  to  the  brave  defenders  of  the  consti- 
tution; the  reform  has  been  sanctioned  by  the  unani- 
mous vote  of  the  people,  and  the  laws  that  decreed  it 
are  now  an  essential  part  of  our  institutions." 

The  conservative  party,  however,  still  continued  its 
cry  of  Roligi6n  y  fueros  I  And  having  lost  all  hope 
of  winning  their  cause  before  the  tribunal  of  the 
whole  nation,  they  determined  to  try  co«  rcion  with 
the  help  of  foreigners.  They  would  force  ecclesias- 
tical tyranny  and  European  despotism  on  this  people 
if  they  could — crimes  beside  which  ordinary  murder 
and  robbery  are  small  offences.  Defeperate  indeed 
must  be  the  situation  engendering  such  infamy,  and 
desperate  it  was.  The  party  was  nearly  annihilated ; 
the  property  of  the  clergy,  which  had  been  the  main- 
stay of  the  war,  was  being  scattered;  free  discussion 
by  the  press,  free  instruction  in  schools  and  colleges, 
and  tolerance  of  worship  were  rapidly  melting  the 
iron  crusts  of  ignorance  and  superstition.  Better  a 
throne  supported  by  strangers;  better  rule  through 
France  or  Spain  than  not  at  all. 

Juarez  had  to  encounter  not  only  the  unreasonable 
demands  of  rabid  partisans,  but  the  obstacles  con- 
stantly thrown  in  his  path  by  office-seekers  and  pro- 
vincial leaders,  who  during  the  disorders  of  the  war 
had  accustomed  themselves  to  independent  action,  and 
now  objected  to  the  enforcement  of  rules  necessary  to 
the  consolidation  of  the  republic  and  gencial  advance- 
ment. The  liberals  now  split  into  two  factions,  the 
constitutionalists  abiding  by  the  organic  law  of  1857, 
and   the  reformists,  who  demanded  radical    amend* 


"•^^ 


■(    .    1   : 


'i;^ 


900 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


ments.     There  was  a  third  faction  sprung  from  the 
party,  with  conservative  sympathies,  whom  the  clergy 
were  ably  sustaining.     Among  other  difficulties  was 
the  financial  question,  involving  the  suspension  of  pay- 
ments, taxes,  and  forced  loans.     Upon  these  points  it 
was  impossible  to  secure  a  cabinet  to  act  with  any 
degree  of  unanimity ;  hence  the  repeated  changes  of 
members.     There  was  no  great  difficulty  in  suspend- 
ing the  payment  of  the  home  debt ;  but  foreign  cred- 
itors, backed  by  their  respective  governments,  were 
more  arbitrary  in  their  demands.     On   the  13th  of 
July,  Juarez  formed  a  cabinet  composed  of  Zamacona, 
Balcd-rcel,  Ruiz,  Zaragoza,  and  Nunez,  whose  first  act 
was  to  propose  the  suspension  of  payments  for  two 
years,  including  the  British  debt.     Congress  passed 
the  law  in  secret  session  on  the  17th  of  July.     Du- 
bois de  Saligny,  ucting  for  France  and  Spain,  pro- 
tested.    For  immediate  requirements,  farming  out  the 
customs  revenue  at  $400,000  a  month  was  proposed, 
or  failing   in    this,  then  a  resort  to  monthly  forced 
loans.     The   merchants   opposed  the   plan,  and  con- 
gress in  special  session  failed  to  find  a  remedy. 

Meanwhile  Almonte  informed  his  fellow-reaction- 
ists that  he  would  soon  arrive  in  Mexico  backed  by 
European  naval  forces.  Next  came  the  news  that 
Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain  had,  on  the  31st  of 
October,  1861,  entered  into  a  convention  to  jointly 
intervene  in  the  affairs  of  Mexico.  Toward  the  end 
of  November,  though  the  suspension  law  of  July  17th 
had  been  rescinded,  France  and  England  had  discon- 
tinued diplomatic  relations.  The  object  of  the  tripar- 
tite convention  was  merely  to  occupy  Vera  Cruz  until 
payment  for  alleged  grievances  and  debts  could  be  se- 
cured. Spain's  claims  were  of  some  importance,  but 
those  of  France  were  insignificant.  England's  griev- 
ances were  solely  of  a  pecuniary  nature,  which  Mex- 
ico had  offered  to  settle  without  delay.  The  United 
States  government  offered  to  pay  England  and  France 
the  interest  on  their  claims  for  a  time,  and  later  made 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


aoi 


the  same  proposition  to  Spain.  But  the  offers  were 
not  accepted.  The  United  States  government  could 
interpose  no  objection  to  the  efforts  of  Europeans  who 
wished  to  collect  their  debts,  and  were  not  after  terri- 
tory, nor  desired  to  affect  the  politi'^al  status  of  Mexico. 
But  it  took  care  to  sec  that  its  own  interests  should 
not  suffer  thereby;  wherefore  it  signified  its  inten- 
tion to  keep  a  naval  force  wherever  conflict  might 
take  place. 

The  ultimate  object  of  the  powers  was  not  well 
understood  at  first;  but  the  fact  was,  they  had  re- 
solved, in  the  event  of  not  obtaining  redress  by  the 
mere  occupation  of  the  coast,  that  their  forces  should 
invade  Mexican  territory,  even  to  the  capital  itself; 
and  should  the  Mexicans  act  for  a  European  protec- 
torate to  rid  themselves  of  tyranny,  or  to  form  a 
stable  government,  the  three  powers  would  jointly 
cooperate  to  bring  about  their  wishes.  But  Presi- 
dent Lincoln  intimated  to  Juarez  that  if  European 
forces  should  land  wu  Mexican  territory,  the  United 
States  would  aid  Mexico. 

Learning  of  Spain's  preparations  at  Habana,  Juarez 
prepared  for  defence.  First  he  gave  orders  for 
strengthening  Vera  Cruz,  but  seeing  that  it  would 
avail  nothing,  he  removed  the  guns  from  the  fortress 
San  Juan,  and  abandoned  the  place.  England's  claim 
he  succeeded  in  adjusting,  but  congress  failed  to  ratify 
the  settlement.  A  ministerial  crisis  followed,  and 
Juarez  found  himself  without  a  cabinet,  until  Manuel 
Doblado,  a  patriotic  and  able  citizen,  took  charge  of 
the  portfolio  of  relations,  together  with  the  presi- 
dency of  the  cabinet.  At  his  solicitation,  congress 
granted  the  president  extraordinary  powers,  which 
were  to  be  used  for  the  preservation  of  the  nation. 
Meanwhile,  a  number  of  the  reactionist  chiefs,  among 
them  Negrete,  Velez,  and  Arguellez,  tendered  their 
services  to  Juarez  for  the  national  defence. 

The  threatened  invasion  took  place  on  the  1 4th  of 
December,  when  a  Spanish  fleet  under  Rear-admiral 


ifl, 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


m'h 


U<: 


Rubalcava,  conveying  an  array  of  occupation,  without 
meeting  with  resistance,  took  possession  of  the  port 
of  Vera  Cruz.  General  Gasset  'dth  the  land  forces 
occupied  the  city  on  the  17th,  and  issued  a  manifesto 
that  he  would  hold  the  place  in  his  queen's  name  un- 
til the  arrival  of  the  French,  English,  and  Spanish 
jommispioners.  Mexico  was  indignant.  Active  meas- 
ures were  adopted.  General  Zaragoza  started  from 
the  capital  with  3,000  men,  and  troops  came  in  from 
every  quarter.  Juarez  made  a  requisition  for  52,000 
men,  extended  the  period  of  the  amnesty  law,  and 
decreed  a  tax  of  25  per  cent  additional  upon  all  im- 
posts, as  well  as  another  of  two  per  cent  upon  all  prop- 
erty valued  at  $500  or  upwards.  Gasset's  forces  in 
their  incursions  into  the  interior  ?ost  many  men  killed 
by  the  jarochos.  Martial  law  was  declared  in  the 
states  of  Puebla,  San  Luis  Potosi,  Vera  Cruz,  and 
Tamaulipas.  Here  was  seen  the  Mexican  flag  wav- 
ing side  by  side  with  those  of  the  allied  powers,  until 
the  British  and  French  fleets  arrived  on  the  6th  and 
7th  of  January,  1862. 

The  agreement  between  the  allied  powers  had  been 
that  Spain  should  contribute  6,000  men,  France  3,000, 
and  Great  Britain  a  strong  naval  division,  and  700 
marines  to  land  on  the  coast  when  necessary;  but 
the  latter  uid  not  furnish  as  many  vessels  as  she 
had  agreed  to.  The  plenipotentiaries  of  the  powers 
were :  Wyke  and  Dunlop  for  England ;  Saligny  and 
Jurien  de  la  Gravi^re  for  France ;  and  Prim  for 
Spain,  having  at  the  same  time  the  command  of  her 
forces.  There  was  no  clear  understanding  how  far 
they  were  to  carry  intervention.  The  British  had 
been  directed  not  to  interfere  in  the  internal  affairs  of 
Mexico ;  all  representations  to  the  Mexican  govern- 
ment were  to  be  made  jointly ;  nothing  had  been  said 
about  the  British  contingent  marching  to  Mexico. 
Spain's  troops  had  orders  to  inarch  to  the  capital  if 
necessary.  Prim  and  Jurien  had  similar  instructions. 
If  Mexico  refused  the  terms,  active  operations  were 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


203 


to  be  begun.  Prim's  manifesto,  on  his  arrival  at  Vera 
Cruz,  though  not  entirely  truthful,  was  moderate  and 
decorous  in  tone.  Any  intention  to  interfere  was 
denied.  Saligny  and  Jurien  expressed  themselves  to 
the  same  effect,  but  Prim  well  knew  that  their  mas- 
ter contemplated  creating  a  Mexican  throne,  to  be  oc- 
cupied by  an  Austrian  archduke,  and  resolved  not 
to  aid  the  scheme.  The  English  wanted  to  secure 
the  payment  of  their  claims,  to  reduce  the  import 
duties,  and  to  have  freedom  of  religion  established — 
calicoes  and  bibles,  as  a  Mexican  writer  catalogued 
their  requirements.  Almonte,  Father  Miranda,  and 
Haroy  Tamariz  landed  at  Vera  Cruz,  and  with  other 
prominent  reactionists  tendered  their  services  to  the 
intervention.  Miram6n  arrived  also,  and  was  arrested 
by  the  British  authorities  on  one  of  their  frigates  for 
the  theft  of  the  British  funds  at  the  capital  in  1860, 
and  later  was  sent  to  Cuba. 

On  the  19  th  of  February  a  convention  was  signed 
at  La  Soledad  by  Doblado  and  Prim,  as  preliminary 
to  further  negotiations.  The  allied  forces  were  to 
occupy  Cordoba,  Orizaba,  Tehuacdn,  and  adjacent 
country;  but  if  negotiations  were  broken  off,  the 
allied  troops  should  retire  within  their  lines.  The 
convention  was  ratified  by  Prim's  French  and  Eng- 
lish colleagues  on  the  same  day,  and  by  Juarez  on 
the  23d.  In  all  these  proceedings  Juarez  was  fully 
recognized  as  chief  of  the  republic.  But  Saligny 
and  his  Frenchmen  were  in  no  sense  men  of  truth  or 
honor.  They  had  come  hither,  in  conspiracy  with 
traitors,  to  plant  imperialism  in  Mexico,  and  a  little 
matter  of  perfidy  should  not  stand  in  their  way.  In- 
stead of  retiring  toward  Vera  Cruz,  as  they  had 
agreed  to  do,  while  yet  the  negotiations  were  pro- 
ceeding more  Frenchmen  arrived  under  Lorencez. 
Then  it  came  out  that  it  was  their  intention  to 
make  Maximilian  emperor  of  Mexico.  After  several 
stormy  conferences,  the  Englishmen  and  Spaniards 
departed  from  the  country,  leaving  the  French  to 
accomplish  their  unhallowed  purpose. 


i  i 


:*• 


'I 


I     ; 


iU, 


Hi:. 


^IM 


li  'i' 


!.;; 


? 


904 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


Juarez  solemnly  declared  that  Mexico  would  de- 
fend herself  to  the  last  extremity.  It  soon  became 
evident,  further,  by  the  increase  of  the  French  forces 
and  the  encouragement  given  to  the  conservatives  and 
monarchists,  that  Napoleon  and  his  tools  contemplated 
the  extirpation  from  Mexico  of  republicanism,  which 
it  pleased  them  to  call  anarchy. 

The  French  plenipotentiaries,  on  the  16th  of  April, 
issued  from  Cordoba  an  invitation  to  all  friends  of 
the  intervention  to  join  their  standard.  They  had 
not  come  to  wage  war  against  Mexicans,  they  said, 
but  to  save  them  from  arbitrary  rule.  The  next  day 
Almonte  issued  a  manifesto  calling  on  the  people  to 
trust  in  the  French  assurances.  He  sent  emissaries 
into  the  interior  to  undermine  the  loyalty  of  the  lib- 
eral troops,  and  circulate  revolutionary  manifestoes. 
He  was  proclaimed,  by  Taboada  and  others,  president 
at  C6rdoba,  which  movement  was  seconded  at  Ori- 
zaba, of  which  place  the  French  had  repossessed 
themselves  and  whither  Almonte  and  his  supporters 
now  repaired.  On  the  27th  of  April,  by  order  of 
Almonte  and  Lorencez,  Taboada  left  Cdrdoba  with 
300  Mexican  cavalry  for  Orizaba,  and  the  next  day  the 
French  division,  6,000  strong,  commenced  its  march 
for  Puebla,  where  they  were  met  by  the  liberal  forces 
under  Zaragoza,  Diaz,  Negrete,  and  others,  and  the 
famous  Cinco  de  Mayo  battle  ensued,  which  resulted 
in  the  discomfiture  of  the  Frenchmen,  who  retreated 
to  their  camp  at  Los  Alamos,  and  thence  back  to 
Orizaba,  to  await  the  arrival  of  reenforcemonts  from 
France.  The  success  of  the  Mexican  arms  in  this 
first  encounter  filled  the  whole  nation  with  joy — all 
save  the  traitors  who  were  cooperating  with  the  en- 
emy. Zaragoza  had  captured  a  considerable  number 
of  French  prisoners,  many  of  them  wounded,  together 
with  a  quantity  of  decorations  found  on  the  field  of 
battle.  The  uninjured  prisoners  and  all  the  decora- 
tions Juarez  caused  to  be  returned  to  the  French 
camp.     The   wounded  were  properly  cared  for,  and 


Ni 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


205 


when  able  to  travel  were  likewise  sent  back  to  Loren- 
cez.  The  conservatives  and  monarchists  hastened 
to  swell  Almonte's  ranks,  while  Juarez  was  still  ener- 
giotically  meeting  the  emergency.  Comonfort  was 
given  command  of  Tamaulipas.  Juarez  then  moved 
his  residence  to  Tacubaya.  Doblado  retired  from 
the  government,  and  assumed  the  command  in  chief 
of  the  army  of  the  interior.  He  was  succeeded  in  the 
cabinet  by  Juan  Antonio  de  la  Fuente,  the  author  of 
the  law  on  religious  toleration.  Juarez  was  indefati- 
gable in  his  efforts  to  secure  the  execution  of  financial 
measures  in  the  states,  and  endeavored  to  disprove 
the  malignity  and  falseness  of  the  European  charges 
by  extending  to  foreigners,  even  the  French  subjects 
residing  in  the  country,  a  most  considerate  protection. 

A  great  misfortune  befell  the  Mexican  nation  on 
the  8th  of  September,  1862,  in  the  death,  from  typhoid 
fever,  of  Zaragoza,  to  whom  was  largely  due  the  suc- 
cess before  the  walls  of  Puebla  on  the  5th  of  May. 
The  republic  has  since  honored  his  memory  by  adding 
his  name  to  that  of  the  city  he  so  gallantly  defended, 
and  the  Puebla  de  Zaragoza  is  proud  of  this  distinc- 
tion. 

After  Zaragoza's  death  the  command  of  the  army 
was  intrusted  to  Gonzalez  Ortega,  the  efficient  officer 
who  had  crushed  conservative  power  at  the  hills  of 
Calpulalpam.  About  the  same  time  the  French  com- 
mander, Lorencez,  was  superseded  by  General  Forey, 
who  had  come  from  France  with  reenforcements.  He 
did  not  obey  his  astute  master,  who  had  told  him  "to 
vigorously  check  every  act  or  expression  that  could 
wound  the  feelings  of  the  Mexican  people ;  not  to  ig- 
nore the  haughtiness  of  their  character;  and  to  con- 
ciliate the  inhabitants  by  all  possible  means."  True, 
the  contempt  with  which  he  treated  the  reactionist 
chiefs,  traitors  to  their  country  and  to  all  true  liberty, 
they  richly  deserved ;  but  when  he  falsely  charged 
Ortega  with  purposes  involving  treason,  he  gave 
Americans  a  lesson  in  European  morals  and  French 


«)i 


"'••v. 


':\- 


206 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


I 


ii! 


official    integrity  which  were  not  at  all    difficult   to 
apply. 

Throughout  all  this  disgraceful  and  bloody  proceed- 
ing on  the  part  of  the  French,  Juarez  never  for  a 
moment  thought  of  yielding.  He  might  die,  all 
Mexico  should  die,  in  so  far  as  he  could  order  events, 
before  submitting  to  a  slavery  worse  than  death. 
Therefore  when  the  French  forces  appeared  again 
Lafore  Puebla,  and  beseiged  the  city  from  March  22 
to  May  19,  1863,  the  garrison  could  only  do  its 
best,  and  that  was  prodigies  of  valor,  repulsing  re- 
peated assaults,  while  food  and  ammunition  became 
exhausted,  and  all  hope  of  help  ^rom  Comonfort 
was  gone,  he  having  been  defeated  by  Bazaine  on 
the  8th  of  May  upon  the  heights  of  San  Lorenzo. 
So  reduced  became  Ortega's  army  by  this  long  and 
terrible  siege,  that  a  sally  in  force  with  any  rea- 
sonable chance  of  breaking  the  enemy's  lines  and 
escaping  was  a  physical  impossibility.  Under  the 
circumstances,  the  Mexican  commander  tendered  pro- 
posals of  capitulation  to  Forey;  but  so  unreasonable 
were  the  Frenchman's  demands  that  Ortega  adopted 
a  measure  unequalled  in  the  annals  of  war,  which  was 
nothing  less  than  breaking  up  the  small  arms,  render- 
ing useless  the  artillery  and  the  little  ammunition 
still  left,  concealing  the  flags,  and  dissolving  the 
army.  On  the  17th,  Forey  was  notified  that  he 
might  enter  and  take  possession,  which  he  did,  gain- 
ing little  glory  or  profit  thereby;  for  26,300  men 
with  powerful  armament  had  taken  all  this  time  and 
labor  to  subdue  a  place  hastily  and  imperfectly  forti- 
fied, and  defended  by  militiamen,  few  of  whom  had 
been  trained  to  arms.  The  officers  were  parolled; 
some  of  them  violated  their  pledge  and  escaped,  while 
others  were  conveyed  to  France,  where  it  was  after- 
ward demanded  of  them  that  they  should  pledge 
their  allegiance  to  the  newly  created  empire.  Those 
who  refused  were  turned  adrift  to  starve — a  dastardly 
proceeding  from  any  point  of  view.     A  number  of 


V 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


207 


them  were  afterward  enabled  to  return  to  their  country 
through  the  noble  efforts  in  Spain  of  Prim  and  Santa 
Alvarez. 

Dark  indeed  was  the  hour,  coming  so  early  in  the 
conflict,  this  defeat  of  Comonfort,  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  army  of  the  east  at  Puebla ;  ancf  Juarez 
deemed  it  prudent,  with  his  government,  to  abandon 
the  capital  on  the  31st  of  May,  as  the  city  could  not 
be  held  with  only  6,000  men.  The  populace  clam- 
ored loudly  for  a  decree  of  expulsion  of  French  resi- 
dents, but  Juarez  refused ;  war  to  the  death  for  the 
expulsion  of  invaders,  but  no  injustice  to  residents — 
such  was  the  president's  position. 

With  the  more  immediate  friends  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  a  portion  of  the  army,  Juarez  repaired  to 
San  Luis  Potosf,  making  Sebastian  Lerdo  de  Tejada 
chief  of  his  cabinet,  and  Comonfort  minister  of  war. 
Another  division  of  the  forces,  under  Berriozdbal  and 
and  Diaz,  retreated  in  the  direction  of  Toluca  and 
Morelia,  and  the  city  of  Mexico  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  French  army. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  upon  the  means  adopted 
for  forcing  raonarchial  government  on  Mexico  by  the 
church  party,  backed  by  French  bayonets.  Suffice  it 
to  say,  that  Saligny  empowered  35  persons  to  elect  a 
provisional  government  in  the  form  c"^  ^  triumvirate 
composed  of  Almonte,  Archbishop  Labastida,  repre- 
sented in  his  absence  by  Ormaechea,  and  the  super- 
annuated and  almost  imbecile  ex-president  Salas.  A 
few  days  later  there  came  together  an  assembly  of 
notables,  so  called,  whose  powers  to  represent  the 
Mexican  people  emanated  from  Forey.  This  body, 
on  the  10th  of  July,  passed  a  decree,  the  execution  of 
which  was  intrusted  to  the  foreign  bayonets.  1.  The 
nation  adopts  for  its  form  of  government  a  moderate 
hereditary  monarchy,  with  a  catholic  prince.  2.  The 
sovereign  will  bear  the  title  of  emperor.  3.  The  impe- 
rial (Town  of  Mexico  is  tendered  to  H.  I.  H.  Prince 
Fernando  Maximiliano,  archduke  of  Austria,  for  him- 


Til  T         1 


"? 


:,-Jf: 


''  ■  'i 
It  1  Fl 


90S 


LOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


W: 


^  **»,■ 


!  :.    :    ■!, 


self  and  his  successors.  4.  In  the  event  that,  owing  to 
circumstances  which  cannot  be  foreseen,  the  archduke 
Fernando  Maximiliano  should  not  take  possession  of 
the  throne  thus  offered  him,  the  Mexican  nation 
leaves  to  the  benevolence  of  Emperor  Napoleon  III. 
to  designate  the  catholic  prince  to  whom  the  crown 
shall  be  offered.  Against  the  first  article  there  were 
two  votes  out  of  231,  and  only  nine  out  of  220  against 
the  fourth.  Such  was  the  plot  initiated  by  a  few  con- 
servative emigres,  which  obtained  the  support  of  the 
French  government,  on  a  prior  acceptance  by  Arch- 
duke Maximilian.  The  proceedings  were  regarded 
by  the  Mexican  people  as  a  farce;  and  though  weak- 
ened by  long-continued  civil  war,  they  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  enter  upon  a  desperate  struggle  against  the 
invaders.  The  constitutional  arms,  however,  met 
with  continued  reverses;  in  fact  the  most  important 
parts  of  Mexico,  embracing  the  rich  mining  and  agri- 
cultural regions  between  latitudes  18°  and  23°,  and 
containing  two  thirds  of  the  population,  and  the  chief 
manufacturing  and  trade  interests,  were  brought  under 
imperial  sway. 

While  Maximilian  was  received  in  Mexico  under 
triumphal  arches,  and  surrounded  by  a  crowd  of 
sycophants,  the  true  government  was  forced  to  wan- 
der about  like  an  outcast  in  its  own  land.  Upon  the 
approach  of  Mejia  with  a  large  army,  Juarez  moved 
to  Saltillo,  leaving  Negrete  at  San  Luis,  but  Mejfa 
entered  the  place  on  the  24th  of  November.  The 
French  army  at  first  occupied  only  the  road  from  Vera 
Cruz  to  Mexico ;  but  after  Forey  had  left  the  coun- 
try, and  Bazaine  assumed  the  chief  command,  its  op- 
erations became  more  extended.  In  a  short  time 
Oajaca,  defended  by  Diaz,  fell  into  its  hands;  fights 
were  of  daily  occurrence  around  Jalapa;  a  French 
division  occupied  Guadalajara,  and  Marquez  held 
Morelia  against  the  liberal  army  of  Uraga.  During 
the  year  1864,  there  were  102  engagements,  with 
3,267  killed  and   1,300  wounded;   and  in  1865,  322 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


iK)» 


engagements,  with  5,664  killed  and  1,269  wounded; 
making  a  total  in  two  years  of  424  actions,  in  which 
8,931  were  slain  and  2,569  wounded.  So  much  for 
this  puppet  play  at  despotism  in  America  by  a  French 
emperor  ana  an  Austrian  archduke;  let  this  be  borne 
in  mind  when  comes  the  day  of  reckoning. 

Juarez  and  his  ministers  reached  Saltillo  on  the  9th 
of  January,  1864,  on  which  day  they  heard  of  Ne- 
grete's  defeat  and  abandonment  of  San  Luis  Potosl. 
At  this  time  occurred  the  defection  of  Vidaurri,  gov- 
ernor of  Nuevo  Le6n.  Juarez  issued  a  decree  remov- 
ing him  from  office.  Nuevo  Le6n  and  Coahuila  rose 
in  arms  to  uphold  the  constitutional  government; 
"Vidaurri  fled,  and  Rej6n,  his  secretary,  was  executed 
at  Matamoros.  The  president  and  the  ministry 
sojourned  in  Monterey  till  August  15th,  when  they 
were  attacked  by  Quiroga  at  the  same  time  that  three 
columns  of  Franco- Mexicans  were  marching  against 
the  city.  The  president  and  his  officials  fled  amid  a 
shower  of  bullets,  and  were  pursued  by  Quiroga's 
riflemen  as  far  as  Santa  Catarina,  where  they  took  to 
the  desert,  facing  hostile  savages,  and  escorted  by  only 
a  handful  of  men,  their  destination  being  Chihuahua, 
where  they  arrived  on  the  12th  of  October. 

During  this  long  and  painful  journey,  Juarez  saw 
more  than  one  faithful  adherent,  more  than  one  true 
friend,  succumb — perish  from  exhaustion;  but  nothing 
could  break  his  indomitable  will,  though  there  now 
remained  with  him  scarcely  twenty  persons — so  great 
was  his  confidence  in  the  right.  Add  to  all  his  other 
trials  a  severe  illness  which  now  overtook  him,  and  we 
see  something  of  the  courage  and  fortitude  of  the  man. 
A  bilious  fever,  at  this  important  point,  came  very 
near  putting  an  end  to  his  life,  It  was  as  nearly  a 
lost  cause  as  might  be,  at  this  juncture,  and  yet  sur- 
vive, for  nothing  but  disaster  befell  the  army,  while 
even  the  associated  patriots  became  petulant  and 
quarrelled.  Doblado  and  Ortega  criticised  Juarez* 
election,  and  asked  him  to  resign,  which  he  refused  to 


C.  B.-I.    14 


■  1  -r 


i>      i  ■ 

■  ^     ,■>.■. 


1:; 


■i^tW^ 


210 


DOMINATINO  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


t  ■ 


*      f 


■'    t 


u  i 


i 


do,  being  convinced  that  the  interests  of  the  nation 
demanded  his  remaining  at  his  post. 

Maximilian  committed  two  serious  mistakes — the 
first  in  allowing  himself  to  be  deceived  by  his  appar- 
ently enthusiastic  reception,  and  the  second  in  adopt- 
ing the  extreme  measure  of  treating  the  liberals  as 
bandits.  Whatever  the  motive  which  prompted  this 
action,  the  time  came  when  he  had  to  bitterly  rue  it. 
Juarez,  on  becoming  aware  of  the  lawless  proceedings 
of  guerillas,  which  cast  dishonor  upon  his  party,  had 
managed  to  check  them. 

Maximilian  had  promised  in  Europe  to  restore  the 
power  of  the  church,  but.  pressed  by  the  pope's  nuncio, 
he  prevaricated,  assuring  the  papal  representative  that 
his  measures  would  be  in  accordance  with  his  con- 
science. He  soon  became  convinced  of  the  wisdom  of 
Juarez  in  regard  to  the  church,  and  that  he  could  not 
safely  undo  what  the  liberal  government  had  done. 
He  made  propositions,  embracing,  among  other  things, 
religious  toleration,  yet  with  a  recognition  of  the 
catholic  religion  as  that  of  the  state.  He  did  not  offer 
to  restore  the  church  property  or  ecclesiastical  su- 
premacy. On  the  contrary,  he  desired  the  church  to 
cede  to  the  government  all  the  revenue  from  property 
which  republican  rule  had  nationalized,  and  that  he 
should  have  the  same  patronage  over  church  affairs 
as  had  the  king  of  Spain.  On  other  points  he  was 
dispotsi  d  to  make  concessions.  The  nuncio,  disgusted, 
returntd  to  Rome.  Maximilian  decreed  religious 
freedon. ;  the  council  of  state  was  ordered  to  revi>se 
the  nationaliijation  of  church  estates,  confirming  sales 
legally  made,  and  subjecting  papal  bulls  to  government 
supervision  and  approval,  before  they  could  be  pub- 
lished. The  clergy,  who  would  not  recognize  the  ad- 
vance of  liberal  ideas,  was  roused  to  actual  hostility. 
The  emperor  found  himself  driven  by  circumstances, 
as  well  as  by  his  natrral  bent,  toward  the  liberals;  he 
failed  in  securing  their  support,  and  the  conservatives 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


911 


became  lukewarm.  At  the  same  time,  by  his  efforts 
to  be  an  independent  sovereign,  he  estranged  himself 
from  the  French,  who  were  the  support  of  his  throne. 

Juarez  established  his  government  at  Chihuahua 
on  the  15th  of  October,  1864.  His  position  in  the 
second  semester  of  that  year  was  not  altogether 
alarming.  His  leading  generals  still  had  12,000  men, 
though  somewhat  scattered,  and  considerable  means 
were  received  from  the  customs  at  three  ports  on  the 
Pacific,  from  Piedras  Negras,  on  the  Texas  frontier, 
and  from  Matamoros,  to  which  must  be  added  loans 
raised  in  the  United  States,  forced  contributions, 
church  property,  and  other  resources,  besides  the 
moral  support  of  the  northern  republic.  Arms  were 
constantly  coming  in  from  Texas  and  California,  and 
occasionally  a  few  recruits.  On  the  other  hand,  Uraga 
deserted  and  declared  for  the  empire.  Troubles 
appeared  again  in  Xuevo  Le6n,  and  finally,  in  De- 
cember, Nuevo  Leon,  and  most  of  Coahuila,  to  the 
banks  of  the  Kio  Grande,  submitted  to  the  enemy. 
Chihuahua  being  threatened  by  the  imperial  forces, 
Juarez  retired  to  Paso  del  Norte,  where  he  could  pass 
over  the  line  into  the  United  States  at  any  moment. 
Such  action  became  necessary;  but  he  would  never 
quit  Mexican  territory  except  as  a  last  resort ;  and  as 
for  yielding,  that  was  not  to  be  thought  of.  To  be 
captured  was  certain  death. 

On  came  the  Frenchmen  and  took  Chihuahua,  but 
departed  as  quickly  to  defend  some  threatened  posts. 
Then  Juarez  returned  to  the  place  on  the  13th  of 
November,  but  was  forced  to  retire  a  second  time  to 
Paso  del  Norte.  Dark  indeed  were  these  days  for 
republican  Mexico,  the  country  overrun  by  foreign 
invaders,  all  Europe  recognizing  the  emperor,  patriot 
blood  running  in  torrents  from  scaffolds  erected  by 
the  usurper,  the  hope  of  the  country  resting  alone  on 
Juarez,  and  he  hunted  from  place  to  place  like  a  wild 
beast  by  these  bloodhounds  from  Europe — Juarez  the 
Indian,  the  Washington,  the  William  Tell  of  Mexico, 


t'ii 


I'M 


212 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


■ 


'%*• 


n  iiM 


standing  immeasurably  superior  to  any  known  native 
American,  and  embodying  all  that  is  best  in  the  Euro- 
pean— standing  now  alone,  abandoned,  persecuted, 
without  soldiers,  without  supporters,  and  yet  a  host 
in  himself,  strengthened  by  his  sense  of  duty,  and  a 
firm  conviction  in  the  justice  of  his  cause. 

Thus  passed  the  year  18C4,  likewise  the  next — 
long  enough  time  to  try  the  soul  and  sinews  of  the 
strongest.  But  in  1866  the  clouds  begin  to  break. 
France  at  length  gives  heed,  as  the  note  of  warning 
from  Washington  rises  louder,  and  Secretary  Seward 
emphasizes  his  order  that  the  Frenchmen  must  go. 
Then  all  the  world  sees  that  the  astute  emperor  has 
been  making  an  ass  of  himself.  The  Anglo-American 
federation  is  not  a  mass  of  broken  fragments,  but  one 
and  indivisible,  with  a  disciplined  army  of  half  a 
million  men,  who  would  hail  with  joy  an  order  to 
pick  up  the  Indian  Juarez,  and  establish  him,  at  the 
national  capital,  in  the  office  to  which  he  was  chosen 
by  the  people. 

And  the  Frenchmen  did  go,  the  8th  of  March,  1867, 
seeing  the  last  of  them  depart,  leaving  the  young 
Hapsburg  man  to  get  out  of  the  scrape  as  best  he  could. 
Poor  Maximilian  had  been  advised  to  abdicate  and 
leave  the  country  while  he  had  the  opportunity,  but 
he  could  not  bring  himself  to  a  shameful  flight,  aban- 
doning his  supporters  to  the  vindictiveness  of  their 
enemies;  and  so  he  remained,  trusting  to  his  Mexican 
supporters  and  the  foreign  legion  to  sustain  his  now 
tottering  authority. 

As  the  French  troops  retired  from  the  interior 
states,  the  constitutionalists  advanced;  when  Juarez 
and  his  government  reached  Zacatecas,  they  had  a  nar- 
row escape  from  falling  into  the  hands  of  Miramon. 

Later,  Escobedo  routed  Miramdn  at  San  Jacinto, 
and  took  1,000  prisoners,  among  whom  was  Mirani6n's 
brother,  who,  together  with  all  the  men  of  the  foreign 
legion,  were  shot,  in  retaliation  for  brutal  outrao-es  of 
Miram6n  in  Zacatecas.     Guanajuato  bad  been  in  the 


i  n 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


218 


hands  of  the  republicans  since  January ;  Guadalajara 
was  occupied  by  Corona.  Mcjias  imperialist  division, 
under  Castillo,  had  been  defeated  by  Rivera.  Colinia 
had  submitted  to  the  republican  government  since 
December  1866,  and  Porfirio  Diaz,  after  escaping 
from  his  prison  at  Pueola,  had  initiated  his  admirable 
campaign  in  the  east. 

The  uprising  for  freedom  was  now  general  through- 
out the  republic.  Maximilian,  with  his  foreign  legion, 
and  an  army  of  recruits,  shut  himself  up  in  Querdtaro. 
Juarez  and  his  government  were  again  at  San  Luis 
Potosf.  Diaz  laid  siege  to  Piiebla;  at  the  same  time 
Escobedo  surrounded  Querdtaro.  Marquez,  with  a 
strong  force,  broke  his  lines,  and  proceeded  by  forced 
inarches  to  Mexico,  as  the  emperor's  representative,  in 
search  of  assistance.  Deeming  it  necessary  to  attack 
Diaz,  he  was  routed  on  the  10th  of  April,  and  fled 
w  th  the  remnants  of  his  army  into  the  capital.  Diaz 
captured  Puebla,  and  with  reenforcements  from  all 
quarters  laid  siege  to  Mexico,  which  he  might  have 
bombarded,  had  ne  been  willing  to  destroy  lives  and 
property;  he  might  have  induced  the  city  to  surrender, 
had  he  felt  disposed  to  grant  the  personal  guarantee 
of  life  and  liberty  each  traitor  asked  for  himself. 

Maximilian  behaved  well  throughout,  like  a  soldier 
and  a  gallant  fellow,  as  he  was.  But  Querdtaro  at 
last  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  and  he  saw  he 
was  caught  in  a  trap,  as  he  delivered  hia  swr^^^^j  i-, 
Escobedo.  It  has  been  said  that  a  colonel  nam(d 
Lopez  treacherously  left  a  position  undefended, 
through  which  the  republicans  entered  the  city. 
With  Maximilian  were  taken  generals  Miramdn  and 
Mejia.  The  prisoners  numbered  15  generals,  20  col- 
onel 375  other  officers;  and  8,000  solditjis.  This  was 
on  the  15th  of  May.  On  the  21st  of  June,  the  gar- 
of  Mexico  surrendered  to  Diaa.     The  traitor 


rison 


Vidaurri  was  discovered  and  shot.  Marquez  went 
int^  concealment  and  eventually  escaped  from  the 
country,  to  which  he  was  never  allowed  to  return. 


'^ 


p 


i    ■ 
l!Mi 


214 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


The  war  was  at  an  end ;  the  triumph  of  the  repub- 
lic was  complete. 

But  what  should  be  th  j  fate  of  Maximilian  ?  As  a 
good  man,  a  kind  and  gontle  prince,  the  fair  product 
of  a  fair  environment,  he  ought  to  live ;  as  an  invader, 
a  tyrant,  the  tool  of  a  trickster,  and  the  indirect 
cause  of  the  death  of  ten  thousand  patriots,  he  de- 
served to  die.  He  said  he  had  been  invited  to  come 
and  rule  Mexico.  Who  invited  him?  Not  the  Mexi- 
can people,  struggling  to  maintain  their  liberties 
under  a  republican  form  of  government;  but  traitors, 
and  a  church  whose  tyrannical  demands  even  the 
tyrant  himself  refused  to  grant. 

There  was  a  law  by  which,  as  Maximilian  had  pre- 
viously construed  it,  Juarez  should  be  shot  in  case  he 
was  caught.  But  instead  of  ordering  his  captives 
shot  forthwith,  as  by  that  law  he  had  the  right  to  do, 
Juarez,  on  the  1st  of  May,  directed  General  Escobedo 
to  detail  officers  for  a  court,  and  bring  to  trial  Maxi- 
milian, Miram6n,  and  Mejla,  which  was  done.  Every 
effort  was  made  to  save  the  archduke;  but  neither  the 
efforts  of  his  able  counsel  and  of  the  Princess  Salm- 
Salni,  nor  the  tears  of  Miramon's  family,  nor  the  peti- 
tions and  solemn  promises  of  Maximilian,  had  the 
desired  influence  upon  the  court,  which,  on  tlie  14th 
of  July,  declared  the  accused  to  be  criminals  against 
the  nation,  the  jus  gentium,  and  the  public  peace  and 
order,  pursuant  to  the  law  of  January  28,  1802,  and 
sentenced  them  to  death. 

What  is  Juarez  to  do?  The  world  is  horrified  over 
the  impending  fate  of  Maximilian.  So  excellent  a 
gentleman,  so  kind  a  prince!  Crowned  iieads  bow  low 
and  beg  the  president  for  his  life.  Even  the  Amer- 
ican government  yields  to  the  prayer  of  the  Austrian 
minister.  The  Austrian  government  pledges  itself, 
through  Secretary  Seward,  that  Maximilian  should 
renounce  forever  all  his  projects  regarding  Mexico. 

There  is  but  o!ie  thing  for  Juarez  to  do — as  a 
patriot,  as  an  honest  man,  a  self-sjorificing  man,  who 


1  / 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


81ft 


cares  more  for  his  country  than  for  the  opinion  of  the 
world.  A  French  emperor,  usurper,  and  cowardly 
trickster — cowardly,  because  he  never  would  have 
dared  to  send  armies  to  Mexico  had  not  the  United 
States  been  engaged  in  civil  war ;  this  counterfeit  of 
a  former  scourge,  who  makes  of  war  a  trade,  of  human 
butchery  a  pastime,  unites  with  traitors  to  enslave  the 
minds  and  souls  of  a  people  struggling  to  be  free — 
sends  men  and  arms  to  force  these  freemen  to  submit 
to  the  rule  of  a  puppet  he  sets  up  in  the  person  of  a 
princeling  of  Austria,  a  good  and  amiable  man  enough 
in  his  way,  but  the  representative  and  exponent  of  an 
infamous  cause,  thus  making  his  acts  infamous,  what- 
ever he  himself  may  be.  Failing  in  his  wicked  at- 
tempts, when  adjudged  to  die,  the  world  in  horror  cries 
for  mercy — so  sweet  and  gentle  is  this  tool  of  a  tryantl 
Juarez,  the  Indian,  though  in  no  wise  bloody-minded, 
says :  No ;  Europe  is  your  place,  America  mine.  You, 
a  scion  of  despotism,  come  hither  to  tap  the  veins  of 
liberty,  causing  to  flow  rivers  of  blood,  every  drop  of 
which  is  worth  more  than  all  your  aristocratic  veins 
contain,  causing  to  die  thousands  of  good  men,  every 
one  of  them  a  thousand  times  better  than  you,  victims 
to  your  petty  ambition,  to  your  master's  petty  plot- 
tings.  And  must  you  escape,  who  have  wrought  this 
ruin — you,  because  of  pity,  poor  princeling!  A  thou- 
sand times  no.  If  almighty  justice  required  atone- 
ment for  the  sins  of  a  people,  in  the  person  of  a 
well-beloved  son,  how  much  more  does  down-trodden 
liberty  require  retribution  for  your  great  crimes 
against  this  bleeding  nation.  Let  it  be  written  in  the 
heavens,  with  a  finger  of  bU)od,  wliere  it  may  be  read 
by  all  nations,  forever,  that  the  European  who  med- 
dles in  American  aflairs  shall  die.  In  no  act  t)f  his 
life  did  the  true  greatness  and  genius  of  this  Amer- 
ican Indian  sliino  forth  with  greater  lustre  than  in 
this  sacrifice  of  the  lamb  of  Austria. 

In  the  history  of  the  republic  it  is  written  that  the 
president  declined  to  grant  the  executive  clemency, 


miv 


216 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


hi'    ':    ! 


i'        I 


and  that  Maximilian,  Mimar6n,  and  Mejfa,  who  during 
their  imprisonment  had  been  shown  every  considera- 
tion, were  shot  upon  the  cerro  de  las  Campanas  on 
the  19th  of  June,  1867. 

Juarez  entered  the  city  of  Mexico  on  the  ISih  of 
July,  and  met  with  an  enthusiastic  welcome,  amidst 
the  acclamations  of  the  people,  the  roar  of  artillery, 
and  the  ringing  of  bells.  Flowers  were  strewn  in 
his  path,  and  flags  and  streamers  waved  all  over  the 
capital.  The  political  chief  at  the  head  of  the  city 
council  addressed  him  as  follows:  *'  The  ayuntami- 
ento  of  Mexico,  representing  the  people,  opens  to 
you  the  gates  of  the  city,  rendering  you  due  honor. 
This  act  is  not  the  homage  which  a  servile  man  with 
bent  knee  renders  to  the  insolent  despot,  but  the  tribute 
that  a  freeman,  with  his  heart  swelling  with  pride  and 
joy,  pays  to  his  liberator.  Take,  then,  possession  of 
the  city,  the  seat  of  the  government,  and  display  as 
much  wisdom  in  your  administration  as  you  have 
shown  courage  and  energy  in  the  late  struggle,  in  order 
that  the  people  who  have  looked  upon  you  as  the  savior 
of  the  independence  may  likewise  proclaim  you  as  the 
destroyer  of  anarchy,  and  the  guardian  of  the  public 
liberties." 

Juarez'  first  act  was  to  assure  the  nation  that  dur- 
ing his  absence  of  four  years  from  the  capital  he  had 
assumed  no  obligations  derogatory  to  her  indepen- 
dence and  sovereignty,  the  integrality  of  her  territory-, 
or  to  the  respect  due  to  the  national  constitution  and 
laws.  Several  imperialists  were  sentenced  to  death 
at  Queretaro  by  court-martial,  but  the  president  par- 
doned them.  The  same  clemency  was  not  shown  to 
O'Horan,  Marquez  tool  of  oppression ;  the  supi)lica- 
tions  of  his  mother,  and  petitions  from  every  quarter, 
availed  naught,  and  the  sentence  was  carried  into 
effect. 

The  government  might  now  have  disarmed  party 
hatred,  and  gained  the  support  of  its  former  op- 
ponents, had  it  been  so  disposed.      Unfortunately,  a 


t  i 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


217 


large  and  prominent  portion  of  the  liberal  party 
demanded  a  policy  tending  toward  persecution,  death, 
or  imprisonment  of  the  imperialist  chiefs,  and  the  con- 
fiscation of  their  estates.  Much  against  the  will  of 
Juarez,  the  law  of  August  16,  1863,  was  enforced,  but 
the  penalties  decreed  thereunder  the  president  com- 
mitted to  a  small  fine. 

It  was  hardly  to  be  expected  that  men  passionate 
by  nature,  sometimes  brutal,  always  ignorant  and 
superstitious,  and  stirred  to  the  depths  by  long  and 
bitter  strife,  should  all  at  once  blossom  into  serenity 
and  peace.  Mexicans  are  by  no  means  angels.  As  a 
people,  they  have  even  to-day  little  idea  of  the  true 
theory  of  self-government.  It  is  a  question  whether 
Juarez  at  bay  on  the  border  of  the  republic,  or  Juarez 
at  the  capital  attempting  reconstruction  and  recon- 
cilation,  was  least  to  be  envied.  Even  the  law  of 
August  14,  1867,  convoking  the  nation  to  the  exer- 
cise of  her  elective  powers,  was  an  apple  of  discord. 
The  constitutional  reforms  submitted  were  at  once 
weighed  by  individuals  by  the  standard  of  selfish  in- 
terests. Those  so  lately  dealing  in  blood  were  now 
hungry  for  place,  and  in  nothing  did  Juarez  resemble 
his  associates  and  supporters  less  than  in  their  selfish 
greed.  He  cared  for  the  nation,  the  purity  and  per- 
petuity of  the  republic,  and  the  intellectual  freedom 
of  the  people— not  for  himself,  for  money,  for  power 
or  place.     To  this  every  act  of  his  life  testifies. 

Again  Juarez  laid  down  his  office,  and  again  was 
elected  by  popular  vote  president  of  the  republic, 
with  Sebastian  Lerdo  de  Tejada  president  of  the  su- 
preme court.  Constitutional  order  was  reestablished, 
and  various  important  measures  initiated,  among 
them  several  for  tlfe  piomotiou  of  public  instruction. 
Juarez'  new  cabinet  consisted  of  Lerdo  in  the  port- 
folio of  relations,  Iglosias  in  the  treasury,  Ignacio 
Mcji'a  in  war,  Martinez  de  Castro  in  justice  and 
public  instruction,  and  Balcareel  in  fomeuto,  coloni- 
zation, and  industry. 


^k 


mMI 


i 


i 


\-l  . 


218 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


'•♦..s 


On  the  26th  of  August  Admiral  Tegethoff  arrived 
at  Vera  Cruz  on  the  Austrian  steamship  Elizabeth,  to 
demand  in  the  name  of  his  government  the  body  of 
Maximilian.  The  demand  was  refused,  and  the  re- 
mains were  not  delivered  until  they  had  been  respect- 
fully asked  for  in  the  name  of  the  family.  The 
steam  frigata  Novara,  which  brought  Maximilian  to 
the  shore  of  Mexico  in  1864,  took  away  his  remains, 
which  had  been  by  Tegethoff  conveyed  to  Vera  Cruz, 
escorted  by  a  federal  force.  The  embalmed  body  wsll, 
placed  on  board  the  frigate  on  the  26th  of  November. 

In  the  mean  time  Santa  Anna  made  his  appearance 
at  Sisal,  but  was  taken  prisoner,  and  conveyed  to 
Vera  Cruz,  where  he  was  tried.  His  past  services, 
and  the  able  defence  of  his  counsel,  Joaquin  M.  Al- 
calde, saved  his  life.  The  ex-dictator  was  sentenced 
to  exile  from  the  republic  fci  eight  years. 

Juarez  was  inaugurated  as  constitutional  president 
on  the  25th  of  December,  1867,  for  the  term  ending 
November  30,  1871.  Since  the  intervention  and 
the  recognition  of  the  empire  in  Mexico  by  the  Eu- 
ropean powers,  the  republican  government  had  main- 
tained diplomatic  relations  only  with  the  republics 
of  America;  and  of  these  all  save  Guatemala  and 
Ecuador,  whose  respective  rulers,  Currera  and  Garcia 
Moreno,  had  followed  the  example  of  Europe.  Juarez 
maintained  cordial  relations  with  the  United  States, 
neglecting  no  opportunity  to  manifest  his  friendship 
and  gratitude.  At  tlie  opening  of  congress,  in 
December,  he  spoke  of  the  value  of  the  constant 
sympathy  of  the  people  of  the  United  States,  and 
of  the  moral  support  its  government  had  extended 
to  the  republican  cause  in  Mexico.  The  Anglo- 
American  republic  had,  all  through  the  years  of  tlic 
foreign  intervention  and  empire,  kept  a  legation  in 
the  city  of  Mexico,  but  without  holding  relations  with 
Maximilian's  government.  The  good  feeling  of  Mex- 
ico toward  the  United  States  was  particularly  shown 
when  ex-Secretary  Seward  visited  the  country  in 
1869. 


►'  ^^ 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


219 


Diplomatic  relations  with  European  powers  were 
renewed  very  gradually,  the  Mexican  government 
pursuing  an  independent  and  decorous  course  through- 
out. It  sought  not  to  flatter  or  offend,  least  of  all  to 
throw  obstacles  in  the  way  of  negotiation  of  new 
treaties,  especially  those  for  the  furtherance  of  com- 
merce. European  subjects  were  uniformly  protected 
in  their  persons  and  property.  Italy,  the  first  to  re- 
open diplomatic  relations,  was  soon  followed  by  Prus- 
sia, for  the  German  confederation,  in  1869;  Spain, 
after  changing  her  dynasty,  did  likewise  in  1871. 
These  friendly  relations  were  established  through  the 
mediation  of  the  United  States;  and  in  the  same 
manner  were  relations  restored  between  the  republic 
of  France  and  Mexico.  There  were  further  political 
convulsions  which  Juarez  was  destined  to  meet  before 
his  career  was  closed,  yet  for  the  most  part  they  were 
such  as  would  add  strength  to  the  principles  of  gov- 
ernment initiated  by  the  example  and  the  persever- 
ance of  the  hero  of  reform  and  pilgrim  of  Paso  del 
Norte.  His  policy  was  ever  characterized  by  a 
marked  respect  for  liberal  institutions,  freedom  of 
the  press,  free  expression  of  opinion,  and  a  general 
national  decorum.  Before  the  end  of  this  same  De- 
cember the  political  horizon  darkened,  and  the  clouds 
burst  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  in  the  form  of 
war,  either  against  the  general  government,  or  within 
the  states  against  their  own  constituted  authorities. 

And  all  through  the  two  years  following,  1868  and 
18G9,  the  situation  was  anything  but  promising.  On 
the  15th  of  December  of  the  latter  year  a  revolution 
broke  out  in  San  Luis  Potosi  against  both  the  state 
and  federal  authorities,  su{)p()rted  by  a  large  part  of 
the  fourth  division  of  the  army.  The  govcnunent 
and  legislature  of  Zacatocas  seconded  the  movement, 
after  seizing  a  conducta  of  $00,000  belonging  to  pri- 
vate parties.  The  public  peace  was  disturbed  in 
Pueb^a,  Morelos,  and  Hidalgo ;  in  Orizaba  the  na- 
tional guard  was  opposing  the  government  of  Vera 


h'   .1  , 


^—  ■  ''^^ 


til 


220 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


U 


if 
-I 


Cruz;  in  Jalisco  there  was  a  hostile  feeling  mani- 
fested against  the  national  authority,  while  Julio 
Santa  Anna  was  menacing  Jalapa.  Juarez  then  de- 
manded and  obtained  of  congress  extraordinary  pow- 
ers, and  using  them  with  admirable  discretion  and 
energy,  succeeded  in  crushing  this  formidable  revolu- 
tion within  four  months,  after  General  Rocha  defeated 
the  insurgents  at  Lo  de  Ovejo,  and  Guadarrama,  the 
discontented  general  at  Jalisco,  summitted  to  the  fed- 
eral authority.  Of  the  authors  of  this  disturbance 
some  fled  to  foreign  parts,  others  perished,  and  a 
number  were  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  courts. 
This  revolution  had  left  without  a  home  or  coun- 
try many  who,  in  the  darkest  hour  of  the  nation's 
life,  had  rendered  efficient  service,  when  congress  by 
the  law  of  October  13,  1870,  pardoned  alike  both 
traitors  and  rebels — those  who  had  served  the  em- 
pire and  those  who  had  broken  out  in  fresh  revolu- 
tions. The  whole  country  applauded  the  measure. 
The  fact  is,  it  was  necessary  to  pardon  liberally,  if 
the  population  of  Mexico  was  not  to  be  seriously 
curtailed. 

A  few  days  later,  Juarez  was  seized  with  a  violent 
att- ck  of  brain  fever,  and  grave  fears  were  entertained 
for  his  life,  but  after  eight  days  of  anxiety  he  recov- 
ered, and  again  gave  attention  to  public  aflairs.  Tow- 
ard the  end  of  the  year  he  was  visited  with  another 
affliction,  the  death  of  his  beloved  wife,  whose  kindly 
qualities  and  general  benevolence  had  won  for  her  the 
love  of  all.  The  nation  mourned  her  loss,  while  al- 
most the  entire  population  of  the  capital  with  sor- 
rowful mien  accompanied  the  remains  to  their  last 
resting-place. 

Bv  this  time  had  beofun  the  afjitation  for  the  next 
election,  which  was  to  take  place  the  following  year. 
The  party  which  sustained  the  government  s[)lit  into 
factions,  one  of  which  demanded  the  reelection  of 
Juarez  as  a  guarantee  of  the  continuance  of  present 
liberalism  and  reform,  while  another  faction  supported 


II 


a  ' 


BENITO  JUAREZ, 


221 


Lerdo,  considering  the  reelection  of  an  incumbent  r^s 
anti-democratic.  Both  of  the  above  factions  called 
themselves  conservatives.  Then  there  were  the  con- 
stitutionalists, who  took  up  Porfirio  Diaz  as  their  can- 
didate. 

In  the  midst  of  the  electoral  campaign  the  public 
peace  was  again  disturbed  by  a  mutiny  of  the  garri- 
son at  Tampico,  but  this  movement  did  not  seem  to 
have  politics  at  its  base.  Rocha  took  the  town  by 
assault  on  the  12th  of  June,  1871.  The  presidential 
election  took  place  the  same  month,  the  three  candi- 
dates obtaining  votes  as  follows:  Juarez,  5,837;  Lerdo, 
2,874;  and  Diaz,  3,555.  In  the  absence  of  an  abso- 
lute majority  of  votes,  the  election  devolved  upon 
congress,  which,  on  the  12th  of  October,  1871,  chose 
Juarez,  who  took  charge  of  office  again  on  the  1st 
of  December.  The  choice  made  by  congress  was 
ignored  by  the  radical  opposition,  and  a  portion  of 
a  battalion,  led  by  certain  partisans  of  Diaz,  seized 
the  citadel  of  Mexico  and  the  Belem  jail.  Juarez 
gave  orders  to  attack  the  insurgents,  who,  at  mid- 
night, after  a  desperate  resistance  of  ten  hours,  were 
defeated.  This  affair  was  a  prelude  to  a  revolution 
which  the  Diaz  party  was  preparing  against  the  re- 
election of  Juarez,  and  whose  centre  was  Oajaca. 

Perhaps  it  would  have  been  as  well  had  Juarez 
here  terminated  his  public  career.  Grant  and  others 
in  the  United  States  would  have  been  held  in  no  less 
esteem  by  posterity  had  they  been  less  eager  for  a 
long  continuance  in  office.  Juarez  was,  perhaps,  led 
to  the  step  he  took  by  the  belief  that  the  triumph  of 
the  other  candidates  would  bring  with  it,  in  one 
of  them,  the  domination  of  a  very  limited  personal 
clique,  and  in  the  other  that  of  men  who  had  neither 
prestige  nor  any  conception  of  administrative  order. 
Even  then  he  could  have  bequeathed  to  his  suc- 
cessor a  republic  which  in  the  four  years  of  his 
presidency,  from  18G7  to  1871,  had,  amid  so  many 
difficulties,    made   more   progress   than   in   the   fifty 


222 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


••k*. 


years  of  civil  and  foreign  wars  which  had  preceded 
them.  During  those  four  years  he  carried  out  many 
important  material  improvements;  others  were  in- 
itiated ;  the  civil  and  penal  codes  were  prepared ;  the 
public  treasury  was  improved,  and  without  levying 
extraordinary  taxation,  it  covered  all  the  expenses 
occasioned  by  the  political  revolts;  the  chief  portion 
of  the  first  Mexican  railway  was  built  with  aid  af- 
forded by  the  government;  public  instruction  was 
improved;  the  jury  system  was  established  for  crim- 
inal prosecutions  in  the  federal  districts ;  commercial 
treaties  were  concluded  with  the  United  States,  Ger- 
many, and  Italy,  and  a  beginning  had  been  made 
toward  restoring  diplomatic  relations  with  such  nations 
as  so  desired. 

When  the  revolution  had  formally  broken  out, 
Juarez  obtained  of  congress  discretional  powers  to 
quell  it.  The  insurrection  had  large  resources  at  its 
disposal,  but  in  the  end  Juarez'  generals,  Alatorre 
and  Rocha,  were  victorious,  the  former  capturing  the 
capital  of  Oajaca,  and  the  latter  routing  the  main 
army  of  the  opposition  at  la  Bufa,  near  Zacatecas. 
Diaz,  who,  with  much  skill,  had  appeared  with  a  force 
of  cavalry  before  the  national  capital,  retired  to  seek 
refuge  in  Jalisco.  The  revolution,  which  at  first  pre- 
sented a  bold  front  and  threatened  to  be  formidable, 
was  easily  crushed,  more  by  the  force  of  public  opin- 
ion than  by  the  force  of  arms.  The  constitutionalist 
party  had  lost  its  ])restige,  and  all  its  moral  force, 
with  the  assault  embodied  in  its  plan  de  la  No  via. 

Such  was  the  political  situation  of  the  republic 
when  the  president  was  called  to  answer  the  sum- 
mons which  comes  sooner  or  later  to  every  one,  rich 
and  poor,  high  and  low.  On  the  early  morning  of  the 
18th  of  July,  1872,  Juarez  felt  somewhat  indisposed. 
That  afternoon  was  noticed  his  absence  from  the 
paseo,  where  he  was  wont  to  stroll  with  his  daugh- 
ters. No  one,  not  even  himself,  suspected  that  he 
was  seriously  ill.     In  the  course  of  the  day  he  expe- 


BENITO  JUAREZ. 


223 


rienced  an  acute  pain  in  one  leg,  and  some  difficulty 
in  breathing.  To  divert  his  mind  from  himself,  he 
conversed  with  his  family  and  kept  his  eyes  fixed 
on  the  portrait  of  his  late  wife.  But  toward  night 
recurred  the  pains  that  had  preceded  a  former  heart 
trouble,  which  he  at  one  time  had  suffered  from,  and 
the  family  became  alarmed.  Three  eminent  physi- 
cians, Barreda,  Alvarado,  and  Lucio,  labored  in  vain 
against  the  malady,  and  a  few  minutes  past  eleven 
o'clock,  without  any  noticeable  change  in  his  features, 
he  drew  over  his  face  the  sheet  which  covered  him  as 
he  lay  upon  his  bed,  and  quietly  breathed  his  last, 
surrounded  by  his  children  and  a  few  personal  friends. 

The  body  was  still  warm,  when,  pursuant  to  the 
existing  law,  it  was  conveyed  from  his  house  to  a 
room  in  the  palace,  on  the  shoulders  of  his  aids,  for 
the  purpose  of  proceeding  with  the  act  of  officially 
recording  the  death  in  the  presence  of  the  secretaries 
of  state  and  of  foreign  relations.  That  night  Sebas- 
tian Lerdo  de  Tejada,  as  president  of  the  supreme 
court,  was  summoned  by  the  cabinet  to  assume  the 
executive  office. 

The  embalmed  remains  of  the  late  president  were 
placed  in  a  metallic  coffin,  which  was  enclosed  in  a 
mohogany  case,  garnished  with  sprigs  of  laurel  and 
olive,  and  bearing  the  initials  B.  J.  A  magnificent 
hearse,  drawn  by  six  horses  held  in  hand  by  six  lack- 
eys, conveyed  the  body  to  the  San  Fernando  cem- 
etery, to  be  placed  in  the  family  tomb.  In  an  angle 
of  the  garden,  in  the  small  plaza  of  San  Fernando, 
had  been  erected  a  monument  in  the  form  of  the  old 
Greek  parthenon.  The  coffin  was  placed  on  a  large 
urn,  covered  with  laurel  leaves  made  of  gold  and 
evergreens.  In  the  upper  triangle  were  inscribed 
alpha  and  omega,  and  on  the  top  of  the  small  temple 
was  a  bust  of  the  dead  president.  Then  with  all  the 
pomp  at  the  capital's  command  the  body  was  con- 
signed to  the  tomb,  and  at  a  signal  from  the  towers 
of  San  Fernando,  the  battery  at  the  national  palace 


224 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  AMERICA. 


I 


Nii*(^ 


!i  < 


announced  that  the  solemn  ceremonies  were  at  an 
end.  Honors  were  subsequently  paid  to  the  memory 
of  Juarez  by  several  state  and  municipal  govern- 
ments, and  in  several  foreign  countries.  Congress 
lost  no  time  in  making  suitable  provision  for  the 
statesman's  family,  in  the  form  of  pensions  and  other- 
wise. The  remains  were  finally  removed,  in  July 
1880,  from  the  family  vault,  and  placed  under  a  mon- 
ument erected  in  San  Fernando.  Another  monument 
was  also  erected  for  the  wife.  The  late  president  left 
property  valued  at  $138,000,  including  $17,000  of 
unpaid  salary,  besides  a  few  manuscripts.  With  his 
death  he  bequeathed  to  his  country  the  boon  of  peace. 
Opponents  laid  down  their  arms,  and  placed  them- 
selves under  the  constitutional  flag. 

Benito  Juarez  had  ever  an  unfaltering  faith  in  his 
mission.  Old  traditions  he  ignored ;  petty  wrangles 
and  temporizing  policies  he  despised.  Heeding  only 
the  dictates  of  duty,  he  opposed  an  iron  will  to  the 
torrent  of  personal  ambitions  and  party  strife,  to  the 
wicked  envy  of  a  triumphant  reaction  as  well  as  of  a 
foreign  invasion.  He  saved  the  constitution  of  1857, 
by  taking  into  his  hands  the  reins  of  government  at 
the  time  that  the  allied  clergy  and  army  were  endeav- 
oring to  destroy  it.  Without  him,  the  liberal  party 
would  have  found  itself  without  a  leader,  or  even  a 
cause  to  fight  for.  What  would  have  been  the  fate 
of  the  republic,  we  might  ask,  if  Juarez,  the  chief 
magistrate,  without  soldiers  or  resources,  had  faltered  ? 
Who  would  have  taken  up  the  struggle  had  he  aban- 
doned it  ?  Indeed,  in  vain  may  we  search  history  for 
a  more  wonderful  example  of  human  greatness  and 
success — a  poor,  ignorant  Indian  boy,  emerging  from 
the  wild  mountains  of  Oajaca  to  link  his  name  with 
some  of  the  most  radical  reforms  the  civilized  world 
has  ever  witnessed. 


IT 


^'■i 


I'l 


i 


.1'! 


J 


-'■'kj^'^f""' -''**''•'*' 


Jioai^m)  Oev 


T 


CHAPTEH   1\ 


THE  rOWEK  OF  KEIJUION. 


p;  J 


EUKOPKAV    OrCUrATIOS;   of    T»re    CAl,IFnRNIA«l--KlNO    AVT)   f  M.VATlEltRA    Olf 

TJiE  I'B N1N8U LA -Kx PULSION  ov  TUE  J'css/rra — 'FkaN('lscan><  aM)  Do- 
mink  .ins  IN    Lower  California— Di'-  overy  anu   Exploration   or 

AlTA    CaLIFOIISIA    -ThK     FuIAHM    on    T  IK     SKAlUtAKD-    KUAY   .Ju.NIVERQ 

Skrra  in  THr  Er.ao— liis  Lifk  anoWuhk;! — Mkntal  and  ruysi' al 
CaARAcrEitistKi.  RvoLrrioN  of  a  Saint— Voyaob  HiTnr.H--M;afiioN 
BfiiLDisn — Jc.NiPiSMo  IN  Mexico — At  Ran  Dikuu  -At  MoNTi;i<KY~Ar 
San  Fkancisi;!),  '>anta  B.vrdara,  and  Elhewueke— Istii,>E.\T-}  ow  hi» 
Ukath.  •'■ 

Missionary  eviierpiise  in  the  C'ulifmniaa!  K'^au  in 
lu97,  wIm;!!  Vac  coudo  de  jMoctczuma,  v'uerov  of  Mex.- 
.k'*»,  j.5ranted  a  !iL.enw<>  eiu|)<nvering  the  Josuits  Klao  and 
»S.,thaticrra,  to  uiidt'rtake,  at  theii  o\ni  C(jst,  the  cou- 
VfTsi.jn  of  the  Californians.  Crossinjn^  the  gulf  from 
th«'  Yaqui  country,  Salvatirrra  broui^ht  to  the  shore  of 
the  poniusulii  the  nna:j;-c  of  our  hidy  of  Loreto^  whose 
;USkUJi6  was  givo.ii  to  the  first  Cahfornia  mission.  Se- 
'  nreiy  ostal)Hsh d  at  Loreto,  aa  they  thouj^ht,  ihe 
J'?«mt-!  foiuidot!  Hctth^ments  elsewhi  ro  on  tl)e  periin- 
Sfilvi  Bef»rehis  dcatli,  wliidi  oecunod  in  1717,  Sal 
VAf.crra  roduecil  tfie  affairs  of  the  loissjons  tx)  mj 
p(  ,  .'t  a  system  that  tlie  form  of  irovornment  ikmf 
estH.'>UHhed  wu^;  adopted  to  a  jrr-'at  extent  bf  tbc 
Frar<<j>3<:;irjs  in  Alta  C«hf<'r*iia.  Priehln,  i>!>u.Uei8, 
hnd  ia*tive^  were  ,i\.  iubject  Lo  a  fT.th'.T  •».if''^tKa%  next 
t>  wi.  »'u  Rto^xl  thi-  rector  of  a  'H«tr*.«r  v'  vvhich  at 
thistisi  i'-  there  were  ».hrev,  A  . -iwta'lnr,  ^vith  h^f-r«)u- 
sult-i,  miu\v.  the  .'nrcuit  ot  ail  the  misbionB  once  durmg 

C.  B.~i.    J*  (22'>) 


\    *- 


I 


^W 


■ 


CHAPTER  lY. 


THE  POWER  OF  RELIGION. 


M: 


>!0 


European  Occupation  of  the  Californias— Kino  and  Salvatierra  os 
THE  Peninsula — Expulsion  of  the  Jesuits — Franciscans  and  Do* 
'  MiNicANS  IN  Lower  California — Discovery  and  Exploration  of 
Alta  California — The  Friars  on  the  Seaboard — Fray  Junipero 
Serra  in  the  Field— His  Life  and  Works— Mental  and  Physical 
Characteristics— Evolution  of  a  Saint— Voyage  Hither — Mission 
Building — Junipero  in  Mexico — At  San  Diego — At  Monterey— At 
San  Francisco,  Santa  Barbara,  and  Elsewhere — Incidents  of  his 
Death. 

Missionary  enterprise  in  the  Californias  began  in 
1697,  when  the  conde  de  Moctezuma,  viceroy  of  Mex- 
ico, granted  a  license  empowering  the  Jesuits  Kino  and 
Salvatierra  to  miJ  >rtalje,  at  their  own  cost,  the  con- 
version of  the  Oalifurnians.  Crossing  the  gulf  from 
the  Yaqui  country,  Salvatierra  brought  to  the  shore  of 
the  peninsula  the  image  of  our  lady  of  Loreto,  whose 
name  was  given  to  the  first  California  mission.  Se- 
curely established  at  Loreto,  as  they  thought,  the 
Jesuits  founded  settlements  elsewhere  on  the  penin- 
sula Before  his  deatli,  which  occurred  in  1717,  Sal- 
vatierra reduced  the  affairs  of  the  missions  to  so 
perfect  a  system  that  the  form  of  government  then 
established  was  adopted  to  a  great  extent  by  the 
Franciscans  in  Alta  California.  Priests,  soldiers, 
and  natives  were  all  subject  to  a  father  superior,  next 
to  whom  stood  the  rector  of  a  district,  of  which  at 
this  time  there  were  three.  A  visitador,  with  his  con- 
sulta,  made  the  circuit  of  all  the  missions  once  during 


C.  B.-l.    15 


(225) 


226 


THE  POWER  OF  RELIGION. 


r 


'   c 


)•* 


'•»^ 


his  three  years*  term  of  office.  In  harmony  with  the 
mission  hierarchy  was  the  secular  arm,  the  soldiers 
being  subject  to  their  captain,  who  under  the  visita- 
dor  was  supreme  in  all  civil,  judicial,  and  military 
matters. 

Upon  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  all  Spanish 
dominions,  in  1767,  the  California  missions  were 
tendered  by  Viceroy  Croix  to  the  Franciscan  college 
of  San  Fernando,  and  the  trust  accepted,  Junfpero 
Serra  being  placed  in  charge  as  president,  with  Fran- 
cisco Palou,  Juan  Moran,  and  others,  as  his  more 
immediate  associates.  Entering  upon  their  penin- 
sular field  of  labors,  soon  came  Don  Jos6  de  Galvez 
as  visitador-general,  with  powers  to  advance  Spanish 
occupation  up  the  coast  to  San  Diego  and  Monterey. 
After  careful  investigation,  he  resolved  to  send  four 
expeditions,  two  by  land  and  two  by  water,  to  start 
separately,  but  all  to  unite  at  San  Diego,  and  press  on 
to  Monterev. 

Meanwhile  the  Dominicans,  loath  to  see  the  late 
possessions  of  the  Jesuits  fall  wholly  to  the  Francis- 
cans, petitioned  the  king  early  in  1768  for  license  to 
found  establishments  on  the  west  coast  of  California, 
between  latitudes  25°  and  28°.  The  king  disap- 
proved of  tJie  project,  fearing  dissension,  but  was 
finally  persuaded  thereto,  and  on  the  8th  of  April, 
1770,  granted  a  new  cedula,  dividing  the  missions  of 
the  peninsula  between  the  Dominicans  and  Francis- 
cans. The  Dominicans  desired  the  northern  districts, 
including  San  Ignacio,  (jruadalupe,  and  Mulegd,  their 
purpose  being  clearly  to  secure  an  open  way  to  the 
north;  but  the  royal  cedula  cited  left  the  details  of 
the  division  to  the  vif^-eroy,  who  was  instructed  to 
give  to  each  order  a  tield  for  expansion  northward, 
with  limits  so  fixed  as  to  avoid  future  contention. 
The  guardian  of  San  Fernando,  and  a  junta  held 
March  21,  1772,  w^re  in  favor  of  a  broader  divis- 
"You  may  take  all  of  Lower  California,"  said 


ion. 


the  Franciscans  to  the  Dominicans,  "all  of  the  old 


JUNIPERO  SERRA. 


227 


Zl 


Baja  California  in  1800. 


Wf 


■>    ■'  I 


if 


*H, 


THE  POWER  OF  RELIGION. 


Jesuit  missions,  and  their  property,  if  you  will  leave 
to  us  the  unoccupied  field  of  Upper  California."  To 
this  the  Dominicans  gladly  assented;  for  not  only 
was  the  peninsula  nearer  to  Mexico,  but  the  Jesuits 
had  performed  much  labor,  which  would  accrue  to  the 
benefit  of  their  successors.  They  did  not  dream  of  the 
wide  difference  in  the  possibilities  of  the  two  sections. 
Hence,  on  the  7th  of  April,  1772,  was  signed  by  the 
Franciscan  guardian,  Padre  Rafael  Verger,  and  the 
Dominican  vicar-general,  Criarte,  to  whom  the  mat- 
ter had  been  referred  for  final  adjustment,  a  concor- 
dato  by  which  the  entire  peninsula  was  given  to  the 
Dominicans  up  to  a  point  just  below  San  Diego,  while 
the  Franciscans  were  to  have  the  field  clear  to  them- 
selves above  that  point.  The  former  had  the  right  to 
extend  their  missions  eastward  and  northeastward, 
and  the  latter  to  the  north  and  northwest. 

The  Franciscans  embarked  in  their  northward 
adventures  on  the  9th  of  January,  1769,  when  the 
San  Carlos  sailed  with  sixty-two  persons  on  board,  in- 
cluding Padre  Parron  and  Lieutenant  Fages,  with 
twenty-five  infantry  from  the  mainland,  many  of 
whom  died  of  scurvy  on  the  way.  The  San  A  ntonio, 
Juan  Perez  commander,  sailed  on  the  15th  of  Febru- 
ary, carrying,  besides  her  crew,  fathers  Vizcaino  and 
Gomez.  The  first  land  expedition,  commanded  by 
Rivera,  and  including  Padre  Crespf,  Pilontin  Cani- 
zaves,  a  company  of  twenty-five  soldiers  from  the 
Loreto  presidio,  and  forty-two  native  Californians, 
set  forth  on  the  24th  of  March;  and  on  the  15th  of 
May,  Portold,  lately  appointed  governor  of  the  Cali- 
fornias,  with  nine  soldiers  under  Sergeant  Ortega, 
President  Serra,  and  another  conijHiny  of  natives,  be- 
gan their  journey  nortliward,  all  to  be  reunited  at  San 
Diego  at  tlie  beginning  of  July.  Father  Pakm,  who 
had  filled  for  a  time  tlie  office  of  president  of  the  pen- 
insular missions  after  the  departure  of  Serra,  arrived 
at  San  Diego,  with  six  companions,  toward  the  end 
of  AuiTUst  1773. 


■^5-: 
^^v 


JUNIPERO  SERRA. 


229 


The  discovery  and  exploration  of  the  seaboard  of 
Alta  California  had  been  effected  by  divers  voyages 
since  1540.  The  lesult  was  a  general  knowledge  of 
the  coast-trend  beyond  Cape  Mendocino;  of  the 
Santa  Barbara  channel  and  islands;  of  the  ports  of 
San  Diego,  Monterey,  and  old  San  Francisco,  near 
Point  Reyes;  and  to  some  extent,  of  the  climate,  soil, 
and  people.  .  ,, 


I  '.?' 


11 


San 
who 
pen- 
rived 
i  end 


Movements  of  the  Discoverers. 

Immediately  upon  his  arrival,  in  July  1760.  Juni- 
pero  Serra  founded  his  first  mission,  at  k!Mi.I)  Diego. 
There  were  no  converts  for  a  louo-  time,  and  tL<>  misj- 
sionaries  were  constantly  annoyed  by  the  theft*,  and 
petty  hostilities  of  the  natives,  as  will  be  ai're  fully 
shown  hereafter. 


•«:  H 


i  «• , 


u^'il 


230 


THE  POWER  OF  RELIGION. 


H 


If'; 


.  »    C 


*H» 


While  the  padre  president  was  engaged  in  these 
duties,  Portolii  and  Crespi,  with  the  main  company, 
marched  northward  in  search  of  Monterey,  which 
port  they  reached  in  October,  but  did  not  recognize 
it,  because  of  the  exaj2jgerated  descriptions  current 
since  the  time  of  Vizcaino.  Nor  did  they  halt 
until  they  came  in  sight  of  Point  Reyes,  and  dis- 
covered the  bay  of  San  Francisco.  Then  they  re- 
turned, reaching  San  Diego  in  January  1770. 
Again  the  main  body  of  the  missionaries,  this  time 
under  Lieutenant  Pedro  Pages  and  Father  Crespf, 
set  their  faces  northward,  and  came  to  Monterey, 
where  they  founded,  early  in  June  1770,  the  presidio 
and  mission  of  San  Cdrlos,  the  second  settlement 
in  Alta  California ;  and  for  a  long  time  this  region 
was  spoken  of,  at  Mexico  and  elsewhere,  as  "  the 
new  establishments  of  San  Diego  and  Monterey." 
The  following  year  two  new  missions,  San  Gabriel 
and  San  Antonio,  were  founded,  San  Luis  Obispo 
coming  into  line  a  year  later.  In  1772  Pages  and 
Cres]>i  reached  the  mouth  of  the  ureat  river  in  an  un- 
successful  attempt  to  pass  arouiul  the  new  bay  and 
reach  old  San  Francisco,  Quarrels  began  between 
the  military  and  missionary  authorities,  as  represented 
by  Pages  and  Serra,  and  the  latter  went  to  Mexico, 
not  only  to  unst^at  his  enemy,  but  to  wt)rk  for  the  gen- 
eral interests  of  his  beloved  missions. 

At  the  irood  beniimiiiij  thus  made  the  Franciscans 
were  greatly  pleased.  Besides  the  presidio,  with  its 
garrison  of  sixty  soldiers,  there  were  now  five  mis- 
sions, luider  nineteen  friars,  who  had  baptized  about 
500  natives.  The  live-stock  brought  from  Flower 
Cc-xlifornia  had  increased  to  200  cattle,  (JO  horses,  80 
nmles,  100  swine,  and  l()0  sheep  and  goats.  Father 
Junip(!ro  labored  diligently  in  Alexico  to  inspire  the 
sfovernment  with  some  deijfree  of  his  own  enthusiasm 
respecting  the  futun^  of  the  new  California.  He  ob- 
tained many  concessions,  and  returned  to  his  mission 
field  in  March  1774. 


JUNJfPERO  SERRA. 


231 


The  year  1775  witnessed  the  destruction  of  San 
Diego  mission,  moved  the  previous  year  to  a  site 
some  six  miles  back  from  the  bay,  while  in  September 
and  October  of  the  year  following  were  founded  the 
presidio  and  mission  of  San  Francisco,  destined  prac- 
tically to  be  the  northern  frontier  of  Spanish  occupa- 
tion. Also,  in  1776-7,  besides  the  restoration  of  San 
Diego,  were  added  two  new  missions,  San  Juan  Cap- 
istrano  in  the  south,  and  Santa  Clara  in  the  north. 
Monterey  was  made  the  capital  of  both  Californias, 
where  Felipe  de  Neve  came  to  reside  as  governor,  in 
February  1777.  Before  the  end  of  this  year  the 
first  California  pueblo,  or  town,  was  founded,  at  San 
Josd,  the  new  ruler  not  regarding  the  conversion  of 
natives  as  the  only  desirable  element  in  the  building 
of  Spanish  empire.  In  1779  the  Manila  galleon 
touched  for  the  first  time  at  Monterey,  and  the  year 
following  saw  the  country  guarded  by  eighty  soldiers 
in  three  presidios,  a  town  with  twenty  inhabitants, 
and  sixteen  friars  serving  three  thousand  native  con- 
verts in  eight  missions.  There  was  a  population  of 
Spanish  and  mixed  race  of  five  hundred,  and  agricul- 
ture and  stock-raising  had  been  introduced  with  flat- 
tering prospects. 

In  1781  tlie  pueblo  of  Los  Angeles  was  established, 
and  in  1782  the  mission  of  San  Buenaventura  and 
the  presidio  of  Santa  Bdrbara.  Then,  in  1784,  came 
the  death  of  the  padre  president,  Fray  Juni[)ero,  who 
had  founded  and  governed  all  these  mission  establish- 
ments up  to  this  time;  after  this  were  added  to  the 
line,  Santa  Barbara  mission  in  178G;  Purisima  in 
1787;  Santa  Cruz  and  Soledad  in  1791;  San  Jose, 
San  Juan  Bautista,  San  Miguel,  and  San  Fernando 
missions,  and  Braucifurte  pueblo,  in  1797;  San  Luis 
Roy  in  1798;  Santa  Inez  in  1804;  San  Kafael  in 
1317;  and  Sonoma  in  1823. 

Having  thus  outlined  the  history  of  California 
occupation,  let  us  procot'd  to  the  study  of  the  life  and 
character  of  the  great  founder  of  Christianity  and 
civilization  in  these  part.s. 


>  ii 


c> 


I  Im 


'H 


m 


232 


THE  POWER  OF  RELIGION. 


i  '» 


IIM 


^M 


Junlpero  Serra  was  a  native  of  Majorca,  having 
been  born  in  the  town  of  Petra,  in  that  island,  Novem- 
ber 24,  1713.  His  parents,  Antonio  Serra  and  Mar- 
garita Ferrez,  were  honest  farmers  of  good  repute, 
and  the  care  which  they  displayed  in  the  training  of 
their  son,  who  was  by  no  means  robust,  mark  them 
as  exemplary  members  of  society.  A  religious  fervor 
was  early  implanted  in  the  heart  of  the  child,  which 
controlled  his  life.  He  was  baptized  on  the  day  of  his 
birth,  and  named  Miguel  Josd,  and  was  so  called  on 
his  confirmation,  May  26,  1715,  when  not  yet  two 
years  old,  it  being  the  practice  in  that  part  of  the 
catholic  world  to  confirm  children  while  very  young. 

His  parents,  besides  instructing  him  in  the  rudi- 
ments of  the  faith,  provided  for  his  regular  attend- 
ance at  the  convent  church  of  San  Bernardino,  where 
he  acquired  a  knowledge  of  Latin.  Thus  heredity  and 
environment  united  to  form  an  exceptionally  devout 
nature.  At  a  very  early  age  ho  was  eager  to  enter 
the  St  Francis  order  of  friars,  to  which  end  he  was 
taken  to  Palma,  the  capital  of  the  island,  and  placed 
under  the  care  of  a  beneficiary  priest  of  the  cathedral. 
There  he  remained  for  several  years,  studying  philos- 
ophy and  theology  at  the  Franciscan  convent,  the 
wish  to  take  the  habit  of  the  order  daily  increas- 
ing. Therefore,  as  soon  as  he  reached  the  required 
age,  he  made  application  to  the  provincial  fcr  admit- 
tance. But  as  the  youth  was  of  diminutive  figure 
and  delicate  appearance,  the  provincial  postponed  his 
reception  for  a  time,  admitting  him,  however,  as  a 
novice,  into  the  convent  of  Jesus,  outside  the  city 
walls,  September  14,  1730. 

He  passed  the  year  of  his  novitiate  in  studying  the 
rules  of  the  order,  and  in  reading  the  lives  of  promi- 
nent Franciscans,  his  youthful  soul  being  greatly 
moved  thereby.  Even  now  the  determination  arose 
within  his  breast,  as  soon  as  opportunity  offered,  to 
leave  his  home  and  country  and  go  as  a  missionary  to 
foreign  parts.    At  the  end  of  the  probationary  year  he 


JUNtPERO  SERRA. 


he 


formally  professed,  September  15,  1731,  being  not 
quite  eighteen  years  of  age.  It  was  on  the  occasion 
of  that  solemn  ceremony  that  he  assumed  the  name  of 
Junfpero,  out  of  his  love  and  admiration  for  one  of 
the  companions  of  St  Francis  who  bore  that  name. 
The  day  of  his  profession  he  marks  as  the  starting- 
point  of  physical  and  spiritual  manhood.  "  All  bless- 
ings came  to  me  by  my  profession,"  he  exclaims. 
During  his  novitiate  he  had  been  sickly,  and  so  small 
in  stature  that  he  could  not  read  at  the  chorister's 
desk,  but  now  health  and  strength  came  on  apace, 
and  he  rapidly  grew  to  medium  height. 

Transferred  to  the  principal  convent,  at  Palma,  he 
continued  his  studies,  in  which  he  became  so  proficient 
that  before  ordination  he  was  made  professor  of  philos- 
ophy, and  for  three  years  taught  in  the  convent.  Be- 
fore he  had  finished  his  philosophical  course,  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  divinity  was  conferred  upon  him  by  the 
Lullian  university,  in  which  he  occupied  a  professor's 
chair  down  to  the  time  of  his  departure  from  his  na- 
tive isle.  There  also  he  won  renown  as  a  preacher, 
his  oratory  being  so  brilliant,  his  rhetorical  skill  so 
marked,  his  power  of  expression  so  graphic,  and  his 
doctrines  so  sound,  that  on  one  occasion,  even  an  oppo- 
nent was  led  to  exclaim  "  This  sermon  is  worthy  of 
being  printed  in  letters  of  gold." 

But  neither  learning  nor  applause  could  take  the 
place  of  piety;  all  other  aspirations  were  consumed 
in  the  fires  of  missionary  zeal,  kindled  by  the 
writings  of  the  fathers.  For  this  work  he  was  the 
chosen  of  God;  to  this  end  he  had  been  created;  in 
the  execution  of  this  divine  purpose  he  would  live 
and  die.  There  need  be  no  haste,  no  intervention  of 
human  plans ;  for  all  would  be  made  plain.  A  brother 
friar,  named  Palou,  was  likewise  filled  with  the  same 
aspirations,  and  the  two  took  counsel  and  comfort  to- 
gether talking  over  their  hearts'  desire.  Hence  in 
due  time  they  asked  and  obtained  permission  from 
the  commissary-general  of  the  Indies  to  join  a  com- 


J 


f.;'i 


234 


THE  POWER  OF  REUGION. 


I- 1 


m 


"i-: 


I    -ii 


pany  of  missionaries  of  propaganda  fide,  soon  to  em- 
bark for  Mexico,  and  on  April  13,  1749,  they  sailed 
from  their  native  isle  nevermore  to  return. 

When  he  set  forth  in  his  important  career.  Padre 
Junfpero  v/as  in  the  thirty-sixth  year  of  his  age,  in 
the  prime  of  manhood.  But  he  was  endowed  with 
more  than  physical  strength.  Religious  enthusiasm 
will  probably  carry  a  man  further  in  the  endurance 
of  toil,  danger,  and  suffering  than  any  other  motive 
— military  glory,  avarice,  or  any  feeling  of  love  or 
hate.  It  embodies  all  these,  and  more, — ail  glory, 
the  glory  of  God  and  man;  all  possession,  whether 
of  this  world  or  the  next;  all  love  and  all  hate, 
the  love  of  good  and  the  hatred  of  evil.  In  the 
reward  promised  to  the  faithful  there  is  nothing 
left  to  ask.  All  that  God  can  give  is  already  his, 
— blessings  eternal,  beside  which  the  benefactions  of 
this  world,  with  all  its  riches,  comforts,  and  honors, 
are  as  nothing.  And  what  evil  shall  man  do  unto 
this  chosen  one  of  God?  To  kill  the  body  is  but 
to  hasten  the  soul  to  gloiy.  What  would  incite  to 
heroic  deeds,  if  not  a  service  so  sublime,  offering  such 
rewards!  In  the  strength  of  their  numbers,  armies 
march  out  to  battle;  the  soldier  of  the  cross  goes 
forth  alone,  himself  a  host,  the  armies  of  the  Lord  at- 
tending. The  missionary  annals  of  Mexico  furnish 
many  examples  of  self-devotion  and  heroism,  of  suffer- 
ings and  martyrdoms,  not  the  least  thrilling  of  which 
are  to  be  found  in  the  adventures  of  those  who  planted 
the  Christian  faith  in  the  Californias. 

Junipero  Serra  was  a  born  saint,  not  in  the  sense 
of  canonization  before  birth,  but  of  creation  in  the 
spirit  and  essence  of  sanctity;  a  material  being  ripe 
for  martyrdom  from  the  beginning,  to  whom  it  were 
equally  easy,  equally  a  necessity,  living  or  dying  for 
the  faith.  He  was  morally,  rather  than  physically  or 
intellectually,  great.  Self-devotion,  self-sacrifice,  lofty 
principles  and  purposes,  and  never-dying  religious 
zeal,  were   the  weapons   by  which   he  overcame  all. 


:-'^:ji 


'!■■>; 


i"' 


junIpero  serra. 


"whether  of  the  world,  the  flesh,  or  the  devil.  Give, 
as  an  adjunct  to  this  sublime  devotion,  fair  executive 
ability,  which  Junipero  possessed,  and  if  opportunity- 
be  present,  results  are  sure  to  follow. 

His  portrait  shows  a  fine  facial  outline,  symmetrical 
rather  than  pronounced  features,  with  no  special  in- 
dication of  that  state  of  exaltation  to  which  his  soul 
must  needs  have  been  raised  before  it  could  find  its 
highest  happiness  in  self-flag;ellations  and  suffering  for 
Christ.  Nevertheless,  we  find  traces  of  a  mystic  rev- 
erence and  pious  thoughtful n ess  in  those  dark  eyes, 
slightly  sunken,  shaded  by  strongly  marked  eyebrows, 
and  telling  of  the  religious  fervor  that  spurred  the 
anxious  spirit  onward,  of  the  courage  and  indomitable 
endurance  which  we  find  him  displaying  under  the  se- 
verest trials,  in  the  wild  fields  of  missionary  labor  in  the 
New  World.  About  the  mouth  are  signs  of  gentle- 
ness and  refinement,  rather  than  firmness  and  strength, 
and  yet  we  know  that  he  possessed  all  these ;  likewise 
amiability,  benevolence,  and  a  kind  disposition, — traits 
which  will  be  seen  to  come  prominently  forward  as  we 
accompany  him  on  his  journey  through  life.  While 
each  individual  feature  faithfully  portrayed  some  prom- 
inent quality,  the  harmony  of  all  in  combination  pro- 
duced an  expression  proclaiming  inner  confidence  and 
hopefulness.  The  countenance  was  illumined  by  the 
consciousness  of  rectitude  in  all  his  actions  and  inten- 
tions, and  by  the  sweet  reflection  that  his  career  was 
directed  by  onmipotence  into  paths  of  duty,  and  not 
left  to  drift  under  the  impulses  of  vanity  or  ambition. 
The  abiding  hope  and  expectancy  of  approval  on  the 
part  of  his  heavenly  master,  when  he  should  enter  the 
kingdom  promised  to  the  faithful,  could  not  fail  to 
affect  the  facial  expression,  flushed  with  the  holiest 
impulses  of  the  heart. 

Humility,  sincerity,  earnestness,  faithfulness,  and 
all  kindred  virtues  were  written  in  unmistakable  lines 
in  his  features.  Yet,  however  great  his  humility, 
however  complete  his  self-denial,  his  governing  and 


t  ,31 


!?- 


mJiII  i 


.ill! 


\J'\ 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


LP     t^  KS 

^  Kiii    |22 


Z  1^    12.0 


II  >l 

IL25  114   11.6 


Photographic 

Sdences 

Corporation 


33WMTMMiN';VfIIT 

WIKTIR.N.Y.  USM 

(716)173-4303 


^ 

^^^ 

^#^ 

*\^ 


236 


THE  POWER  OF  RELIGION. 


'*• 


'\ 


directing  abilities  raised  him  above  other  servants  of 
God  whose  devotedness  and  abnegation  of  self  were 
as  conspicuous  as  his  own.  We  find  Junfpero  ever 
implicitly  relying  on  providence,  so  deeply  impressed 
with  a  belief  in  divine  protection  that  all  escapes  from 
danger  he  attributes  to  the  special  intervention  of  the 
saints. 

Taking  passage  in  an  English  vessel  sailing  to  Mal- 
aga, the  two  missionaries  arrived  at  that  port  after  a 
voyage  of  fifteen  days.  The  discomforts  attending 
ocean  travel  in  those  days  were  aggravated  by  the 
misconduct  of  the  captain,  who  interfered  with  the 
performance  of  their  religious  duties.  Further  than 
this,  being  of  a  disputatious  disposition,  he  persisted 
in  discussing  points  of  doctrine,  and  when  defeated  in 
argument,  he  lost  control  of  his  temper,  and  threatened 
to  throw  the  two  priests  overboard  and  sail  away  for 
London.  On  the  last  occasion  of  a  wordy  contest 
between  him  and  Fray  Junlpero,  he  suddenly  drew  a 
knife  and  held  it  at  the  padre's  throat  with  the  appar- 
ent intention  of  killing  him.  Discretion,  however, 
prevailed,  and  the  infuriated  mariner  retired  to  his 
cabin  to  sleep  off  his  anger,  while  the  priests  passed 
the  night  in  watchfulness  and  prayer.  From  Malaga 
they  sailed  to  Cddiz,  which  port  they  reached  on 
the  7th  of  May,  and  found  that  after  they  had  taken 
their  places  there  were  still  three  more  vacant  in  the 
missionary  party  about  to  sail  across  the  ocean. 
Serra  thereupon  wrote  to  his  convent  at  Palma,  and 
padres  Rafael  Verger,  Juan  Crespf,  and  Guillermo 
Vicens  responded  to  the  call,  and  presently  joined 
him.  The  expedition  was  divided  into  two  parties, 
the  first  of  which,  consisting  of  a  president  and  twenty 
missionary  friars,  among  whom  were  Serra  and  Palou, 
sailed  from  Cddiz  August  28,  1749. 

The  voyage  was  a  long  one,  occupying  no  less  than 
ninety-nine  days,  and  marked  by  incidents  which 
tested  the  patience  and  courage  of  the  friars.  Pro- 
visions became  scanty,  and  at  one  time  water  was 


JUNfPERO  SERRA. 


237 


SO  sparingly  dealt  out,  that  the  supply  was  insuffi- 
cient to  quench  thirst.  Under  all  trials  Junipero 
remained  unmoved,  enduring  hunger  with  calmness, 
and  endeavoring  to  quiet  others,  saying  that  by  eat- 
ing little  and  talking  less,  they  would  save  saliva,  and 
so  find  some  relief  from  thirst.  Arriving  at  Porto 
Rico  about  the  middle  of  October,  the  ship  took  in 
water,  and  proceeded  on  her  course  to  Vera  Cruz. 
The  voyagers  were  already  in  sight  of  port  when  a 
storm  came  on,  which  lasted  for  two  days,  and  drove 
them  back  to  the  coast  of  Campeche.  The  danger 
was  very  great;  the  ship  was  expected  to  founder; 
and,  what  added  to  the  horrors  of  the  position,  the 
crew  became  mutinous,  and  endeavored  to  force  the 
captain  to  run  the  vessel  ashore  as  the  only  means  of 
saving  some  of  their  lives.  Fortunately,  before  this 
extreme  measure  was  enforced,  the  violence  of  the 
tempest  abated,  and  the  storm-shaken  mariners  en- 
tered the  harbor  of  Vera  Cruz  on  December  6th. 
During  this  time  of  peril  Junfpero  preserved  his  usual 
tranquillity.  When  asked  if  he  was  not  afraid,  he 
replied :  "  I  was  somewhat  so  at  first ;  but  when  I 
thought  of  my  mission,  fear  departed." 

At  Vera  Cruz,  Palou  was  attacked  by  a  dangerous 
illness,  which  forced  him  to  remain  there  for  some 
time.  Though  provision  was  being  made  by  the  gov- 
ernment to  transfer  the  friars  into  the  interior,  the 
eagerness  of  Fray  Junfpero  urged  him  forward.  He 
requested  permission  of  his  president  to  proceed  on 
foot  to  Mexico  without  delay.  Leave  being  granted, 
Serra,  with  only  one  companion,  a  missionary  from 
Andalusia,  started  on  his  hundred -league  journey. 
During  the  march  the  travellers  were  constantly  beset 
by  difficulties,  from  which  they  were  delivered  by  the 
power  of  the  almighty.  Whether  by  the  kind  hospi- 
tality of  the  natives  they  escaped  death  from  exposure 
and  starvation,  or  were  guided  to  fords  in  dangerous 
rivers  in  which  they  would  otherwise  have  lost  their 
lives,  they  recognized  the  interposition  of  the  saints  in 


Sk  > 


3!'i 


<  i  I 


238 


THE  POWER  OF  RELIGION. 


/!  I   i' 


!  r  f*^ 


'\ 


their  behalf.  Unused  to  such  long  journeys,  Juni- 
pero's  legs  began  to  swell,  and  he  was  obliged  to  halt. 
One  night,  while  resting  at  a  hacienda,  the  swelling 
increased,  becoming  intensely  painful,  and  before 
morning  it  broke,  leaving  a  life-long  sore,  for  the 
evil  developed  into  a  chronic  ulcer,  which  caused  the 
padre  much  suffering  to  the  day  of  his  death.  But 
this  accident  did  not  long  detain  him ;  after  a  day's 
rest  he  continued  on  his  way,  and  reached  the  sanctu- 
ary of  our  lady  of  Guadalupe  on  the  last  day  of  the 
the  year  1749.  The  following  morning  the  two  friars 
went  to  the  apostolic  college  of  San  Fernando,  in  the 
city  of  Mexico,  where  they  were  received  with  ex- 
pressions of  joy  and  brotherly  love. 

Six  years  previous  to  the  arrival  of  Father  Junfpero 
in  Mexico,  the  college  of  San  Fernando  had  estab- 
lished five  missions  in  the  districts  of  Sierra  Gorda, 
and  the  faculty  needed  missionaries.  Accordingly, 
about  the  end  of  June  1750,  Padre  Junfpero,  with 
seven  friars,  among  whom  was  his  companion  Palou, 
who  ere  this  had  joined  him  in  Mexico,  was  sent  to 
take  charge  of  those  missions,  Serra  being  elected 
president  of  the  party. 

In  that  wild  mountainous  region  the  zealous  apostle 
labored  for  nine  years  without  ceasing.  By  imposing 
ceremonies,  conducted  in  a  manner  to  inspire  rever- 
ence, he  gradually  won  the  hearts  of  the  rude  people 
with  whom  he  labored.  Quickly  learning  the  Fame 
language,  he  was  soon  able  to  instruct  them  in  the 
doctrines  of  the  faith.  Ha  encouraged  their  devotion 
by  his  example ;  taught  them  humility  and  Christian 
charity  by  washing  annually,  in  holy  week,  the  feet 
of  twelve  poor  Indians ;  and  in  his  anxiety  to  impress 
the  neophytes  with  the  truthfulness  of  the  word 
which  he  preached,  and  his  immovable  confidence 
therein,  he  performed  many  cruel  acts  of  penance 
upon  himself.  His  historian.  Fray  Francisco  Palou, 
afterward  made  father  guardian  of  the  college  of  San 
Fernando,  relates  that  Fray  Junfpero,  when  preaching 


JUNfPEBO  SERRA. 


on  special  occasions,  was  accustomed  to  scourge  him- 
self in  the  pulpit  in  a  terrible  manner,  with  an  iron 
chain,  in  imitation  of  Saint  Francis.  He  would  like- 
wise strike  his  naked  breast  with  a  heavy  stone,  while 
holding  aloft  the  crucifix  in  his  left  hand  and  reciting 
aloud  the  act  of  contrition.  With  such  force  did  he 
deal  the  blows  that  his  audiences  were  astonished  that 
he  did  not  break  the  bones  of  his  chest.  And  the 
biographer  further  states  that  to  this  self-punishment 
was  attributed  the  chest  disease  which  finally  caused 
Serra's  death.  Another  method  which  Junipero 
employed  to  move  his  listeners  to  repentance,  when 
discoursing  on  the  eternal  sufferings  of  the  damned, 
was  to  lay  bare  his  breast  and  burn  his  flesh  with  a 
lighted  torch,  enduring  the  torture  without  flinching, 
while  the  beholders  shed  tears  of  sympathy  and  con- 
trition. On  one  occasion,  while  preaching  in  Mexico, 
he  scourged  his  naked  shoulders  so  unmercifully,  while 
exhorting  his  hearers  to  repentance,  that  all  the  people 
burst  into  tears,  while  one  of  them,  crying  out  "  I  am 
the  sinner  who  should  do  penance,"  ascended  the  pul- 
pit steps,  took  the  chain  from  the  father's  hand,  and 
so  eflectually  followed  the  example  of  the  friar  that 
he  sank  down  in  a  swoon,  and  shortly  afterward  died 
from  the  effects  of  the  punishment,  after  the  sacra- 
ment had  been  administered  to  him  on  the  spot  where 
he  had  fallen. 

Nor  did  Serra  neglect  the  temporal  interests  of  his 
flock.  He  was  careful  of  his  neophytes,  providing  his 
mission  with  cattle  and  sheep,  and  with  seed  and 
grain.  He  taught  the  natives  various  industries ;  many 
of  them  became  expert  masons,  carpenters,  and  black- 
smiths; he  instructed  their  women  in  the  domestic 
arts  of  sewing,  knitting,  spinning,  and  weaving,  so 
that  when  he  left  this  scene  of  his  labors,  all  the  mis- 
sions under  him  were  in  a  flourishing  condition,  with 
well-filled  granaries. 

While  Father  Junfpero  was  laboring  in  the  Sierra 
Gorda,  the  college  of  San  Fernando,  in  connection 


?  .c 


840 


THE  POWER  OF  REUGION. 


IM^l'  f  ^      .''5 

if  r  ^1 


with  that  of  Quer^taro,  had  attempted  to  establish 
missions  among  the  fierce  Apaches  on  the  banks  of 
the  San  Sr^bd.     The  attempt  failed,  Fray  Terreros 
winning  the  crown  of  martyrdom.     Thereupon  a  mil- 
itary expedition   was  planned   by  the   viceroy,  and 
Junfpero  received  a  letter  from  his  superior  calling 
him   to  the  conquest  of  souls  in   the  land  of  the 
Apaches.      With   instant  obedience   the   father  an- 
swered to  the  call,  and  presented  himself  at  the  con- 
vent in   Mexico.     But  owing   to  the  death  of  the 
viceroy  the  undertaking  was  indefinitely  postponed, 
and  Serra  retired  to  his  convent.     During  the  next 
seven  years  he  was  engaged  in  missionary  work  in 
various  parts  of  Mexico,  preaching  and   converting 
sinners   alike  in   populous   cities  and  wild   districts, 
travelling  on  foot  for  six  months  of  the  year,  north 
and  south,  east  and  west,  from  Campeche  to  Sonora. 
It  is  estimated   that  he  walked  not  less  than  two 
thousand  leagues  in  passing  from  place  to  place  in 
these  journeyings.     Many  were  the  dangers  to  which 
he  was  exposed,  and  severe  the  hardships  which  he 
underwent.     Nor  are  there  wanting  in  the  records 
of  his  life  accounts  of  many  escapes  through  miracu- 
lous intervention.     On  one  occasion  when  celebrating 
the  sacrament,  after  having  partaken  of  the  elements, 
he  was  seized  with  sudden  illness,  and  had  to  be  car- 
red  thence.     No  one  doubted  that  he  had  been  pois- 
oned, yet  he  refused  to  take  any  of  the  antidote  offered 
him,  but,  swallowing  a  little  sweet  oil,  he  recited  the 
words  found  in  St  Mark's  gospel:  "  They  shall  take 
up  serpents,  and  if  they  drink  any  deadly  thing,  it 
shall  not  hurt  them."     Later  there  was  hung  in  the 
convent  of  San  Fernando  an  oil  painting  representing 
Father  Junfpero  holding  a  chalice  from  which  was 
escaping  a  small  snake.      Another  painting  depicts 
him  preaching  in  the  open  air  on  the  occasion  of  a 
missionary  revival.     On  the  ground  directly  in  front 
of  him  lies  the  chain  with  which  he  was  accustomed 
to  scourge  himself;  at  his  right  foot  stands  the  chal- 


JUNlPEBO  SERRA. 


211 


ice,  with  the  snake  twisting  itself  out;  while  at  his 
left  is  a  lighted  torch  supported  against  a  human 
skull.  In  his  left  hand  the  father  holds  aloft  a  cruci- 
fix, and  the  right  grasps  a  heavy  stone,  with  which 
he  is  about  to  inflict  self-punishment  as  penance  for 
the  sins  of  the  people.  The  countenance  is  expressive 
of  deep  sorrow.  The  audience  by  which  he  is  sur- 
rounded is  composed  of  persons  of  various  races  and 
degrees,  from  the  high  Spanish  official,  with  powdered 
hair  and  queue,  lace  ruffles,  and  court-sword,  to  the  half- 
naked  Indian,  with  his  head-gear  of  plumes  and  primi- 
tive bow  and  arrows.  All  of  them,  men  and  women 
alike,  are  represented  in  various  attitudes  of  devotion. 

On  the  occasion  of  his  departure  for  the  California 
missions,  elsewhere  mentioned,  Junipero  and  his  com- 
panions took  leave  of  the  community  on  the  14th  of 
July,  1767,  all  being  deeply  affected.  "Go,"  said  the 
guardian  to  the  company,  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  "  with 
the  consoling  knowledge  that  you  have  Father  Juni- 
pero for  your  prelate,  whom,  by  these  presents,  I  ap- 
point president  of  those  missions.  Obey  him  as  you 
would  obey  me,  and  pray  for  me."  Junipero  was  so 
deeply  moved  that  he  could  not  speak  as  he  kissed  the 
hand  of  his  superior.  The  journey  to  Tepic,  includ- 
ing a  few  days'  rest  at  Querdtaro  and  Guadalajara, 
lasted  thirty-nine  days,  but  owing  to  delay  in  the  sail- 
ing of  the  vessel,  they  were  unable  to  proceed  to 
Lower  California  until  the  beginning  of  March  1768. 
On  April  1st  the  vessel  anchored  in  the  roadstead  of 
Loreto,  the  missionaries  departed  to  the  districts  as- 
signed to  them,  and  Serra  at  once  commenced  his 
duties  of  visiting  the  different  missions.  After  it 
was  decided  to  establish  missions  in  Upper  Califor- 
nia, Junipero  enthusiastically  engaged  in  preparations 
for  the  expedition,  and  was  greatly  assisted  therein 
by  the  visitor-general,  Galvez. 

After  the  departure  of  the  expeditions  by  land  and 
sea,  as  already  narrated,  Serra  remained  at  Loreto 
until  the  end  of  easter,  1769,  being  anxious  to  direct 


■if  a 

i 


MM 
mm 


V.  B.— I.     10 


2d2 


THE  POWER  OF  RELIGION. 


v 


'Ny 


the  ceremonies  of  the  church  during  those  days  of 
adoration.  Then,  accompanied  by  two  soldiers  and  a 
single  servant,  he  started  northward  to  meet  PortoU 
later,  and  continue  the  journey  together.  His  foot 
and  leg  were  in  a  terrible  condition,  and  Fray  Palou, 
at  whose  mission  he  called  on  the  way,  was  so  moved 
at  the  sight  that  he  implored  him  to  remain  there, 
and  let.  him  go  forward  as  his  substitute.  "  Let  us 
not  speak  of  such  a  thing,"  was  Serra's  answer.  "  I 
have  placed  my  confidence  in  God,  and  I  hope  that  in 
his  goodness  he  will  allow  me  not  only  to  reach  San 
Diego  to  raise  there  the  standard  of  the  holy  cross, 
but  also  Monterey."  After  three  days'  rest,  the  good 
padre  proceeded  on  his  journey,  though  it  required 
two  men  to  lift  him  into  his  saddle.  Going  from  mis- 
sion to  mission,  he  took  an  affectionate  leave  of  his 
former  companions,  and  gave  them  advice  and  instruc- 
tion. On  his  arrival  at  Velicatd,  he  found  Governor 
Portold,  encamped  there,  and  in  concert  with  him  es- 
tablished a  mission  at  that  spot,  erecting  a  cross  on 
May  14th,  dedicating  the  chapel  they  constructed  to 
San  Fernando.     Father  Carapa  was  left  in  charge. 

Continuing  his  journey  in  company  with  the  gov- 
ernor, his  sufferings  bect.me  so  intense  that  Portola 
suggested  that  he  should  return.  Junfpero  would  not 
listen  to  such  a  proposition,  and  the  compassionate 
governor  ordered  a  litter  to  be  made,  and  caused  him 
to  be  carried  by  the  Indian  neophytes  attached  to  the 
expedition.  Camping  for  the  night,  a  muleteer,  at  his 
request,  applied  a  poultice  composed  of  grease  and 
pounded  herbs,  with  which  he  was  accustomed  to  treat 
the  sores  of  his  animals.  The  application  was  effect- 
ive, and  the  relief  afforded  enabled  the  padre  to  con- 
tinue his  journey  with  less  pain. 

On  July  1st  they  reached  San  Diego,  having  been 
forty-six  days  on  the  road  since  their  departure  from 
the  new  mission  of  San  Fernando,  and  on  the  3d,  Serra 
wrote  a  letter  to  his  friend  Palou,  in  which,  besides 
narrating  an  account  of  the  expeditions  by  sea — both 


JUNfPEBO  SEBBA. 


a&s 


vessels  having  arrived — he  gives  a  concise  description 
of  the  country  and  its  inhabitants.  The  land  expedi- 
tion before  mentioned,  under  the  command  of  PortoU, 
having  left  on  July  14th  in  search  of  the  harbor  of 
Monterey,  Serra  proceeded  to  establish  the  first  mis- 
sion in  Alta  California.  This  was  accomplished,  the 
foundation  of  the  institution  being  laid  on  July  16th, 
when  a  cross  was  erected  and  the  usual  ceremonies  on 
the  establishment  of  a  new  misson  were  performed. 
The  Indians  approached,  but  not  knowing  their  lan- 
guage, little  could  be  done  with  them  on  the  instant. 


Palott's  Map  ov  CxLiFOBinA  Missioks. 

Presents  of  trinkets  and  clothes  were  made  them,  and 
so  eager  were  they  to  obtain  articles  of  the  latter,  that 
they  quickly  displayed  a  ready  aptitude  for  thieving, 
and  soon  became  insolent  and  aggressive.  On  August 
12th  and  13th,  they  attacked  the  strangers  for  pur- 
pose of  plundering,  but  were  repelled.  On  the  15th, 
however,  a  more  serious  assault  was  made ;  the  In- 
dians assembled  in  great  numbers,  armed  with  bows 
and  arrows,  sabres  of  hardened  wood,  and  war-clubs. 
Palou,  with  two  of  the  soldiers,  had  gone  on   board 


&:i 


u 


244 


THE  POWER  OF  RELIGION. 


St'     ;i 


Hi 


the  San  Cdrhs  to  say  mass,  and  only  four  of  the  mili- 
tary remained  in  the  mission.  Serra  had  just  finished 
celebrating  mass,  when  the  Indians  rushed  into  the 
settlement  and  began  to  plunder  on  all  sides;  the  sol- 
diers fired  upon  them,  and  a  general  conflict  ensued. 
Fray  Vizcaino  was  wounded  in  the  hand,  his  servant, 
Josd  Marfa,  was  killed,  being  pierced  through  the 
throat,  and  two  of  the  soldiers  and  an  Indian  neo- 
phyte were  wounded,  though  not  seriously.  The  ef- 
fect of  the  fire-arms,  however,  terrified  the  assailants, 
and  they  presently  withdrew,  carrying  with  them  their 
dead  and  wounded.  After  this  encounter,  the  natives 
no  longer  molested  the  missionaries;  fear  and  respect 
took  the  place  of  insolence  and  contempt;  in  a  few  days 
peace  was  established,  the  natives  continuing  their 
visits  unarmed. 

On  the  24th  of  January,  1770,  Portold  returned, 
having  failed  to  discover  the  harbor  of  Monterey, 
but  bringing  the  report  that  they  had  reached  the 
bay  of  San  Francisco,  whereat  Jum'pero  resolved  to 
found  a  mission  there  in  honor  of  St  Francis.  But 
his  purpose  was  destined  to  be  delayed.  The  gov- 
ernor, finding  his  provisions  running  short,  decided  to 
abandon  San  Diego  if  he  did  not  receive  fresh  sup- 
plies by  the  19th  of  March,  and  retire  to  San  Fer- 
nando. But  no  discouragement  could  drive  Junfpero 
from  his  purpose.  During  this  period  of  anxious 
suspense  he  writes  to  his  friend  Palou :  "If  all  pro- 
visions and  hope  also  disappear,  I  shall  remain  with 
only  Friar  Juan  to  the  end."  March  19th  arrived, 
and  still  no  vessel  appeared ;  all  through  the  day  a 
heavy  fog  hung  over  the  bay,  while  preparations 
were  made  by  Portola  to  abandon  the  place  on  the 
following  morning.  Serra  celebrated  mass  with  more 
than  usual  solemnity,  and  preached  with  extraordi- 
nary fervor.  In  his  heart  he  prayed  earnestly  to 
God  for  help,  and  implored  the  intercession  of  St 
Joseph,  whose  feast-day  it  was.  As  evening  ap- 
proached, the  fog  lifted  for  a  brief  interval,  and  lol 


JUNfPERO  SERRA. 


PA& 


ap- 

lol 


far  out  at  sea,  in  the  rays  of  the  setting  sun,  a  ship 
was  descried  heading  toward  them.  Hope  revived, 
the  order  to  embark  was  countermanded,  and  four 
days  later  the  San  Antonio  sailed  into  the  harbor. 
St  Joseph  had  indeed  heard  their  prayer,  and  another 
miracle  was  recorded  in  the  annals  of  the  enterprise. 
San  Diego  mission,  and  all  the  magnificent  works 
which  were  to  follow,  were  not  to  be  ingloriously 
abandoned. 

Provisions  being  now  plentiful,  it  was  determined 
to  go  in  search  of  Monterey,  and  about  the  middle  of 
April  two  expeditions,  one  by  land  and  the  other  by 
water,  left  San  Diego  with  that  object.  PortoU  and 
Crespf  went  overland,  while  Serra  proceeded  by  water, 
sailing  on  board  the  San  Antonio.  Delayed  by  con- 
trary winds,  the  ship  did  not  reach  its  destination 
before  the  31st  of  May,  after  a  tedious  voyage  of 
forty-six  days,  the  land  expedition  having  arrived 
there  ten  days  earlier.  On  June  3d,  Junlpero  founded 
the  mission  of  San  Cdrlos  at  Monterey  with  the  cus- 
tomary ceremonies.  In  a  letter  to  Palou,  dated  the 
13th,  he  relates  the  particulars.  "Near  the  same 
oak-tree,"  he  writes,  "  where  the  fathers  of  Vizcaino's 
expedition  celebrated  mass,  having  erected  an  altar, 
I  chanted  the  first  mass  that  is  known  to  have  been 
celebrated  here  since  that  time."  At  the  conclusion 
of  his  letter  he  remarks  further  :  "  To-morrow  we  are 
going  to  celebrate  the  feast  and  procession  of  corpus 
christi,  although  it  may  be  but  poorly  done,  in  order 
to  chase  away  as  many  little  devils  as  there  may  be 
in  this  land."  But  alas!  no  sooner  had  the  little 
devils  taken  their  departure,  than  larger  ones  sprang 
up  in  their  stead ;  and  so,  in  the  succeeding  genera- 
tions of  the  sons  of  Satan,  their  size  has  gone  on  in- 
creasing to  this  day. 

For  some  time  the  Indians  were  shy,  and  held  aloof, 
the  work  of  conversion  progressing  slowly.  On  De- 
cember 26th,  Serra  for  the  first  time  administered 
the  holy  sacrament  of  baptism  at  that  mission;  and 


1    SI 


M« 


THE  POWER  OP  RELIGION. 


'V 


If* 


■Ij        Mi 


Palou  states  that  three  years  later,  when  he  visited 
Monterey,  he  found  there  165  Christianb,  while  the 
number  of  those  who  had  received  baptism  at  the 
time  of  Junfpero's  death  amounted  to  1014. 

The  news  of  the  discovery  of  the  harbor  of  Mon- 
terey, and  the  establishment  there  of  the  presidio  and 
mission  of  San  Cdrlos,  was  received  with  great  rejoi- 
cing in  the  city  of  Mexico,  and  measures  were  at  once 
adopted  to  increase  the  number  of  missions  in  Cali- 
fornia. On  the  2d  of  January,  1771,  ten  missionaries 
sailed  from  San  Bias  for  Monterey,  but,  encountering 
stormy  weather,  they  did  not  reach  San  Diego  till 
March  12th,  and  having  remained  in  that  port  nearly 
a  month,  while  the  ship  was  discharging  cargo,  sailed 
thence  for  Monterey  on  April  10th.  Still  more  unfor- 
tunate was  a  party  of  twenty  religious  who  sailed  from 
San  Bias  on  the  San  Cdrlos  early  in  February.  The 
winds  were  so  contrary  that  they  were  driven  south- 
ward as  far  as  Acapulco  before  they  could  turn  about; 
then,  being  short  of  water,  the  captain  endeavored  to 
make  the  port  of  Manzanillo,  and  had  the  mishap  to 
strand  his  vessel,  which  was  so  much  damaged  that  he 
refused  to  put  to  sea  again,  and  the  missionaries  were 
compelled  to  travel  up  the  coast  on  foot  a  distance  of 
300  leagues.  Their  sufferings  were  so  severe  that 
one  of  their  number  died  on  the  way;  nor  aid  they 
cross  the  gulf  and  reach  Loreto  before  November  24th. 

Meanwhile  Serra  employed  himself  in  examining 
the  surrounding  country.  He  saw  at  once  that  the 
seashore  was  not  the  proper  place  whereon  to  estab- 
lish a  mission,  which  should  be  located  on  good 
agricultural  land.  About  a  league  distant,  on  the 
fortilo  plains  of  Carmelo,  he  found  a  spot  suitable  in 
all  respects,  and  thither,  toward  the  close  of  1771,  he 
transferred  the  mission  and  presidio  of  San  Cdrlos. 
While  the  soldiers  and  Indians  from  Lower  Califor- 
nia were  preparing  the  ground  and  erecting  the  neces- 
sary buildings,  Serra  proceeded  to  found  the  mission 
of  San  Antonio.    Taking  with  him  two  friars,  Miguel 


y 


JUNIP£R0  sebra. 


247 


y 


Pieras  and  Buenaventura  Sitjar,  and  a  guard  of  sol- 
diers, he  journeyed  some  twenty-five  leagues  south- 
easterly, and  having  arrived  at  a  beautiful  dell,  which 
they  called  Los  Kobles,  on  account  of  the  oak  trees 
growing  there,  he  selected  a  suitable  spot  and  estab- 
lished his  mission.  Frame  huts  were  erected  for  the 
priests,  soldiers,  and  servants,  and  a  large  building 
was  raised  and  consecrated  for  a  church;  then  Juni- 
pero,  having  remained  there  about  fifteen  days,  re- 
turned to  Monterey,  leaving  a  corporal  and  six  soldiers 
as  a  military  guard  for  the  two  friars. 

The  founding  of  the  mission  of  San  Buenaven- 
tura and  the  presidio  of  Santa  Bdrbara  wPf  a  pro- 
ject that  continually  occupied  Serra's  mmd;  yet 
circumstanc  ;:>  ;o  frustrated  his  desires  that  tJ.oy 
were  the  last  to  be  founded  by  him;  nor  did  he 
succeed  in  establishing  them  until  after  a  delny 
of  thirteen  years.  The  cause  of  this  was  the 
want  of  military  force,  and  frequent  scarcity  of 
provisions.  But  apart  from  these  deficiencies,  the 
pioneer  missionaries  had  to  contend  against  troubles 
promoted  by  their  own  people,  and  which  evoked  an 
unfriendly  spirit  in  the  mmds  of  the  natives.  In 
their  dealings  with  the  Indian  women,  the  Spanish 
soldiers  were  accused  of  giving  oflence,  and  frequently 
of  downright  insult.  In  September  of  this  year  Friar 
Pedro  Cambon,  and  Angel  Somera  founded  the  mis- 
sion of  San  Gabriel,  and  the  conduct  of  one  of  the  sol- 
diers was  so  offensive  to  the  wife  of  a  native  chief  that 
he  sought  to  avenge  himself.  In  the  fray  which  fol- 
lowed, the  chief  was  slain,  and  the  hostility  of  the  In- 
dians made  it  necessary  to  increase  the  strength  of  the 
military  guard  there,  the  soldiers  destined  for  the  mis- 
sion of  San  Buenaventura  being  sent  to  San  Gabriel. 

The  year  1772  was  marked  by  a  famine  which 
"  grievously  tormented  many."  In  August  Junfpero 
left  Monterey  for  San  Diego,  and  on  the  way  founded 
the  mission  of  San  Luis  Obispo,  leaving  Fra  /  Cava- 
lier in  charge,  with  a  corporal  and  four  solliers  as 


Li 


hm 


55!' 


^  I 


Ji;1 


rt:'- 


€ 


■k^m 


248 


THE  POWER  OF  RELIGION. 


h  li 


!  C 


guard,  and  two  Indians  from  Lower  California.  The 
ceremonies  were  performed  September  1,  1772.  Serra 
arrived  at  San  Diego  on  September  16th,  having 
visited  the  mission  of  San  Gabriel  on  the  way.  His 
object  in  going  to  San  Diego  was  to  confer  with  the 
captain  of  the  ship  that  brought  provisions  from 
Mexico,  but  which  had  f-iiled  to  reach  Monterey. 
The  difficulties  of  transportation  by  land,  and  the 
danger  of  robbery  by  the  natives,  to  which  a  convoy 
was  always  more  or  less  exposed,  made  it  necessary 
that  the  supplies  should  be  sent  by  water;  neverthe- 
less, it  required  much  pleading  on  the  part  of  Junf- 
pero  to  induce  the  captain  to  sail  for  Monterey  and 
take  the  much-needed  supplies. 

Having  satisfactorily  arranged  this  matter,  the  good 
father  now  turned  his  attention  to  his  favorite  scheme 
of  establishing  the  mission  of  San  Buenaventura. 
Finding  himself  with  four  missionaries  at  San  Diego, 
while  two  others  were  expected  shortly  to  arrive  from 
Lower  California,  he  urgently  pressed  Commandante 
Fages  to  cooperate  with  him  in  the  undertaking. 
That  officer,  however,  raised  so  many  objections  to 
the  project,  that  Serra  began  to  suspect  that  he  had 
received  orders  from  Mexico  prohibiting  the  further 
founding  of  missions.  Consequently  he  deemed  it 
necessary  that  one  of  the  missionaries  should  go  to 
the  capital  and  correctly  inform  the  viceroy  as  to  the 
state  of  affairs.  The  other  priests  being  consulted,  it 
was  agreed  that  O'unipero,  or  some  one  selected  by 
him,  should  proceed  without  delay  to  Mexico.  Al- 
though in  his  sixtieth  year,  and  suffering  without  in- 
termission from  his  ulcered  leg,  the  zealous  man  of 
God  did  not  hesitate  a  moment.  He  knew  that  a 
painful  land  journey  of  200  leagues  lay  before  him, 
yet  he  must  see  the  viceroy  in  person  without  de- 
lay. On  October  20th  he  embarked  on  board  the 
San  Cd/los,  and  arrived  at  San  Bias  after  a  prosper- 
ous voyage,  taking  with  him  an  Indian  neophyte  of 
Monterey. 


Wl 


JUNIPERO  SERRA. 


249 


His  journey  to  the  capital  was  attended  by  his 
usual  sufferings  when  on  the  road.  At  Guadalajara 
both  he  and  his  Indian  companion  lay  ill  of  fever, 
which  took  such  a  malignant  form  that  there  seemed 
no  hope  of  their  recovery.  The  last  rites  of  the 
church  were  administered  to  the  apparently  dying 
men,  Father  Serra  expressing  no  fear  of  approaching 
death,  but  sorrowfully  apprehensive  that  the  death  of 
the  Indian  might  retard  the  work  of  conversion,  his 
tribe  fancying,  perhaps,  that  the  Christians  had  killed 
him.  Fortunately  his  fears  were  groundless.  In  a 
few  days  they  were  able  to  continue  their  journey, 
and  arrived  at  the  capital  January  6,  1773. 

Serra's  interviews  with  Viceroy  Bucareli,  who  had 
succeeded  the  marquis  de  la  Croix,  led  to  a  most  sat- 
isfactory result.  The  reports  that  had  reached  the 
viceroy  had  been  so  erroneous  and  misguiding  that  he 
had  already  decided  to  abandon  the  harbor  of  San 
Bias,  on  which  port  the  missions  of  Upper  California 
were  dependent  for  supplies.  On  the  representations 
of  Junipero,  Bucareli  immediately  sent  orders  to  San 
Bias  that  a  packet-boat  should  be  despatched  forth- 
with to  Monterey  with  provisions,  and  the  work 
on  a  new  frigate  which  had  been  stopped  should  be 
resumed.  But  this  was  only  a  beginning  in  the  turn 
of  affairs.  At  the  viceroy's  suggestion,  Serra  drew 
up  a  report  of  the  condition  of  the  missions  in  Upper 
California,  with  a  statement  of  their  necessities,  and 
this  was  so  ably  done,  and  contained  so  graphic  a  de- 
scription of  the  situation,  that  the  viceroy  forwarded  it 
to  Spain,  where  it  met  with  well-merited  consideration 
at  the  court.  A  royal  cedula  arrived  in  due  time,  or- 
dering that  the  port  of  San  Bias  should  remain  open, 
and  a  promise  was  made  of  assistance  in  supplying 
officers,  pilots,  surgeons,  and  chaplains  from  Spain. 

In  another  communication  addressed  to  Bucareli, 
Junfpero  begged  for  the  extension  of  spiritual  power; 
and  so  deeply  was  the  viceroy  moved  by  the  earnest 
pleading  of  the  missionary,  that  he  constituted  him- 


rlr 


1; 


-<I 


Q 


c: 


a:  I 


h 


Mi 


250 


THE  POWER  OF  RELIGION. 


ml  lip 


u\ 


self  the  advocate  of  the  cause.  He  called  a  junta,  or 
council,  over  which  he  presided,  and  addressed  the 
counsellors  so  strongl}'  in  support  of  Serra's  petition, 
that  they  voted  unanimously  in  favor  of  it.  A  plan 
was  drawn  up  for  the  guidance  of  commandants;  the 
number  of  the  troops  was  increased;  provision  was 
made  for  the  erection  of  fortified  presidios  at  San 
Diego,  San  Francisco,  and  in  the  channel  of  Santa 
Bdrbara;  and  each  mission  was  to  be  provided  with 
six  servants  to  aid  in  erecting  buildings  and  in  tilling 
the  soil,  their  salaries  being  paid  out  of  the  royal 
treasury.  Moreover,  a  bountiful  supply  of  corn,  flour, 
beans,  and  clothing,  to  the  value  of  $12,000,  was 
granted,  and  100  mules  were  sent  for  distribution 
among  the  missions.  Furthermore,  a  maritime  expe- 
dition was  planned  for  the  purpose  of  exploring  the 
coast  northward  of  Monterey. 

Having  succeeded  to  his  heart's  desire  in  his  ap- 
plication to  Bucareli,  Father  Junipero  prepared  for 
his  return  to  California,  and  having  received  the 
blessing  of  his  father  guardian,  bade  farewell  forever 
to  the  inmates  of  the  convent.  He  set  out  in  Sep- 
tember 1773,  accompanied  by  Fray  Pablo  Mugar- 
tegui,  and  arrived  at  Tepic  without  further  adventure. 

There,  however,  he  was  detained  until  January 
24th,  waiting  for  the  freighting  of  the  vessels.  On 
that  day  he  embarked  on  board  the  new  frigate  San- 
tiago, bound  for  Monterey.  On  March  13th  the  ves- 
sel incidentally  touched  at  San  Diego,  where  Junfpero 
heard  of  the  great  distress  the  missions  were  under- 
going from  scarcity  of  provisions.  Supplies  were  at 
once  landed,  and  the  frigate  was  sent  on  her  course 
to  carry  relief  to  Monterey,  which  was  in  the  greatest 
straits. 

Serra's  intention  had  been  to  accompany  the  ship, 
but  he  now  decided  to  continue  his  journey  by  land, 
in  order  that  he  might  visit  the  missions  and  take  to 
them  the  much-needed  provisions.  These  duties  per- 
formed, he  arrived  at  his  mission  of  San  Cilrlos  about 


o 


st 


a, 

to 

)r- 
ut 


JUNfPERO  SERRA. 


251 


the  middle  of  May,  1774,  and  occupied  himself  in 
superintending  the  unloading  of  the  vessel,  and  pre- 
paring for  the  departure  of  the  expedition  northward. 

During  the  years  1774-9,  three  such  expeditions 
were  despatched  by  the  zealous  viceroy,  and  though 
Serra  took  no  personal  part  in  them,  it  is  to  his  honor 
that,  on  his  visit  to  Mexico,  he  aroused  in  the  heart 
of  Bucareli  the  desire  to  promote  discovery,  and  by 
his  suggestions  guided  to  a  certain  extent  the  actions 
of  his  excellency  in  that  respect.  Nor  did  the  viceroy 
fail  to  acknowledge  the  encouragement  which  the 
priest  gave  to  these  expeditions.  ^In  a  letter  addressed 
to  Serra,  dated  Mexico,  January  20,  1776,  he  writes : 
"  The  new  discoveries  made  by  the  ships  of  the  king 
on  those  coasts  are  the  object  of  your  reverence's  letter 
of  October  12,  1775,  and  for  them,  and  the  honor 
resulting  to  me  thereby,  you  send  me  your  congratu- 
lations, which  I  receive  with  pleasure;  at  the  same 
time  your  reverence  is  deserving  of  thanks  for  the 
manner  in  which  you  celebrated  there  these  happy 
events  with  all  possible  solemnity;  and  I  am  satisfied 
that  the  zeal  of  your  reverence  and  that  of  the  other 
fathers  will  be  the  best  guarantee  of  the  extension  of 
the  gospel." 

By  letter  of  August  17,  1775,  the  viceroy  approved 
Serra's  project  for  the  founding  of  another  mission, 
between  those  of  San  Diego  and  San  Gabriel,  and 
Captain  Rivera  allotted  six  soldiers  as  escort  and 
guard.  The  name  to  be  given  the  new  establishment 
was  San  Juan  Capistrano,  and  friars  Fermin,  Fran- 
cisco Lazuen,  and  Gregorio  Amurrio  were  apj)ointed 
by  Serra  for  the  work.  A  suitable  site  having  been 
selected.  Father  Lazuen,  on  October  30th,  duly  per- 
formed the  usual  ceremonies,  and  eight  days  afterward 
Father  Amurrio  arrived  with  provisi'^ns  and  stores. 
The  Indians  were  friendly,  and  readily  assisted  the 
new-comers  in  fellins:  timber  for  the  construction  of 
buildings.  All  hearts  were  made  glad,  and  the  nns- 
sionaries  were  still  congratulating  each  other  on  the 


!' 


^ 


I  A,      j 


J'    ; 


'Sm 


252 


THE  POWER  OP  RELIGION. 


prospect  of  soon  having  everything  in  order,  when  one 
evening  the  intelligence  reached  them  of  a  terrible 
disaster  at  San  Diego. 

It  has  been  deemed  best  to  remove  the  mission  of 
San  Diego  about  six  miles  inland,  in  view  of  the  agri- 
cultural advantages  offered  thereby.  This  transfer 
separated  the  mission  from  the  presidio,  and  encour- 
aged the  disaffected  natives  in  an  attempt  to  destroy 
the  Spaniards  by  a  simultaneous  attack  on  both  places. 
For  although  many  converts  had  been  made,  no  less 
than  sixty  Indians  having  been  baptized  on  October 
3d,  the  greater  part  of  the  natives  seem  to  have  been 
hostile  to  the  foreigners.  A  little  after  midnight  on  the 
4th  of  November,  a  horde  of  savages  surrounded  the 
buildings  and  set  fire  to  them.  There  were  but 
eleven  persons  in  all  of  Spanish  blood,  among  whom 
were  the  two  friars,  Luis  Jayme  and  Vicente  Fuster, 
who  at  the  first  alarm  rushed  out,  the  former  facing 
the  enemy  with  his  usual  salutation:  "  Love  God,  my 
children." 

Father  Fuster  escaped  to  the  barracks  hard  by, 
with  two  boys,  a  son  and  a  nephew  of  Ortega.  All 
through  the  night  the  Indians  continued  the  attack, 
the  fire  driving  the  besieged  from  one  place  of  refuge 
to  another.  The  blacksmith,  Arroyo,  was  killed  at  the 
first  assault,  being  pierced  in  the  body  by  two  ar- 
rows. Later  the  carpenter,  Urselino,  was  mortally 
wounded  ;  and  Father  Fuster  was  hurt  by  a  piece  of 
adobe,  quantities  of  missiles  and  burning  brands  being 
hurled  over  the  walls.  In  attempting  to  barricade 
themselves  more  securely,  two  of  the  four  soldiers  re- 
ceived severe  wounds  which  placed  them  hors  de  com- 
bat. The  safety  of  the  survivors  now  depended  upon 
Corporal  Rocha,  who  used  the  fire-arms  so  skilfully, 
while  others  loaded  for  him,  that  he  succeeded  in  pre- 
venting the  enemy  from  getting  to  close  quarters. 
At  dawn  the  savages  withdrew,  fearing  the  arrival  of 
soldiers  from  the  presidio.  It  had  been  their  plan  to 
attack    that  post  also ;  but  the  party  sent  against  it 


"^ 


junIpero  serra. 


259 


returned,  because  the  mission  had  been  fired  before 
they  had  proceeded  far  enough  to  be  sure  of  effecting 
a  surprise. 

Search  was  now  made  for  Jayme.  In  a  dry  bed 
of  a  creek  his  mangled  and  naked  body  was  found, 
bruised  from  head  to  foot  with  blows  of  clubs  and 
stones,  and  pierced  by  eighteen  arrows,  while  his  face 
was  disfigured  beyond  recognition.  Serra  received 
intelligence  of  the  disaster  on  the  13th  of  December, 
whereupon  he  exclaimed:  "Thank  God;  the  soil  is 
watered;  the  conversion  of  the  Dieguinos  will  now 
be  accomplished." 

The   result  of  this  outbreak   was   the   temporary 
abandonment  of  the  mission  of  San  Juan  Capistrano, 
and  the   strengthening  of  the  military  force  at  San 
Diego.     Serra  at  once  wrote  to  the  father  guardian 
at  Mexico,  as  well  as  to  the  viceroy,  particulars  of  the 
occurrence,  pleading  at  the  same  time  on  the  side  of 
mercy,  and  imploring  his  excellency  to  extend  clem- 
ency to  the  misguided  savages.     Bucareli,  in  reply, 
writes  on  the  3d  of  April,  1776:   "In  view  of  the 
prudent  and  Christian  reflections  which  your  reverence 
makes,  inclining  to  treat  with  conciliation  the  rebel- 
lious neophytes,  rather  than  to  punish  them,  I   in- 
form your  reverence,  in  reply,  that  I  have  so  arranged, 
having  issued  orders,  on  this  same  date,  to  the  com- 
mandant Rivera  so  to  act,  considering   it   the    best 
method  that  can  be  adopted  for  the  pacification  of 
their  n-  ..    :-,  and  perhaps  also  for  the  conversion  of  the 
neighboring  gentiles,  when  they  perceive   that  they 
meet   with   leniency  and   kind  treatment    instead  of 
punishment  for  the  excesses  they  have  committed.     I 
also  informed  that  chief  that  the  principal  object  of 
the  moment  is  the  reestablishment  of  the  mission  of 
San  Diego  and  that  of  San  Juan  Capistrano." 

Anxious  as  Serra  was  to  go  in  person  to  the  scene 
of  the  calamity,  and  rebuild  the  mission,  he  was  un- 
able to  do  so  before  the  last  day  of  June,  when  he 
embarked  on  board  the  packet-boat  El  Pn7icipe,  Cap- 


i 


I' 


-ii 


m 

& 


S 


^ 

■ 

'  ■  ;  i  i, 
:  ;;tt,' 

! 

1 

|''i'-: 

1 

£•:,;■ 

■ 

: 

m 

Jllljl 

C     V. 


2M 


THE  POWER  OP  RELIGION. 


tain  Diego  Choquet,  arriving  at  San  Diego  after  a 
voyage  of  twelve  days.  The  causes  of  the  postpone- 
ment of  his  wishes  were  various.  In  the  first  place, 
the  commandant  Rivera  hurried  away  with  the  troops 
at  Monterey  to  the  disaffected  district,  and  while  at 
the  mission  of  San  Gabriel,  Lieutenant-colonel  Anza 
arrived  there  from  Sonora,  with  forty  soldiers  and 
some  families  of  settlers  for  the  port  of  San  Francisco. 
The  two  commanders,  after  due  consultation,  decided 
to  join  forces  for  the  punishment  of  the  Indians  at 
San  Diego.  Investigations  followed ;  raids  were  made 
to  different  rancherfas ;  gentile  chiefs  were  brought  in, 
made  to  testify,  and  were  flogged  or  imprisoned ;  but 
little  was  learned  with  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  out- 
break. Then  arose  a  difference  of  opinion  between 
the  two  commanders,  and  Anza's  military  colony  being 
threatened  with  scarcity  of  provisions  at  San  Gabriel, 
he  resolved  to  take  his  party  without  delay  to  Monte- 
rey, where  he  arrived  March  10,  1776.  Serra  went 
over  from  San  Cdrlos  to  congratulate  him  on  the  safe 
termination  of  his  march,  and  to  assist  at  the  re- 
ligious ceremonial  of  thanksgiving. 

These  different  proceedings  and  projects  in  some 
way  or  other  interfered  with  Serra's  departure  to 
San  Diego.  On  April  15th  Rivera  returned  to 
Monterey,  and  was  visited  by  the  father  president, 
to  whom  he  was  the  bearer  of  letters  from  the  friars 
at  San  Diego.  That  commander  had  been  excom- 
municated by  the  priest  for  having  entered  the  build- 
ing used  a«  a  church,  sword  in  hand,  with  a  squad  of 
soldiers,  and  taken  thence  an  Indian  who  had  sought 
refuge  there.  The  culprit,  though  an  old  neopliyte, 
had  been  a  ringleader  in  the  revolt,  and  Rivera  de- 
manded his  delivery  on  the  plea  that  the  right  of 
church  asylum  did  not  extend  to  such  a  criminal. 
After  consultation  with  the  friars  of  his  own  mission, 
Serra  refused  to  grant  the  captain  s  request  for  abso- 
lution, informing  him  that  when  he  gave  satisfaction 
by  returning  the  Indian  to  the  sanctuary,  the  San 


"^.^ 


JUNfPERO  SERRA. 


255 


Diego  friars  could  grant  absolution  without  the  neces- 
sity of  his  interference.  On  the  19th  Rivera  started 
south  again,  refusing  to  let  Serra  go  with  him,  on  the 
plea  of  great  haste. 

On  his  arrival  at  San  Diego,  Serra  began  the  work 
of  reconstruction.  He  enlisted  in  the  cause  the  cap- 
tain of  El  Principe,  who  not  only  promised  him  the 
aid  of  his  crew,  but  also  to  accompany  the  expedition 
and  work  as  a  laborer.  He  obtained  from  Rivera  a 
detail  of  five  soldiers  and  a  corporal,  and  on  August 
22,  1776,  the  whole  company,  consisting  of  Father 
Junipero  and  two  other  missionaries,  twenty  sailors 
with  their  officers,  the  corporal  and  five  soldiers,  and 
a  band  of  fifty  Indian  neophytes,  proceeded  to  the  de- 
stroyed mission,  all  except  the  natives  carrying  fire- 
arms and  cutlasses. 

For  more  than  a  fortnight  they  labored  unceasingly, 
priests  and  officers  acting  as  superintendents,  and 
even  working  with  their  own  hands  by  the  side  of 
sailors  and  peons.  The  church  and  other  structures 
were  progressing  favorably,  and  hope  was  entertained 
of  finishing  and  surrounding  them  with  an  adobe 
wall  before  the  sailing  of  the  ship,  when  Rivera  ap- 
peared on  the  scene  and  put  a  stop  to  the  work.  It 
is  difficult  to  fathom  his  motive,— jealousy  of  the 
priests,  perhaps.  An  Indian  had  told  him  that  the 
savages  were  preparing  arrows  for  a  new  attack,  and 
though  a  sergeant  sent  out  to  investigate  could  find 
no  foundation  in  the  report,  the  commandant  pre- 
tended alarm;  at  all  events  he  withdrew  the  soldiers 
on  guard  at  the  mission,  and  urged  the  withdrawal  of 
the  sailors.  Choquet,  though  protesting,  yielded,  not 
caring  to  assume  the  responsibility,  and  the  work 
was  abandoned,  to  the  indignation  of  the  missionaries. 
Viceroy  Bucareli,  in  a  letter  addressed  to  Father 
Junfpero  on  this  subject,  says :  "  I  do  not  doubt  that 
the  suspension  of  the  reestablishment  of  the  ruined 
mission  of  San  Diego  caused  your  reverence  much 
pain,  while,  as  far  as  I  am  concerned,  the  knowledge  of 


|!  ■   ; 


1  'i 


8S6 


THE  POWER  OF  RELIGION. 


i    M'' 


i 


the  fact  has  caused  me  displeasure,  and  much  more 
the  frivolous  motives  which  gave  rise  to  it,  as  inti- 
mated to  me  in  the  letter  of  the  naval  lieutenant  Don 
Diego  Choquet."  He  also  informs  the  venerable 
president  that  a  reenforcement  of  twenty-five  soldiers 
was  already  en  route  for  San  Diego,  and  that  if  Rivera 
did  not  devote  himself  to  the  reestablish ment  of  the 
missions,  the  governor,  Don  Felipe  Neve,  lately  ap- 

{)ointed  to  reside  at  Monterey,  would  do  so.  This 
etter  was  dated  December  25,  1776,  and  reached 
Junfpero's  hands  long  after  these  troubles  had  ceased. 
In  fact,  three  weeks  after  the  cessation  of  the  work, 
the  reinforcement  alluded  to  in  the  letter  arrived,  de- 
spatches having  been  received  a  few  days  previously, 
ordering  the  troups  to  be  employed  in  the  restoration 
of  the  missions.  Serra's  joy  was  complete,  and  he 
gave  expression  to  it  by  the  ringing  of  bells  and  the 
celebration  of  a  high  mass.  Rivera  was  now  obliged 
to  modify  his  plans;  he  detailed  a  guard  of  twelve 
soldiers  for  the  mission  of  San  Diego,  and  another  of 
ten  men,  with  a  corporal  in  command,  for  San  Juan 
Capistrano,  the  other  two  being  assigned  to  San 
Gabriel.  Tnen,  leaving  a  force  of  thirty  men  at  the 
presidio  of  San  Diego,  he  set  forth  for  Monterey, 
taking  with  him  twelve  soldiers. 

Work  was  now  resumed  at  the  mission,  and  the 
buildings  were  soon  ready  for  occupation.  Fathers 
Fuster,  Lazuen,  and  probably  Santa  Maria,  were  in- 
ducted into  their  new  quarters  about  the  middle  of 
October,  and  recommenced  their  missionary  labors. 
The  destroyed  registers  of  baptisms,  marriages,  and 
deaths  were  replaced  by  others,  in  which  the  entries 
were  restored  as  far  as  possible  from  the  memories  of 
priests,  neophytes,  and  soldiers,  and  Serra  added  some 
valuable  notes  to  the  history  of  the  mission  at  various 
dates  from  August  14th  to  October  25  th. 

In  the  last  days  of  that  month,  accompanied  by  the 
friars  Mugdrtequi  and  Amurrio,  and  escorted  by  the 
ten  soldiers,  he  went  northward  to  reestablish  the  mis- 


JUNfPERO  SERRA. 


m 


sion  of  San  Juan  Capistrano.  The  bells,  which  had 
been  buried  on  the  abandonment  of  the  mission,  were 
unearthed,  properly  hung  and  chimed,  and  the  mission 
was  again  founded  with  the  customary  ceremonies. 
This  occurred  November  1,  1776. 

But  Serra's  zeal  exposed  him  to  danger.  A  few 
days  later  he  went  to  San  Gabriel  for  neophytes  to 
aid  in  the  work  of  construction,  and  for  provisions  and 
cattle.  On  his  return  with  these  supplies,  so  anxious 
was  he  to  reach  San  Juan  with  the  news,  that  he  pro- 
ceeded in  advance  with  only  one  soldier  and  a  neo- 
phyte from  San  Gabriel.  When  beyond  reach  of  help, 
he  was  met  by  a  band  of  armed  and  painted  savages, 
who  approached  with  fierce  shouts  and  hostile  gestures. 
The  good  priest's  life  was  only  saved  by  the  presence 
of  mind  displayed  by  the  neophyte,  who  infoimed  the 
Indians  in  their  own  language  that  a  strong  body  of 
soldiers  was  close  behind,  which  would  take  terrible 
vengeance  if  harm  should  come  to  the  friar.  There- 
upon the  angry  demonstrations  ceased. 

Having  arranged  everything  to  his  satisfaction 
at  San  Juan  Capistrano,  Father  Junlpero  returned  to 
San  Cdrlos  in  January  1777,  visiting  San  Gabriel, 
San  Luis  Obispo,  and  San  Antonio  on  his  way 
thither.  He  was  anxious  to  learn  whether  the  mis- 
sion of  San  Francisco  had  been  founded,  and  received 
on  his  arrival  at  San  Carlos  the  cheering  intelligence 
that  not  only  that  mission  but  the  mission  of  Santa 
Clara  were  already  established.  As  Serra  did  not 
officiate  in  person  on  these  occasions,  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  state  that  friars  Palou  and  Cambon,  assisted 
by  the  military  authorities,  founded  the  mission  of 
San  Francisco,  at  the  laguna  de  Dolores,  October  9, 
1776,  and  that  on  January  12,  1777,  fathers  Tomds 
de  la  Peiia  and  Josd  Murguia  celebrated  the  first 
mass  in  the  new  mission  dedicated  to  Santa  Clara. 

Ott  his  return  to  San  Cdrlos,  Serra  was  anxious  to 
visit  the  new  missions  as  soon  as  possible,  but  the 
expected  arrival  of  Governor  Neve,  who  had   been 


C.  B.-I.    17 


M  'IF 

*  m 

H 


i 


4      I 


8M 


THE  POWER  OF  RELIGION. 


1  ;  ! 


instructed  to  make  the  presidio  of  Monterey  his  place 
of  residence,  caused  him  to  postpone  his  journey. 
Neve  arrived  on  February  3d,  and  business  connected 
with  the  spiritual  and  temporal  reduction  of  the  coun- 
try detained  the  father  president  at  San  Cdrlos  till 
September,  when  he  started  northward,  arriving  at 
Santa  Clara  on  the  28th.  On  the  following  day  he 
sang  mass  and  preached,  and  on  October  1st  proceeded 
on  his  way  to  San  Francisco,  performing  the  whole 
distance  of  fifteen  leagues  in  a  single  day  and  a  part 
of  the  night.  There  he  remained  till  the  10th,  re- 
cuperating his  strength.  Meantime  hj  visited  the 
presidio,  and  looked  out  upon  the  water  which  sepa- 
rates the  end  of  the  peninsula  from  the  hills  beyond. 
"Thanks  be  to  God  I"  he  exclaimed;  "already  our 
father  San  Francisco  has  arrived  with  the  proces- 
sional holy  cross  of  missions  at  the  extreme  confines 
of  the  continent  of  California,  since  in  order  to  ad- 
vance farther,  it  is  necessary  to  embark." 

Eight  missions  had  now  been  founded,  but  the  dis- 
tances between  them  Sej  ra  thought  were  too  great 
for  effective  work,  and  he  therefore  resolved  to  estab- 
lish intermediate  ones,  and  so  accomplish  the  conver- 
sion of  the  Indians  along  the  whole  coast  of  Cahfornia. 
With  this  object  in  view,  he  had  already  asked  and 
received  permission  to  found  three  others,  along  the 
channel  of  Santa  Bdrbara.  "  Help  me,"  he  said,  to 
Palou  and  those  around  him,  "  to  pray  to  God  for 
success,  and  afterward  we  will  work  in  order  to  fill  in 
the  other  gaps."  Thus,  overflowing  with  zeal,  he  re- 
turned to  San  Cdrlos,  resting  for  two  days  at  Santa 
Clara. 

The  right  to  administer  the  sacrament  of  confirma- 
tion belonged  exclusively  to  the  bishops,  nor  could 
the  highest  official  of  the  religious  orders  perform 
that  rite  without  special  authorization  from  the  pope. 
When  Father  Junfpero  first  reached  Lower  California, 
in  1768,  he  found  in  the  Jesuit  archives  a  bull  of  Pope 
Benedict  XIV,  conceding  the  power  of  confirmation 


JUNIPERO  SERP.A. 


259 


to  missionary  officials  of  that  society.  Anxious  that 
his  neophytes  should  not  be  deprived  of  the  benefit 
of  that  sacrament  under  the  Franciscan  management, 
he  requested  the  guardian  of  San  Fernando  to  obtain 
for  him  similar  authority.  The  result  was,  that,  under 
date  of  July  16,  1774,  a  papal  decree  was  obtained 
granting  the  power  of  confirmation  to  one  friar  in 
each  of  the  four  colleges  in  America.  But  as  church 
and  crown  in  Spain  were  zealous  defenders  of  their 
respective  prerogatives,  formalities  required  that  the 
document  should  receive  the  king's  sanction,  the  ap- 
proval of  the  royal  council  of  the  Indies,  and  the 
approval  and  authentication  of  the  audiencia  and  vice- 
roy of  New  Spain.  Then  there  were  formalities  to 
be  observed  by  the  spiritual  authorities,  and  such  long 
delay  occurred  that  Serra's  patent,  issued  by  the  com- 
missary and  prefect  of  the  colleges  at  Queretaro, 
Juan  Domingo  de  Arricivfta,  did  not  reach  his  hands 
until  the  end  of  June  1778. 

No  time  was  lost  in  exc^ising  the  newly  acquired 
power,  and  at  different  dates,  from  June  29th  to  Aug- 
ust 23d,  Serra  confirmed  181  persons  at  San  Cdrlos. 
Then,  notwithstanding  his  infirmities,  he  embarked 
for  San  Diego,  where  he  confirmed  the  neophytes  and 
children  of  the  soldiers.  Thence  he  journeyed  north- 
ward, administering  the  rite,  with  all  its  solemnities, 
at  each  of  the  missions,  on  his  way  back  to  Monterey, 
and  afterward  extended  his  tour  to  Santa  Clara  and 
San  Francisco,  returning  to  San  Cdrlos  Januar}'^  8, 
1779.  During  the  last  half  of  1778  and  the  follow- 
ing year  no  less  than  2,432  persons  received  the  rite 
of  confirmation. 

But  now  an  unexpected  obstacle  intervened,  which 
suspended  for  a  time  his  right  to  confirm,  and  em- 
bittered his  happiness.  After  exercising  that  right 
for  more  than  a  year  without  interruption,  Governor 
Neve  all  at  once  chose,  as  representative  of  the  crown 
in  California,  to  call  upon  Serra  to  show  him  the  au- 
thority under  w^hich  he  was  acting.     Father  Palou 


-^ 


I 


I 

35  ii 


THE  POWER  OF  RELIGION. 


il  '< 


vi\ 


narrates  that,  during  this  period  when  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Californias  was  being  placed  under  the 
rule  of  a  commandant  in  the  person  of  tlie  chevalier 
do  Croix,  the  father  president  encountered  innumer- 
able difficulties  interposed  by  Governor  Neve,  who 
seemed  designedly  to  throw  impediments  in  the  way  of 
missionary  progress.  Exactly  at  what  time  the  differ- 
ences arose  between  Serra  and  Neve  cannot  be  deter- 
mined; but  probably  the  quarrel  began  soon  after  the 
former's  return  from  his  first  tour  of  confirmation. 

From  the  records  bearing  upon  the  affair,  it  is  un- 
certain whether  Serra  refused  to  produce  his  papers, 
or  whether,  being  produced,  they  were  regarded  as 
insufficient  by  Neve;  at  all  events  the  latter  ordered 
confirmations  to  cease,  and  refused  to  furnish  the  es- 
cort asked  by  Serra  during  his  journeys  from  mission 
to  mission,  but  he  made  no  attempt  to  enforce  his 
order,  referring  the  whole  matter  to  General  Croix 
in  Sonora.  Serra  paid  no  heed  to  Neve's  orders,  but 
went  on  confirming  through  the  year,  even  adminis- 
tering the  rite  to  twenty-four  persons  in  1780.  He 
had,  however,  reported  the  matter  in  October  1779 
to  the  commandant-general,  and  also  to  the  guar- 
dian of  San  Fernando,  taking  the  precaution  to  for- 
ward to  the  latter  all  the  documents  he  had  bearing 
upon  the  matter. 

On  April  20,  1780,  Croix  sent  an  order  to  Neve 
to  take  possession  of  the  original  patent  and  in- 
structions that  had  been  sent  by  the  guardian  to 
Serra,  and  under  no  pretext  whatever  to  permit  the 
father  president  to  continue  administering  the  rite 
of  confirmation.  Of  course,  Serra  could  not  deliver 
up  the  papers,  as  he  had  already  sent  \hem  to  Mex- 
ico, but  he  yielded  to  Croix'  orders  to  uspend  con- 
firmation. On  July  20th  he  replied  to  letter  from 
the  commandant-general,  charging  and  ent.  ating  him 
to  obey  the  order  by  giving  up  the  papei  ,  that  he 
would  cheerfully  do  so.  The  controversy,  however, 
continued,  nor  was  the  difficulty  settled,  so  far  as  Serra 


MHa 


JUNlPKKO  SERUA. 


861 


was  concerned,  before  May  1781,  when  Neve,  in  a 
letter  dated  the  19th  of  that  month,  at  San  Gabriel, 
informed  the  father  president  that,  as  the  apostolic 
brief  had  been  shown  to  have  the  requisite  approval 
of  the  council,  there  was  no  longer  any  obstacle  to 
his  administering  the  sacrament. 

This  episode  in  the  life  of  Junfpero  Serra  exhibits 
the  pertinacity  of  the  man,  when  acting  under  tlie 
conscientious  belief  that  principles  of  he  gravest  im- 
portance were  involved.  He  maintained  his  right,  in 
defiance  of  Neve,  until  he  began  to  apprehend  that 
his  resistance  might  end  in  his  being  prohibited  to 
baptize;  then,  with  characteristic  submissiveness,  he 
yielded  to  the  pr  ssure  put  upon  him,  placing  his  faith 
m  God.  During  the  period  that  he  abstamed  from 
exercising  his  right  to  confirm,  he  occupied  himself 
exclusively  in  catechising  the  neophytes  at  San  Cdrlos, 
at  which  mission  he  remained  until  September  1781; 
then,  having  administered  confirmation  there  and  at 
San  Antonio,  he  proceeded  with  Father  Crespf  to 
San  Francisco,  where  he  arrived  October  26th.  Great 
was  Father  Palou's  joy  at  meeting  the  revered  father 
president  and  his  friend  and  countryman,  Fray  Crespi. 
There  they  remained  until  November  9th,  when  they 
returned  by  way  of  Santa  Clara  to  San  Cdrlos.  A 
few  days  afterward,  Crespf  was  taken  ill,  and  soon 
became  aware  that  his  days  were  numbered.  Hav- 
intr  received  the  last  rites  of  the  church  at  the  hands 
of  Father  Junfpero,  he  breathed  his  last,  January  1, 
1782.  Such  was  the  estimation  in  which  Serra  held 
him,  and  so  great  was  his  affection  for  him,  that 
shortly  before  his  own  death  he  requested  that  ho 
might  be  buried  by  the  side  of  his  beloved  disciple 
and  companion  Fray  Crespi. 

The  project  for  the  establishment  of  missions  along 
the  Santa  Bdrbara  channel  had  been  retarded  by  a 
serious  disaster  on  the  Colorado,  which  was  the  de- 
struction of  two  missions  lately  founded  on  that  river, 
the  massacre  of  all  the  males,  priests,  soldiers,  and 


-^1 


m 

a 

Q 


I 

~  r 

3  !' 


3S 

9 


mim 


■  r,^ 

m 

w 

1     ^f 

ki 

I 

i 


262 


THE  POWER  OF  RELIGION. 


settlers,  and  the  carrying  away  of  all  their  wives 
and  children  into  captivity,  by  the  Yumas.  This  oc- 
curred July  17,  1781,  and  the  remainder  of  the  year 
was  occupied  in  making  campaigns  in  the  hostile 
region  for  the  purpose  of  punishing  the  savages.  Thus, 
though  the  force  required  for  the  projected  establish- 
ments in  the  channel  arrived  in  the  summer  of  1781, 
orders  were  issued  to  suspend  all  operations  thti* 
might  interfere  with  operations  against  the  Yumas, 
and  the  soldiers  remained  at  San  Gabriel. 

In  February  1782,  however.  Governor  Neve 
wrote  to  President  Serra,  announcing  his  inten- 
tion to  proceed  in  the  matter,  and  asking  for  two 
friars,  one  for  San  Buenaventura,  and  the  other 
for  Santa  Bdrbara.  There  were  but  two  supernu- 
merary friars  in  California,  one  of  whom  he  needed 
during  his  own  occasional  absence  from  San  Cdrlos; 
the  other,  Father  Cambon,  then  at  San  Diego,  he 
instructed  to  meet  him  at  San  Gabriel.  Six  friars 
were  expected  to  arrive  by  this  year's  transport,  and 
Father  Junfpero,  in  his  zeal,  decided  that  he  and 
Cambon  could  attend  to  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  two 
new  establishments  until  the  arrival  of  the  expected 
missionary  recruits. 

Junipero  reached  San  Gabriel  March  19,  and  on 
the  26th,  all  being  I'eady,  the  expedition  set  out.  It 
was  a  large  and  imposing  company,  and  none  equal  to 
it  had  ever  been  employed  on  a  similar  undertaking 
in  California.  It  consisted  of  seventy  soldiers,  with  a 
full  complement  of  officers ;  long  pack-trains  of  pro- 
visions and  commodities,  with  their  drivers,  immerous 
serving-men,  and  a  band  of  Indian  neophytes.  More- 
over, Governor  Neve  accompanied  it  in  person,  with 
his  escort  of  ten  soldiers,  who  were  followed  by  their 
wives  and  families.  On  the  29th,  the  party  arrived 
at  the  locality  which  had  previously  been  selected  as 
suitable  for  a  i.xission,  Neve  having  been  obliged  to 
return,  owing  to  the  arrival  of  a  courier  with  de- 
spatches.    A  cross  and  an  altar  were  raised  on  the  site 


JUNlPERO  SERRA. 


263 


m 


■t 


chosen,  and  on  March  31st  the  mission  of  San  Buena- 
ventura was  founded  in  the  presence  of  a  large  attend- 
ance of  Spaniards  and  natives,  Father  Serra  saying 
mass  and  preaching  to  the  assembly.  Work  proceeded 
apace,  the  Indians  showing  a  friendly  sp'rit,  and  cheer- 
fully aiding  in  the  erection  of  the  buildings. 

About  the  middle  of  April,  Neve  arrived  from  San 
Gabriel,  aad  Cambon  being  left  in  charge  of  the  new 
mission  with  a  guard  of  fourteen  soldiers  and  their 
sergeant,  the  remainder  of  the  company  started  up 
the  coast  to  establish  the  presidio  of  Santa  Bdrbara. 
The  site  chosen  was  on  the  shore  of  a  small  bay  near 
a  large  native  town  called  Yanonalit.  The  formal 
establishment  took  place  on  April  21st,  when  Serra 
said  mass.  Affairs  progressed  favorably  thencefor- 
ward, but  the  father  president,  finding  that  there  was 
no  immediate  prospect  of  founding  the  mission,  wrote 
to  Fray  Fuster  at  San  Juan  Capistrano,  instructing 
him  to  go  to  Santa  Bdrbara  on  temporary  service, 
and  then  returned  to  Monterey,  visiting  the  missions 
of  San  Luis  Obispo  and  San  Antonio,  in  both  of  which 
he  confirmed. 

On  reaching  San  Cdrlos,  about  the  middle  of  June, 
he  found  that  the  transports  Favorita  and  Princesa 
had  arrived.  The  vessels  brought  full  cars^oes  of  sup- 
plies for  the  presidios  and  old  missions,  but,  to  the 
bitter  disappointment  of  Serra,  no  friars.  The  fact 
is,  an  estrangement  had  been  gradually  growing  for 
some  time  between  the  friars  and  the  military  au- 
thorities, which  finally  developed  into  a  feud.  Neve 
took  no  troulle  to  conceal  his  aversion  to  the  friars,  and 
his  opposition  to  the  missionary  system  in  California. 
Bucareli,  the  zealous  friend  of  the  missionaries,  was 
dead,  and  his  successor,  Viceroy  Mayorga,  was  a 
Pharaoh,  who  knew  not  Joseph.  He  declined  to  fur- 
nish either  church  paraphernalia  or  agricultural  and 
house  implements,  as  requested  by  the  guardian  of 
San  Fernando  by  letter  of  December  18,  1781.  The 
Franciscan  authorities  saw  clearly  that  an  attempt 


'li' 


\\ 


I', 


-ii 


a 


ct 


-m       I 


Ml* 

9 


] 


■.        .,1 

Uiiivfiitiiii:  It 


264 


THE  POWER  OF  RELIGION. 


U. 


m  3  i 


'%<* 


H   if 


was  being  made  in  California  to  overthrow  the  old 
mission  system.  No  implements  for  house  or  field 
signified  no  agricultural  or  mechanical  industries,  no 
communities  of  laboring  neophytes,  and  no  tempo- 
ralities for  the  friars  to  control.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, the  six  friars  selected  for  duty  in  California 
flatly  refused  to  go  there. 

When  Junipero  Serra  was  made  acquainted  with 
these  and  other  particulars,  he  saw  clearly  that  the 
founding  of  new  establishments  must  be  postponed. 
In  fact,  early  in  1773,  instructions  came  from  the 
college  to  the  effect  that  neither  Santa  Bdrbara 
nor  any  other  mission  must  be  established,  except 
under  the  old  system.  San  Buenaventura  had,  how- 
ever, already  been  provided  for,  and  ample  supplies 
were  in  readiness;  nor  did  Neve  seem  inclined  to  in- 
terfere by  enforcing  the  new  regulation.  Accord- 
ingly, padres  Dumetz  and  Santa  Marfa  were  appointed 
to  the  new  mission  by  the  father  president,  who  wrote 
to  the  guardian,  earnestly  requesting  him  to  send  at 
least  two  missionaries  to  act  as  substitutes  in  case  of 
the  sickness  or  death  of  any  of  those  on  duty.  There 
were  at  this  time,  the  latter  end  of  1782,  but  eighteen 
padres  for  the  nine  missions. 

Serra's  call  for  help  was  not  unanswered,  and  on 
June  2, 1783,  two  new  friars,  Juan  Garcia  Riobooand 
Diego  Noboa,  arrived  at  San  Francisco,  and  after 
remaining  a  few  days  at  that  mission  went  by  land  to 
San  Cdrlos.  They  found  their  venerable  president 
greatly  broken  down  in  health.  Since  his  return 
from  Santa  Bdrbara,  in  the  previous  year,  he  had 
been  unable  to  leave  his  mission,  where,  however,  he 
still  continued  to  instruct  his  flock  and  perform  the 
church  services.  For  some  time  past  he  had  been 
suflering  from  an  aftection  of  the  chest,  which,  with 
the  continual  discharge  from  the  ulcers  on  his  leg, 
sapped  his  strength.  When  padres  Rioboo  and  No- 
boa  reached  San  Cdrlos,  he  was  undergoing  one  of 
his  most  severe  attacks,  but  their  presence  revived 


JUNfPERO  SERRA. 


266 


him.  The  death  of  his  old  companion,  Crespf,  had 
been  a  heavy  blow,  and  the  disappointment  and  sor- 
row which  he  experienced  at  the  partial  frustration 
of  his  plans  had  also  been  detrimental  to  his  health. 
Now,  however,  he  was  reanimated  with  new  courage, 
and  as  his  license  to  confirm  would  expire  in  July 
1785,  this  tireless  man  of  God,  though  racked  with 
pain  and  exhausted  by  disease,  determined  to  make 
a  final  tour  through  the  missions  and  confirm  the 
neophytes. 

Leaving  Fray  Diego  Noboa  in  charge  of  his  mis- 
sion, in  August  1873  he  embarked  on  board  the 
vessel  bound  for  San  Diego,  where  he  arrived  in 
September.  The  pains  in  his  chest  were  now  so  in- 
I  tense,  that  it  was  feared  he  would  never  be  able  to 

complete  the  journey,  while  he  himself  believed  that 
he  would  never  return.  Just  before  he  sailed,  he 
wrote  a  letter  of  instructions  to  Fray  Palou,  which 
concluded  with  these  words:  "All  this  I  say,  because 
my  return  may  be  only  by  letter,  since  I  feel  so  much 
worse.     Commend  me  to  God." 

At  San  Diego  he  administered  the  sacrament  of 
confirmation,  and  then  began  his  journey  of  170 
leagues  to  Monterey.  During  the  earlier  part  of  his 
tour  he  met  with  no  alleviation  to  his  suflerings,  and 
what  little  strength  he  had  left  grew  daily  less.  At 
San  Gabriel  he  was  so  ill  that  death  seemed  near,  and 
the  young  native  neophytes  who  assisted  him  at  mass 
said  to  the  resident  friars,  with  tears  in  their  eyes : 
"Fathers,  the  aged  father  already  wishes  to  die." 
But  his  fervor  and  zeal  bore  him  through.  From 
mission  to  mission  he  made  his  way,  catechizing  and 
confirming.  At  San  Buenaventura,  the  last  of  the 
missions  he  had  founded,  he  was  greatly  rejoiced  to 
find  a  goodly  number  of  Christianized  natives,  where 
the  year  before  he  had  seen  only  gentiles.  In  Janu- 
ary 1784,  he  again  entered  San  Ctlrlos,  and  strange 
to  say,  with  his  health  and  strength  somewhat  re- 
cruited.    He  remained  there  until  after  easter,  attend- 


m 

m 


k 


i 


i  I:' 
S  ! 

:» 


m 


{!*• 


S66 


THE  POWER  OF  RELIGION. 


\»"k 


1 


|i     ' 


ing  to  all  his  accustomed  duties,  and  then  set  forth, 
at  the  end  of  April,  for  the  purpose  of  administering 
confirmation  at  the  missions  of  Santa  Clara  and  San 
Francisco. 

On  May  4th  he  arrived  at  the  latter  mission,  with- 
out being  delayed  at  Santa  Clara  to  confirm,  since  it 
was  his  intention  to  return  and  dedicate  on  the  16th 
the  new  church  that  had  been  erected  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Father  Murgufa.  Having  completed  his  work 
at  San  Francisco,  the  father  president  returned  to 
Santa  Clara  on  the  15th,  accompanied  by  Governor 
Fages,  who  had  succeeded  Xeve,  and  that  same  even- 
ing blessed  the  new  church  according  to  the  Roman 
ritual.  Its  architect  and  builder,  Murguia,  did  not 
live  to  be  present  at  the  dedication,  havmg  died  only 
a  few  days  before,  of  a  malignant  fever.  His  death 
broke  another  link  which  bound  Father  Junfpero  to 
the  world,  and  the  venerable  apostle  felt  that  his  work 
was  all  bu^  done.  Palou,  who  had  been  called  to 
Santa  Clara  as  soon  as  it  was  known  that  Mur- 
gufa's  life  was  in  danger,  was  preparing  to  return  to 
his  mission  when  Junfpero  requested  him  to  remain 
a  little  longer.  He  was  greatly  prostrated,  and  knew 
that  his  time  was  drawing  near.  The  few  days  that 
these  two  friends  passed  together  were  employed  by 
Serra  in  preparation  for  his  approaching  death.  He 
performed  the  customary  spiritual  exercises,  and  made 
a  general  confession  of  his  life  to  Palou,  with  great 
contrition  and  an  abundance  of  tears.  The  rest  of 
the  time  he  occupied  in  baptizing  and  confirming. 

In  the  beginning  of  June  he  returned  to  his  own 
mission,  sending  thence  the  supernumerary  friar, 
Diego  Noboa,  to  take  the  place  of  Father  Murguia. 
His  increasing  infirmity  did  not  prevent  him  from 
contiiiiil-ig  his  labors,  anJ  he  administered  the  sac- 
rament of  confirmation  until  July  IGth,  on  which  day 
his  license  expired;  then,  finding  that  5,307  had  been 
confirmed,  he  exclaimed,  in  the  words  of  St  Paul :  **I 
have  finished  my  course ;  I  have  kept  the  faith." 


"^ 


junIpero  serra. 


267 


He  now  sank  rapidly,  and  letters  conveying  his 
farewell  were  despatched  to  the  Franciscans  of  all 
the  missions,  while  from  each  of  the  nearer  establish- 
ments a  padre  was  summoned  to  take  leave  in  person. 
Palou,  the  only  friar  who  arrived  before  Junipero's 
death,  reached  San  Cdrlos  on  August  18th,  and  on 
the  following  day  celebrated  the  regular  monthly 
mass  in  honor  of  St  Joseph ;  in  other  religious  ser- 
vices the  sufferer  insisted  in  taking  his  part.  On  the 
23d,  painful  irritants  were  applied  to  Serra's  chest, 
but  without  effect,  and  on  the  26th  he  made  a  gen- 
eral confession.  Next  day  he  walked  to  the  church, 
and  received  the  viaticum  in  the  presence  of  friars, 
officers,  troops,  and  natives ;  on  returning  to  his  room 
he  sent  for  the  carpenter  and  ordered  him  to  make 
his  coffin.  During  the  rest  of  the  day  the  dying  man 
remained  seated  in  profound  silence,  and  as  night  ap- 
proached, growing  visibly  worse,  he  asked  for  extreme 
unction,  which  he  received  seated  in  his  chair.  After 
a  sleepless  night,  which  he  passed  for  the  greater  part 
on  his  knees,  resting  his  breast  against  the  boards  of 
the  bed,  toward  morning  he  received  absolution,  and 
the  plenary  indulgence  of  his  order.  In  the  morning 
of  the  28th  he  was  visited  by  Captain  Canizares  and 
officers  of  the  vessel  in  port ;  he  received  them  with 
earnest  expressions  of  affection,  and  ordered  the  bells 
to  be  rung.  Caiiizares  he  had  known  since  1769,  but 
had  not  seen  him  since  1779.  After  listening  to  them 
for  a  while  he  said :  "  I  thank  you  for  having  come 
after  so  long  a  time,  and  from  so  great  a  distance,  to 
throw  a  little  earth  upon  me."  Then  he  conversed 
with  his  old  friend  Palou,  requesting  to  be  buried 
near  Crespi.  At  one  time  terror  seemed  to  oppress 
his  mind.  "  A  great  fear  has  come  over  me,"  he 
suddenly  exclaimed ;  "  I  am  greatly  afraid  ;  read  for 
me  the  recommendation  for  the  dying  aloud,  that  I 
may  hear  it."  Palou  did  so,  in  the  presence  of  the 
officers,  and  all  was  soon  calm  again.     Serra  then 


i; 


-tl 


ra 


.    1 


31 


iim 


rW 


»l 


■ -i;;! 


!  i| 


m 


268 


THE  POWER  OF  REUGION. 


l!  ,    f ' 


V-* 


H 


went  out  of  doors  with  his  visitors,  and  for  the  last 
time  gazed  upon  the  face  of  nature. 

At  one  o'clock  he  took  a  cup  of  broth  ^  and  return- 
ing to  his  chamber  disposed  himself  for  rest.  The 
officers  went  to  drive.  A  little  later,  Palou,  anxious 
about  the  revered  president,  approached  his  bedside. 
Serra's  position  was  unchanged  from  that  in  which  he 
had  left  him,  and  he  seemed  as  one  asleep.  But  Juni- 
pero's  spirit  had  fled. 

The  bells  announced  the  mournful  tidings.  Clad  in 
the  friar's  simple  robe  in  which  he  died,  and  which 
was  the  only  garment  he  ever  wore  save  when  travel- 
ling, the  body  was  placed  in  the  coffin,  with  six  can- 
dles beside  it,  and  the  weeping  neophytes  came  to 
cover  the  remains  of  their  beloved  master  with  flow- 
ers, and  touch  with  their  medals  and  rosaries  the  life- 
less form.  Every  article  of  clothing,  save  the  one 
that  served  as  a  shroud,  was  distributed  in  small  frag- 
ments as  precious  relics  among  the  people,  and  not- 
withstanding all  vigilance,  a  part  of  the  robe  was 
taken  also.  On  Sunday,  the  29th,  he  was  buried  in 
the  mission  church  by  Palou,  in  the  presence  of  all 
the  inhabitants  of  Monterey,  and  with  due  ceremonial 
display,  including  military  honors,  and  the  tiring  of 
guns  from  the  fort,  and  from  Canizares'  vessel  at  an- 
chor in  the  bay. 

Little  remains  to  be  said.  To  know  the  life  work 
of  the  man  is  to  know  the  man.  Deep  as  was  his 
nature,  so  pure  and  open  were  all  his  thoughts  and 
acts,  so  plain  and  simple  the  record  thereof,  that  all 
about  him  is  an  open  book.  He  believed  as  he  had 
been  taught,  acted  on  that  belief,  and  died  as  firm  in 
the  faith  as  he  had  lived.  To  him  missionary  work 
V,  '^  the  greatest  of  all  work,  the  conversion  of  the 
iaiihen,  the  saving  of  souls.  Not  all  would  enter- 
i..ii  iilie  same  view  as  to  what  success  might  be  in 
i-w  h  w  labor.  The  natives  quickly  disappeared;  it 
has  ever  been  so;  contact  with  civilization  kills  them, 


^ 


JUNfPERO  SERRA. 


2W 


and  that  very  surely,  whether  the  weaker  race  be  met 
in  kindness  or  in  cruelty. 

The  spiritual  conquest  of  California  brought  imme- 
diate material  results.  A  line  of  imposing  edifices 
sprang  up  along  the  seaboard,  which  were  soon  cen- 
tres of  important  industries;  later  many  of  them 
became  sites  of  towns  and  cities.  Junipero  Serra's 
object,  however,  was  not  material  results.  He  cared 
little  for  flocks  and  fields,  for  towns  and  traffic,  except 
in  so  far  as  they  contributed  to  spiritual  success. 
And  this  to  his  mind  must  have  been  abundant,  though 
all  his  beloved  converts  were  so  soon  to  be  swept  from 
the  earth;  great  the  glory  and  great  the  reward  in 
the  saving  of  a  single  soul,  and  Junipero  doubted  not 
that  he  had  saved  thousands. 

Every  incident  in  Serra's  life,  whether  connected 
with  his  painful  journeyings,  his  labors  among  sav- 
ages, or  his  bearing  toward  his  brother  friars,  points 
not  only  to  his  perfect  sincerity,  but  to  some  one  or 
more  of  his  many  virtues — his  heroic  fortitude,  his 
self-abnegation,  humility,  benevolence.  To  all  he  was 
kind-hearted  and  charitable.  Often  he  denied  himself 
comforts,  thf<t  he  might  give  to  others.  Four  days 
before  his  death,  in  the  presence  of  Palou,  he  gave  an 
aged  Indian  woman  a  blanket,  and  it  was  not  discoverd 
until  afterward  that  he  had  divided  his  own  covering 
with  her.  At  the  same  time  he  was  stern  enough  in 
his  enforcement  of  religious  duties,  and  he  never  hesi- 
tated to  put  in  practice  what  he  considered  no  less  his 
right  than  his  duty,  even  to  the  flogging  of  his  neo- 
phytes fOi.'  negligence  in  this  respect.  His  executive 
ability  was  fair  for  a  priest.  He  had  the  faculty  of 
applying  spiritual  enthusiasm  to  temporal  affairs.  He 
managed  the  business  interests  of  the  missions  with 
wisdom;  and  though  engaged  in  saving  souls,  he  did 
not  neglect  the  worldly  welfare  of  his  neophytes.  It 
was  no  light  undertaking,  the  management  of  so 
many  men,  and  so  much  property,  with  the  inadequate 
means  at  his  disposal,  distance  from  base  of  supplies, 


^•b 


fa    .. 
^-     1 

■■=  ! 


270 


THE  POWER  OP  RELIGION. 


l(.i[^ 


i   M 


and  length  of  time  in  communicating  with  his  supe- 
riors. Such  was  the  exaltation  of  his  nature,  how- 
ever, that  in  the  subjugation  of  a  wilderness,  a  handful 
of  men  under  his  guidance  was  equal  to  an  army  under 
the  direction  of  another.  Above  all,  he  possessed  in 
an  eminent  degree  those  two  prime  requisites  for  the 
accomplishment  of  great  purposes,  knowledge  of  de- 
tail and  breadth  of  view.  When  Junipero  Serra 
breathed  his  last  at  the  mission  of  San  Cdrlos,  a  great 
and  good  man  passed  away. 


s*^. 


I: 


1^- 

|i    7 


!1bH  I'» 


f\ 


CHAPTER  V. 


"% 


M 


i' 


DOMINATING     INFLUENCES     IN     THE     DEVELOPMENT     OP 

CALIFORNIA. 

A  Romantic  Story — ^The  Reserved  Garden  Spot  of  Civilization— The 
Native  Races — California  Pastoral — The  Missionary  Regime — 
Discovery  of  Gold — California  Inter  Pocula — Government  and 
Society— Life  of  William  T.  Coleman — Experiences  East  and 
West — In  the  Mines — As  a  Merchant — As  a  Revolutionist  and 
Savior  of  Society — As  Chief  of  Popular  Tribunals. 

The  story  of  California  reads  like  a  romance:  first 
a  primeval  garden  equal  to  any  Eden,  without  the 
faintest  echo  from  the  past, — dusky  Adams  and  Eves, 
naked,  stolid,  a  little  below  rather  than  above  their 
companions  the  grizzly  bear  and  elk  in  prowess,  or  the 
lion  and  panther  m  dexterity,  or  the  coyote  in  cunning, 
with  many  flowers  and  a  few  thorns,  with  many  birds 
and  a  few  reptiles,  and  an  air  and  sunshine  breathing 
of  heaven,  as  if  just  outlying  the  gates  of  glory;  next 
appearing  a  race  a  trifle  less  dusky,  possibly  a  trifle 
less  stolid,  with  a  foreign  religion  to  sell  for  lands  and 
personal  service,  and  with  enough  of  the  diseases  and 
infernal  appliances  of  European  civilization  soon  to 
exterminate  the  aboriginals ;  finally  came  the  Anglo- 
American. 

The  last  was  of  indomitable  energy  and  adaptability, 
full  of  projects,  depth  of  resources,  and  happy  devices 
for  carrying  them  out  over  through  any  obstacles. 
Tested  in  close  contest  with  the  representatives  of  all 
nationalities,  he  proved  to  be  the  man  most  fitted 
to  bring  into  a  progressive  state  a  virgin  field,  which 
under  Mexican  sway  might  have  remained  an  outpost 

(271) 


-ii 


A. 


i  i 


DOMIMATIJSG  INFLUENCES  IN   CALIFORNIA. 


*v»%. 


A:: 


■^^■ 


ever  smouldering  with  revolution,  or  under  English 
rule  might  have  sunk  into  a  stagnant  conservative 
colony.  He  applied  the  democratic  principles  of  the 
republic  in  brilliant  and  effective  demonstration,  by 
evolving  the  most  progressive  of  commonwealths. 

Latest  bom  of  progress,  and  fairest  of  all!  The 
land  seemed  predestined  for  something  better  and  be- 
yond the  ordinary  stamping-ground  of  civilization, 
being  long  held  in  reserve  as  an  experimental  garden 
spot  for  the  latest  and  highest  culture.  While  the 
north  developed  sturdy  hunters  and  fishermen  and  in 
the  south  sprang  up  a  superior  indigenous  civilization ; 
while  flourished  here  mammoth  trees  and  mighty 
beasts,  and  all  things  over  head  and  under  foot  and  on 
every  side  were  indicative  of  the  most  favorable  con- 
ditions, the  intellect  of  aboriginal  man  was  at  the 
lowest,  his  thoughts  clouded  in  darkness,  his  eflbrts 
nerveless.  Why  it  was  so,  in  the  absence  of  any 
record,  or  any  architectural  or  other  remains,  none 
can  ever  tell ;  it  may  have  been  by  reason  of  wars,  or 
physical  or  social  convulsions;  all  that  we  know  is 
that  the  land  was  kept. 

And  the  Hispano- Americans  likewise  kept  it,  care- 
ful not  to  disturb  its  primeval  beauties,  not  to  cut 
down  its  mighty  forests,  nor  exhaust  the  prolific  «oil 
by  cultivation. 

But  slowly  the  serpent,  civilization,  was  working  its 
way  into  this  Eden.  Trumping  up  a  quarrel  with 
Mexico,  and  forcing  upon  that  abased  land  an  unjust 
war,  the  political  sharpers  at  Washington  never  let  go 
their  grip  upon  the  neck  of  *  our  sister  republic,'  until  a 
broad  expanse  of  her  fairest  territory  was  secured, 
fifteen  millions  being  paid  under  pretence  of  bargain 
and  sale.  Tliis,  and  accursed  gold,  broke  the  spell ; 
political  greed,  and  greed  of  gold,  broke  down  the 
walls  of  ages,  and  let  the  rabble  in.  Farewell,  then, 
one  and  all,  flowering  fields  and  matchless  wilderness, 
wild  men  and  beasts ;  farewell,  too,  ye  languid  ones  of 
the  Latin  race  ;  all  the  world  is  upon  you,  California! 


NEW  AND  MARVEIiLOUS  MIGRATION. 


273 


Even  after  entertaining  all  the  world,  and  opening 
to  Asia  and  Europe,  to  Jew  and  Dutchman,  her  sierra 
treasure-box,  and  paying  back  to  civilization  for  the 
scurvy  trick  it  had  played  her — she  and  the  neighbor- 
ing s^tes — five  thousand  millions  of  precious  metals, 
the  country  still  remained  unknown,  unappreciated. 
It  was  a  place  not  fit  to  live  in,  everybody  said,  but 
only  to  gather  wealth  in,  and  hurry  away  from ;  while 
upon  the  floor  of  the  United  States  senate,  her  astute 
representative  exclaimed,  "I  would  not  give  six  bits 
an  acre  for  the  best  agricultural  land  in  California." 
And  so  God  kept  the  land  for  better  than  mining 
purposes,  and  for  men  more  appreciative  than  astute 
senators, — but  not  yet,  not  until  the  north  and  the 
south  had  finished  their  great  gladiatorial  combat  over 
the  beast,  slavery,  and  national  disintegration;  not 
until  the  people  had  recuperated  from  the  heavy  blow 
to  life  and  property  brought  on  by  this  bloody  war, 
and  peace  and  prosperity  again  overspread  the  land, 
wealth  and  intelligence  multiplying  more  rapidly  than 
ever, — not  until  within  the  last  two  decades  has  Cali- 
fornia begun  to  be  esteemed  at  her  true  value. 

And  when  this  last  and  most  remarkable  of  human 
migrations  set  in,  a  migration  such  as  the  world  never 
before  witnessed  nor  will  ever  witness  again,  a  migra- 
tion not  of  Spanish  priests,  and  adventurers  for  gold 
and  glory,  nor  of  Scotchmen  for  furs,  nor  of  avaricious 
Englishmen  for  free  Indian  lands,  but  a  moving  west- 
ward of  men  and  women  of  wealth  and  refinement, 
coming  from  the  seats  of  the  world's  highest  civiliza- 
tion, and  bringing  with  them  the  world's  highest  in- 
telligence, the  world's  foremost  ideas  in  science  and 
morals;  coming  hither  with  peace  in  their  hearts  and 
means  in  their  pockets  for  those  greatest  boons  of 
heaven,  health  and  happy  surroundings, — when  such 
a  class,  and  for  such  a  purpose,  began  to  come,  the 
most  enthusiastic  of  Califomians  could  scarcely  realize 
it,  could  scarcely  believe  it  true,  that  all  the  world 
with  one  accord  should  now  be  eager  to  champion 


A 


If- 

a 

'3 


- 
3   li 


f 

it 

I 


C.  B.— I.    18 


274 


DOMINATINU  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


11: ! 


r^,, 

-»:; 

k 


-I  , 


California,  to  proclaim  hors  as  the  brightest  skies,  the 
purest  air,  and  the  most  adaptable  soil  in  all  the 
world. 

Yet,  while  California  has  changed  from  a  treasure- 
house  to  an  Aladdin  palace,  and  the  transformation 
has  proved  the  greatest  of  blessings,  the  benefits  of 
her  former  deeds  must  not  be  ignored.  Gold  has 
many  ills  to  answer  for,  in  loosened  moral  restraint, 
manifest  in  a  spirit  of  gambling  and  roaming,  with 
attendant  thriftlessness,  vice,  and  crime.  Neverthe- 
less, the  good  results  preponderate  in  substantial  heir- 
looms. Observe  the  impetus  to  trade  and  industries 
throughout  the  world,  the  outlet  for  migration,  the 
incentive  and  means  for  exploring  and  developing  re- 
sources in  adjoining  lands,  along  the  Pacific  slope,  in 
British  Columbia,  Australia,  and  other  regions,  with 
the  attendant  settlements  and  prosperity ;  the  lines  of 
steamships  furrowing  the  greatest  of  oceans  in  all  di- 
rections, and  the  girdles  of  railways  spanning  the 
continent.  Gold  cleared  a  wilderness,  and  transplanted 
thither  the  politics  and  institutions  of  the  most  ad- 
vanced civilization. 

Spain  sought  to  retain  for  herself  all  colonial  trade 
by  forbidding  intercourse  with  foreigners;  yet  she 
offered  no  commensurate  facilities,  and  thus  injured 
the  colonies  for  her  own  selfish  purposes.  Tired  of 
the  check  on  their  prosperity,  the  pastoral  Califor- 
nians  sought  an  outlet  for  their  surplus  produce  by 
illicit  traffic.  The  republic  admitted  foyei^>;ners,  but 
imposed  so  heavy  a  tariff  as  to  encourage  smuggling. 
Nevertheless  stock-raising  flourished  a-;  iLe  basis  for 
a  regular  trade. 

This  was  insignificant,  however,  when  compared 
with  the  volume  of  transactions,  beginning  with  the 
flush  times,  when  everything,  from  the  simplest  food 
staples,  had  to  be  imported  for  the  inpouring  masses. 
The  once  quiet  bay  became  suddenly  studded  with 
hulks  and  masts;  steamboats  wound  their  way  up 
rivers  and  inlets  with  supplies   for   the   multiplying 


as 


POWER  OP  GOLD. 


275 


camps,  supplemented  in  their  task  by  mule-trains  and 
wagons.  Clipper-ships  were  launched  to  surpass  all 
craft  for  speed  and  beauty;  steam  was  regularly 
utilized  for  freight  traffic  on  the  high  seas,  and  the 
world  was  taught  a  lesson  in  despatch  and  enterprise. 
Tl\p  Orient  and  Australias  were  bound  to  Europe  by 
another  tie,  and  a  great  railway  undertaking  was 
carried  out  to  complete  the  link. 

In  time  imports  changed  in  character,  and  fleets 
found  employment  in  carrying  wheat  from  California; 
and  now  fresh  lines  of  railway  are  competing  to  open 
new  markets  in  the  east  for  her  fast  hicreasing  fruit 
and  wine.  Interior  trade  is  sustained  by  general 
wealth  and  open-handedness ;  and  while  exposed  to 
many  risks  from  the  indispensable  credit  system  at- 
tending mining  as  well  as  farming,  and  dependent  on 
seasons  and  yield,  yet  it  has  been  endangered  by  com- 
paratively few  crises.  The  instability  of  the  flush 
times,  which  compelled  recourse  to  the  charac- 
teristic auction  houses  for  the  disposal  of  cargoes,  and 
which  held  back  insurance  companies,  and  ruined 
thousands,  is  gone.  Affairs  have  assumed  a  steady, 
normal  tone,  and  the  once  imperilled  reputation  of  San 
Francisco  stands  assured,  like  her  position  as  the  me- 
tropolis of  the  coast,  the  centre  of  Pacific  commerce, 
whence  radiate  lines  of  local  and  continental  railways, 
constituting  the  connecting  point  for  intercourse  at 
or^e  between  the  east  and  west,  the  north  and  south. 


M 


-  Tl 


a 


...  I] 


The  chief  incentive  to  Spanish  conquest  in  Mexico 
was  gold,  which  as  early  as  the  first  half  of  the  six- 
teenth century  lured  expeditions  to  the  confines  of 
Utah  and  California,  there  to  rest  and  stay  the  onward 
march  of  fortune  hunters.  Beyond  loomed  still  an- 
other attraction  in  the  interoceanic  strait,  that 
Columbian  legacy  which  for  three  centuries  danced 
an  ignis  fatuus  before  the  eyes  of  navigators  and  geo- 
graphers, holding  forth  vistas  toward  the  north-west 
of  a  short  route  to  the  spicf  and  silk  regions  of  the 


m 


\ 
■■"f 


.111  ^ 
I 


276 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


S*iil: 


1^  r 


4  f" 


'V'...' 


h 


Orient.  To  this  great  objective  point  of  European 
trade  since  the  dawn  of  history,  and  to  the  cognate 
Levant,  stands  linked  the  name  as  well  as  the  occupa- 
tions ot  California. 

The  failure  of  Cortes  and  his  rival,  the  viceroy,  to 
find  treasures  wherewith  to  gild  the  reports  of  their 
explorations,  retarded  Spanish  discoveries  in  this 
direction  for  nearly  two  centuries,  and  the  coast, 
skirted  oidy  occasionally  by  the  Manila  galleons,  was 
left  shrouded  in  mystery. 

Meanwhile  miners  pressed  onward  from  Zacatecas 
into  Durango  and  Chihuahua,  and  trade  following 
upon  their  heels,  sought  harbors  along  the  shore  of 
Sonora,  while  Mars  passed  beyond  to  impose  the 
cross  upon  the  natives,  and  facilitate  political  subjuga- 
tion, stretching  further  the  barrier  against  tribes  too 
fierce  to  accept  such  subjugation.  Now  revived  the 
rumors  of  the  pearl  beds  on  the  contra  costa,  and 
traders  and  divers  made  profitable  trips  across  the 
gulf,  guiding  thither  finally  the  band  of  devout  Jesuits, 
who  by  1768  completed  a  chain  of  missions  north- 
ward, parallel  to  the  Sonoran  establishments. 

Thus  slowly  extended  Spanish  occupation  along 
the  Pacific,  under  the  leadership  of  miners,  peddlers, 
and  priests,  the  government  complacently  recognizing 
their  conquests  by  appointing  a  feeble  frontier  guard 
to  watch  over  the  revenues.  Then  came  a  shock  of 
surprise.  After  a  century-march  through  Siberia, 
the  Muscovites  had  crossed  to  Alaska,  evidently  bent 
upon  advance.  Spain  trembled  not  alone  for  her 
vaguely  claimed  possessions  in  the  north-west,  but  for 
the  strait  which  romancing  geographers  and  naviga- 
tors persisted  in  planting  there,  lined  perhaps  by 
golden  hills  and  the  still  vibrating  cities  of  Cfbola. 
With  spasmodic  energy  the  crown  decided  to  renew 
the  long  suspended  discovery  expeditions,  and  to 
assert  its  territorial  claims  by  founding  a  settlement 
near  latitude  37",  the  nucleus  for  cheap  missionary 
subjugation.    Further  dignity  was  imparted  by  pro- 


GEOLOGY  AND  CLIMATE. 


277 


claiming  it  a  port  of  call  on  the  circuitous  Manila 
route,  and  it  became  also  an  advance  post  against  the 
hostile  Apaches  toward  the  east. 

Spanish  instructions  were  always  heavily  garnished 
with  red  tape  and  economic  injunctions,  but  in  this 
insitance  their  execution  fell  to  the  charge  of  the  able 
and  energetic  Jos^  de  Galvez,  the  all-powerful  visi- 
tador-general.  The  Jesuits  had  been  ousted  from 
the  peninsula,  as  from  every  other  Spanish  territory, 
with  a  haste  judiciously  calculated  to  prevent  their 
carrying  away  many  valuables.  The  missions  here 
being  found  well  provided,  the  fitting  out  of  a  sea  and 
land  expedition  to  the  north  was  imposed  chiefly  upon 
them. 

San  Diego  mission  was  founded  in  1769  as  a  way 
station;  in  the  following  year  rose  the  presidio  at 
Monterey,  and  by  1776  the  military  line  was  extended 
to  San  Francisco.  Between  the  two  sprang  up  a 
number  of  missions  under  the  care  of  San  Fernandino 
Franciscans,  who  had  succeeded  the  Jesuits  on  the 
peninsula.  Notwithstanding  the  preliminary  obsta- 
cles attending  the  formation  of  new  settlements,  re- 
mote from  centers  of  population,  the  friars  were  so 
delighted  with  the  country  that  they  hastened  to 
surrender  to  the  competing  Dominicans  the  estab- 
lished missions  in  Lower  California,  in  order  to  devote 
themselves  whoUv  to  the  northern  field. 

It  was  a  region  of  raai  lifold  attractions :  A  sea-board 
strip  eight  hundred  miles  in  length  by  one  or  two 
hundred  in  width,  marked  off  in  the  temperate  r,nd 
semi-tropic  zones  at  the  western  earth's  end,  warmed 
and  cooled  by  ocean  currents  and  sea  breezes,  and 
sheltered  in  the  background  by  the  lofty  Sierra,  up- 
heaved in  crumpled  folds  from  primeval  ocean.  In- 
ter I'liate,  toward  the  shore  line,  the  Coast  range 
rolls  up  in  stony  waves,  enclosing  the  great  valley  of 
Cialifornia,  and  westward  several  minor  vales.  It  is 
a  land  younger  than  the  eastern  slope  of  Uve  conti- 
nent, fashioned  not  by  the  same  slow  and  normal 


i    i 


! 

5  1 


.   i 


Mm 


n-  ■ 


278 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CAJJFOKNIA. 


'V,#- 


Ifii 


!  \m 


'4 


process  of  ordinary  strata  formation,  but  in  many  a 
fit  of  passion,  with  upheavals  and  burstings  asunder, 
with  surging  flood,  and  scorching  blasts.  As  if  to 
illustrate  this  method  in  producing  nature's  master- 
piece, a  broken  line  of  desert  country,  in  places 
weirdly  fantastic,  stretches  eastward  from  the  summit 
of  the  Sierra,  redeemed  to  some  extent  by  silver 
deposits.  The  adjoining  belt  on  the  western  slope  of 
the  Sierra  embraces  the  gold  region.  The  third  belt, 
reaching  to  the  summit  of  the  Coast  range,  and  the 
fourth,  to  the  ocean,  are  agricultural,  provided  in  the 
north  with  abundance  of  timber,  and  with  foot-hills 
revelling  in  perennial  spring ;  in  the  centre  and  south 
a  semi-tropic  vegetation  abounds. 

The  soil  yet  quivers  with  electric  force,  and  cli- 
matic moods  are  'subservient  to  fitful  local  causes; 
here  a  gentle  sumii.v.r's  holiday,  there  a  winter  of 
magnificent  disorder;  between,  exhilarating  spring, 
with  buds  and  freshness,  and  beyond,  a  torrid  fringe, 
parched  and  enervating.  While  configuration  per- 
mits surprises,  it  tempers  them,  and,  as  a  rule,  the 
extremes  are  confined  to  narrow  sections.  The  sea- 
breezes  are  fairly  constant,  leaving  a  night  rarely  op- 
pressive, and  the  mean  temperature  ranges  from  51"  in 
the  north  to  62"  in  the  south  ;  during  winter  it  varies 
from  43°  and  45°  at  Humboldt  and  Sacramento,  to 
51°  and  52°  at  San  Francisco  and  San  Diego,  rising 
in  the  summer  to  57°,  69°,  60°,  and  71°  ac  the  places 
named  respectively. 

In  the  south  the  rains  are  scanty;  but  they  increase 
with  every  degree  northward,  until  they  reach  an 
average  of  twenty  inches  at  San  Francisco,  or  double 
the  fall  at  San  Diego;  and  they  continue  to  increase 
as  they  advance  into  the  forost  region  toward  the 
Oregon  border.  The  distribution  is  almost  entirely 
restricted  to  the  season  between  October  and  April, 
leaving  the  summer  almost  rainless,  a  condition  to 
which  agricultural  operations  are  adjusted  with  great 
economic  advantage.     It  is  the  period  of  nature  s  re- 


PASTORAL  DAYS. 


279 


pose.  The  grass  fades  away  entirely.  The  winter 
rains  revive  vegetation,  and  arid  wastes  blossom  into 
gardens. 

It  is  a  dry,  exhilarating  atmosphere,  tempered  by 
refreshing  nights,  and  the  heat  being  not  so  depres- 
sing as  in  moister  climes.  It  is  ever  stimulating  to 
activity  and  enjoyment.  Land  and  sea  vie  with  each 
other  in  vitalizing  benefits.  When  one  glows  with  un- 
due warmth,  the  other  tones  it  down ;  when  one  grows 
cold  and  sullen,  the  other  beams  in  happy  sunshine. 
Winds  and  currents,  sun  and  configuration,  the  warm 
stream  from  ancient  Cathay,  and  the  dominating 
mountains,  all  aid  in  the  equalization  of  differences. 

It  was  a  region  fitted  to  cradle  a  high  culture  and  a 
Iiappy  people,  and  yet,  as  I  have  said,  we  find  it  occu- 
pied by  races  among  the  lowest  on  the  continent; 
nalf-3'1  and  dwelling  in  brush  huts,  having  no  knowl- 
edge of  agriculture,  and  hardly  an  idea  of  religion; 
roaming  in  quest  of  roots  and  berries,  small  game 
and  fish,  precariously  dependent  on  the  seasons ;  split 
into  petty  bands,  and  kept  apart  by  a  confusing  mul- 
tiplicity of  tongues. 

Here,  indeed,  was  a  field  for  missionary  efforts,  and 
the  Franciscans  engaged  iieartily  in  the  task ;  but 
the  Indians  were  found  indolent  in  mind  as  well  as 
body  ]  t  took  long  to  win  them  over,  and  was  ac- 
coi-;|r>lip.l,3d  by  appeafing  to  their  appetite.  Urged 
ti  UJ  thv  y  accepted  baptism,  and  conformed  to  the  out- 
^vprti  bsorvance  of  rites,  remaining  otherwise  indif- 
ferent oo  the  doctrines  of  the  church,  save  in  the 
superstMous  features.  Thus  discouraged  the  friars 
found  additional  reasons  for  yielding  to  the  tempting 
pupilage  system,  or  serfdom,  so  long  sustained  in 
parts  of  Mexico.  It  was  profitable  to  till  fertile 
plantations  and  raise  large  herds  with  the  aid  of 
>ii  bmissive  slaves,  who  demanded  in  return  for 
t.'*''T  labor,  besides  religion,  only  simple  food  and 
sctii.ty  clothing.  Indeed,  when  the  number  of  laborers 
ran  short  at  some  missions,  it  became  the  fashion  to 


1  f 

1   1 

^■B 

1 

1 

.A 

1^ 

■4 

f 

i 

■  v' 

'  '1 

I 


5  !' 


«    m 


:'  I 

y  ■ 
1 


;j  i  :S 


!•"* 


r  i 


\m 


280 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA, 


send  forth  expeditions  to  impress  by  force  additional 
recruits,  who  were  secured  to  some  extent  by  the  ties 
binding  them  to  wife  and  children,  similarly  captive. 
While  as  a  rule  gentle,  the  natives  could  not  be  wholly 
relied  upon,  as  shown  by  occasional  outbreaks.  The 
policy  was  to  inspire  fear  by  prompt  punishment  at 
the  hands  of  the  guard,  the  friars  in'^'^rfering  to  miti- 
gate the  severity,  and  so  win  love  and  influence. 

The  aim  of  the  government  was  to  promote  what 
was  called  the  civilization  of  the  neophytes,  and  trans- 
form the  missions  into  pueblos,  thus  filling  the  province 
gradually  with  useful  citi  i  ^^  To  this  end  artisans 
were  sent  to  teach  them  ha^  afts,  and  the  election 
was  ordered  among  them  of  t^icaldes  and  other  offi- 
cials for  the  acquisition  of  experience  in  local  self- 
administration.  Not  relishing  the  diminution  of  their 
profitable  and  pleasing  authority,  the  padres  took  care 
that  industrial  training  should  decline  into  abortive 
subdivision  of  tasks,  and  that  native  officials  should 
become  mere  mouth-pieces  of  their  will.  Indians  were 
kept  in  utter  ignorance  of  practical  knowledge,  and 
encouraged  in  their  indifference  even  for  religious 
conceptions,  so  that  the  government  found  itself  un- 
able to  put  secularization  to  the  test.  The  effect  of 
this  policy  reacted  on  the  whites,  in  stamping  as  de- 
grading the  agricultural  labor  so  widely  assigned  to  a 
race  of  serfs.  The  employment,  and  even  the  kid- 
napping of  Indians  for  most  work  became  accord- 
in^y  the  rule. 

The  military  governor  sought  naturally  to  remedy 
some  of  these  abuses.  The  friars  objected,  and  dis- 
putes were  constant.  At  first  the  ecclesiastics  carried 
their  point,  and  procured  the  dismissal  of  the  med- 
dling officer ;  but  as  the  circumstances  became  under- 
stood, their  privileges  were  restricted,  especially  after 
the  seat  of  authority  was  transferred  from  Lower 
California  to  Monterey. 

Alta  California  assumed  ascendancy  over  the  pen- 
insula within  eight  years  of  occupation.     This  rec- 


li 


PASTORAL  DAYS. 


281 


ognition  of  her  superior  importance  was  further 
affirmed  by  the  simultaneous  determination  to  utilize 
the  resources  and  secure  the  possession  of  the  coun- 
try by  founding  colonies.  Settlers  were  offered  free 
passage,  an  annual  allowance  for  five  years,  with  a 
loan  of  seed,  live-stock,  and  implements  for  establish- 
ing farms  and  homes;  in  return  for  which  certain 
community  labor  and  military  service  were  exacted. 
Even  such  liberal  concessions  failed  to  attract  more 
than  a  limited  number  of  volunteers  for  two  pueblos, 
and  vagrants  were  impressed  to  fill  the  third.  Their 
growth  henceforth  was  chiefly  due  to  the  accession  of 
retired  soldiers,  many  of  whom  had  married  Indian 
women. 

While  the  heavy  duties  so  far  ruling  on  goods  were 
reduced,  and  the  Manila  galleon  was  ordered  to  call 
and  afford  additional  trade  facilities,  enterprise  and  de- 
velopment found  themselves  checked  by  the  jealous 
exclusion  of  foreigners,  so  that  the  only  outlet  for 
products  was  in  the  demands  of  the  few  and  dis- 
tant presidios,  for  which  the  adjacent  missions  com- 
peted. One  of  the  governors  sought  to  give  an  im- 
pulse to  new  industries,  notably  flax  culture,  and  to 
a  livelier  intercourse  with  Mexico,  but  the  indolence 
and  pride  of  the  people,  the  advent  of  foreign  smug- 
glers, and  Spanish  wars,  combined  to  nip  the  budding 
enterprise. 

Notwithstanding  the  narrow-minded  policy  which 
directed  the  fortunes  of  the  province,  within  and 
from  without,  the  missions  at  least  prospered.  They 
numbered  eighteen,  at  the  turn  of  the  century  three 
more  being  subsequently  added,  and  contained  more 
than  ten  thousand  converts  in  charge  of  forty  friars. 
They  owned  in  1800  fully  67,000  cattle  and  horses, 
and  even  more  small  stock,  and  harvested  75,000 
bushels  of  grain,  besides  manufacturing  blankets, 
leather,  soap,  and  pottery  for  home  consumption. 
The  three  pueblos  embraced  somewhat  over  100  fami- 
lies, owning  16,500  cattle  and  horses,  and  1,000  sheep, 


n 


•I 
•I 

4 


wMi 


^ 


Wm  II 


f  ^ !    ; 


.'^r,.  ir- 


!t 


282 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


A^. 


!]     • 


■' 


s  -i     i  ,5jiF 


and  raising  I), 000  bushels  of  grain.  The  military 
force  at  the  four  presidios,  and  as  guard  at  the  missions, 
reached  280  men. 

Shortly  after  this  a  change  came  over  the  scene. 
The  war  of  independence  broke  out  in  Mexico,  and 
the  attention  of  the  crown  was  wholly  diverted,  so 
that  neither  supplies  nor  pay,  nor  other  subvention, 
reached  the  province.  The  chief  sufferers  were  the 
troops,  now  reduced  to  rags  and  scanty  food,  yet  com- 
pelled to  remain  in  charge  of  the  crumbling  fortresses, 
and  the  empty  magazines.  The  missions  and  settlers 
had  to  share  the  burden.  They  were  obliged  to  pro- 
vide the  usual  staples,  and  accept  in  payment  drafts 
on  a  treasury  which  never  repaid  them.  Their  loss 
of  stipends  and  trade  with  Mexico  was  also  consider- 
able, and  frequent  false  alarms  kept  them  in  suspense 
and  exposed  to  levies  f(v'  defence  measures. 

They  found  compensation,  however,  in  illicit  trade. 
This  had  been  growing  for  several  years  despite  injunc- 
tions and  guards.  Now,  with  supplies  from  Mexico 
cut  off,  there  was  no  alternative,  even  for  the  governor, 
save  to  permit  the  indispensable  recourse  to  foreign- 
ers, and  so  obtain  a  welcome  amount  of  revenue. 
The  result  was  a  great  impulse  to  agriculture,  and 
yet  more  to  stock-raising,  for  securing  hides  and 
tallow,  as  barter  for  dry-goods,  hardware,  and  trinkets, 
chiefly  from  Boston  vessels. 

The  Russians  also  availed  themselves  of  the  oppor- 
tunity to  exchange  goods  for  grain  and  other  provisions 
much  needed  in  Alaska,  and  they  presumed  to  estab- 
lish north  of  San  Francisco  bay  a  station  for  their 
traders  and  poaching  fur-hunters.  The  intrusion 
hastened  the  foundation  of  missions  on  the  north  side 
of  the  bay,  and  the  exploration  of  the  interior,  in 
order  to  assure  Spanish  claims.  The  growing  pre- 
tensions of  England  and  the  United  States  to  the 
region  north  of  the  Spanish  lines,  caused  the  Musco- 
vites to  withdraw  three  decades  later. 

Thus  poured  in  wealth  in  return  for  products  hitherto 


(!  i 


'i       V 


PASTORAL  DAYS. 


•283 


of  little  value,  and  missions  and  settlers  prospered, 
notwithstanding  the  many  exactions ;  but  the  easy 
acquisition  of  manufactured  goods  tended  to  the  neg- 
lect of  the  few  crude  industries  fostered  with  so  much 
care  by  Borica  and  other  governors. 

The  people  gave  one  proof  of  their  loyalty  to  Spain 
by  bravely  repelling  an  attack  by  the  privateer  Bou- 
chard in  iS18,  and  were  duly  rewarded  by  a  reen- 
forcement  of  300  disreputable  soldiers,  who  bringing 
no  supplies,  imposed  themselves  upon  the  bounty  and 
patience  of  the  province. 

Spain,  long  neglectful,  came  forward  in  1821  with 
some  illusive  political  concessions,  but  too  late.  Itur- 
bide's  opportune  coalition  with  the  insurgents  achieved 
the  independence  of  Mexico.  Her  patience  exhausted, 
California  promptly  recognized  the  change,  and  re- 
ceive the  delightful  concession  of  an  assembly,  of  local 
self-administration,  and  of  a  native  governor,  to  the 
setting  aside  of  the  hithei-tc  dominating  Spanish  ele- 
ment. Too  small  in  population  for  a  state,  a.. a  was 
soon  reduced  to  a  territory,  and  transferred  to  the 
tender  mercies  of  Mexican  demagogues,  who  received 
office  here  for  serving  political  factions  at  Mexico, 
thus  privileged  to  keep  watch  over  a  frontier  province 
contiguous  to  the  hostile  United  States. 

In  the  first  exultation  over  the  acquired  indepen- 
dence many  dazzling  plans  were  evolved  for  trade, 
industrial  development,  and  colonization,  but  nearly 
all  melted  away  before  the  volatile  disposition  of  the 
Mexicans.  Foreign  merchants  were,  however,  en- 
couraged to  come  and  they  infused  some  system  and 
energy  into  commercial  transactions.  Smuggling  con- 
tinued, partly  through  the  connivance  of  officials,  who 
willingly  accepted  bribes  to  evade  the  law.  The  fed- 
eral, like  the  late  colonial,  government,  expected  the 
province  to  pay  the  expenses  of  both  the  civil  and 
military  establishments  out  of  the  heavy  export  as 
well  as  import  duties;  but  under  official  corruption 
even  this  heavy  imposition  failed  to  meet  the  expendi- 


■'ii 


•  1- 


i 


S84 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES   IN   CALIFORNIA, 


'^^ 


,1 

lit*  f!' 


•^>v 


It 


ture,  and  recourse  was  had  as  of  old  to  the  still  aug- 
menting wealth  of  the  missions. 

In  accord  with  the  new  political  principles  it  was 
assumed  that  the  neophytes  must  be  set  free.  Secu- 
larization was  therefore  ordained,  despite  the  protests 
of  the  padres.  The  fact  that  the  brotherhood  con- 
sisted almost  entirely  of  now  obnoxious  Spaniards, 
would  have  hastened  the  execution  of  the  decree,  to- 
gether with  their  own  expulsion,  but  for  the  fear  of 
Indian  outbreaks,  which  they  alone  were  supposed 
able  to  check.  The  mere  intimation  of  such  a  revo- 
lution in  mission  affairs  drew  around  them  a  host,  of 
cormorants,  who  scented  spoils,  well  aware  that  the 
simple-minded  Indians  could  not  manage  or  retain 
property  when  once  divided  among  them.  Two 
honest  governors  interposed  a  bar  against  the  marau- 
ders, and  inaugurated  a  prudent  system  of  seculariza- 
tion. 

The  hungry  local  factions  chafed  with  ire  and  im- 
patience, and  when  it  appeared  that  schemers  from 
Mexico  were  preparing  to  displace  them  by  a  raid 
under  official  auspices,  cloaked  by  colonization  pro- 
jects, they  were  fairly  roused.  They  could  not 
be  expected  to  stand  calmly  by  and  let  hated  outsid- 
ers secure  the  rich  prize.  Hence  they  conspired  and 
drove  out  the  governor,  as  well  as  their  rivals,  and 
appointed  tools  of  their  own  to  the  administration. 
The  territory  was  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  a  state, 
and  the  virtually  self-appointed  council  assumed  the 
sonorous  title  of  congress.  The  preoccupied  authori- 
ties at  Mexico  had  to  assent  for  the  time,  although 
they  persuaded  the  dominant  party  to  join  the  state 
as  a  department  of  the  new  centralized  republic. 

All  obstacles  being  now  removed,  they  swooped 
down  upon  the  doomed  missions.  Creatures  of  the 
victorious  clique  were  placed  in  charge,  with  instruc- 
tions to  give  prompt  attention  to  official  levies  on  the 
property.  Encouraged  by  this  precept  the  managers 
hesitated  not  to  lay  heavy  hands  on  the  movable 


.:l 


^Tl 


SPOLIATION   OF  THE  MISSIONS. 


285 


eflFects,  distributing  them  freely  among  theii  friends 
under  the  guise  of  loans,  or  against  nominal  sales. 
Anticipating  the  attack,  the  friars  had  shortly  before 
hastened  to  secure  their  share,  by  arranging  with 
contractors  for  the  slaughter  of  cattle  and  the  sale  of 
hides  and  tallow,  for  their  own  benefit.  The  scanty 
allowance  made  to  the  neophytes  was  quickly  wrested 
from  them  by  pandering  to  their  vicious  bent  for 
drinking  and  gambling,  and  by  imposing  on  their 
stupidity  and  inexperience.  They  sank  into  vagrant 
poverty,  or  relapsed  into  savagism.  In  due  time 
they  came  in  contact  with  the  insolent  and  preju- 
diced miners,  to  be  buffeted,  hounded,  and  butchered ; 
to  be  driven  even  from  the  miserable  reservations, 
where  unscrupulous  agents  had  been  permitted  by  a 
neglectful  government  to  defraud  them  of  the  pittance 
bestowed  in  exchange  for  their  territorial  possessions. 
And  so  they  faded  away  under  vice  and  disease, 
massacres,  and  withering  contact  with  an  insidious 
civilization. 

In  the  nefarious  secularization  of  the  mission  estab- 
lishments were  dissipated  resources  of  great  extent 
and  importance,  which  by  1820  amounted  to  100,000 
cattle  and  horses  at  one  mission  alone;  besides 
the  average  annual  crops  of  114,000  bushels  of 
grain,  and  fertile  fields,  with  irrigation  canals,  blooming 
gardens,  fine  edifices,  implements  enough  for  them- 
selves and  their  numerous  satellites,  and  rich  regalia. 
The  population  at  the  time,  aside  from  Indians,  fell 
below  4,000,  and  the  spoliators  were  few,  so  that  all 
secured  rich  returns.  When  the  newly  created  bishop 
arrived,  in  the  early  forties,  to  look  after  the  estates, 
hardly  anything  remained  save  the  land  and  buildings, 
and  these  were  shortly  afterward  spirited  away  in 
grants  and  pretended  sales  to  gubernatorial  partisans. 
Thus  passed  away  institutions  which,  notwithstanding 
their  deterioration  from  avowed  lofty  purposes,  into 
training  fields  for  serfs,  largely  for  the  service  and 
delectation  of  pampered  friars,  had  pioneered  and  sus- 


I  '  -I 


286 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CAUFORNIA. 


■;..^  :;r 


<«^ 


IJ 


)^i 

H 

.1.'  x 

1 

'*  t 

i^n 

.i.    ; 

1 

( 

y 

1 

tained  industries  and  colonization  in  California,  and 
imposed  in  behalf  of  white  immigrants  a  salutary  con- 
trol over  the  aborigines. 

Fresh  changes  were  impending.  The  easy  going 
disposition  of  the  Californians,  and  their  preoccupation 
with  quarrels  over  the  spoils,  had  permitted  the 
growth  of  a  foreign  element,  composed  chiefly  of  ad- 
venturers from  the  United  States,  who  had  been 
slipping  in  across  the  border.  They  naturally  sym- 
pathized with  the  well-understood  designs  of  the 
Washington  cabinet  regarding  the  province.  In  1842 
these  designs  were  demonstrated  by  a  momentary 
landing  at  Monterey.  Four  years  later,  in  view  of 
the  then  pending  war  with  Mexico,  a  United  States 
officer  fomented  an  uprising  of  American  settlers  in 
the  Bear- flag  revolution,  of  which  he  in  due  time 
assumed  the  direction,  in  order  to  cooperate  with  the 
naval  forces  of  his  government  for  the  conquest  of 
the  country. 

The  movement  had  been  fostered  by  discord  be- 
tween the  northern  and  southern  factions  in  California, 
consequent  on  the  division  of  revenue  and  spoils,  and 
by  their  open  discontent  with  the  Mexican  govern- 
ment for  its  neglect,  for  the  refuse  character  of  the 
soldiers,  many  of  the  officers  being  sent  to  pray  on  the 
province,  for  the  several  attempts  to  convert  it  into  a 
penal  colony,  and  for  other  causes  of  complaint.  They 
were,  nevertheless,  more  afraid  of  the  grasping  and 
domineering  disposition  of  a  superior  race  like  the 
Anglo-Americans,  and  this  stirred  their  slumbering 
loyalty  to  united  though  futile  resistance. 

Their  apprehensions  were  well-founded;  for  the 
now  inflowing  mass  of  Americans  yielded  only  too 
readily  to  the  temptations  excited  by  the  loose  tenure 
of  property  in  California.  An  injudicious  method  of 
adjusting  land  titles,  ordained  by  the  government 
which  should  have  protected  them,  tended  to  under- 
mine possession,  and  one  estate  after  another  passed 
into  the  hands  of  unscrupulous  lawyers,  squatters,  and 


THE  ANOLO-AMERICAN.S. 


807 


speculators,  until  nearly  all  the  old  Mexican  families 
had  sunk  into  poverty.  It  was  a  spoliation  by  the 
Side  of  which  the  mission  raids  were  insignificant. 

The  conquering  host  brought,  however,  a  number 
of  redeeming  qualities,  in  energy  and  enterprise,  mak- 
ing themselves  felt  in  the  development  of  the  hitherto 
neglected  industries,  as  farming,  dairying,  lumbering, 
fishing,  and  the  leading  mechanical  handicrafts,  pio- 
neered prior  to  1848  by  such  standard-bearers  of  civili- 
zation as  the  newspaper  and  the  steamboat,  and 
emphasized  by  the  founding  of  towns  like  Benicia, 
Stockton,  Sutterville,  and  Montezuma.  They  started 
in  good  force,  forming  nearly  half  of  the  14,000  white 
and  mixed  population,  not  counting  the  scattered 
neophytes,  3,000  and  more,  nor  the  host  of  wild 
Indians  who,  nursing  a  deep  animosity  against  the 
domineering  colonists,  were  frequently  harassing  the 
settlements  and  carrying  off  cattle  and  horses. 

The  population  of  the  new  race  consisted  mainly  of 
restless  backwoodsmen  from  the  western  frontier  of 
the  United  States;  self-reliant,  and  of  ready  resource 
in  building  homes,  mingled  with  the  even  more  enter- 
prising and  broadly  utilitarian  men  from  the  eastern 
states ;  both  of  strong  intellect,  here  quickening  under 
new  and  favorable  environment;  high-strung,  shrewd, 
and  practical,  and  with  overweening  self-assertion. 
By  the  side  of  the  Anglo-American,  elevated  by 
vitalizing  freedom  of  thought  and  intercourse  with 
nature,  we  find  the  burly  Englishman,  full  of  animal 
energy,  marked  by  aggressive  stubborness,  tinctured 
with  brusqueness  and  conceit;  the  prudent,  thought- 
ful Scotch;  the  quick-witted  Celt;  the  methodic 
and  reflective  German;  the  pure-blooded  Spaniard, 
wrapped  in  the  reflection  of  ancestral  preeminence ; 
the  imaginative  though  superficial  Frenchman;  and 
the  esthetic  and  cheerful,  yet  insincere,  Italian ;  these 
three  of  the  Latin  race  all  bound  by  afiinity  of  blood 
and  language,  and  holding  an  esteemed  position 
among  the  Mexicans. 


y 
-/ 
1 

I 


1 


.) 


m 


■l:n 


'  f  1 

J  i 
■  ,i  .  .f 

>^:\m 

■■•:    ::f:iJ 

.    ;' 

1^: 

1 

■f* '     ^ 

W 

W  ' 

:« 

il 

•'.     ■ 

1 

■  'i 

Hi. 

.1 


r 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


A  preponderating  influence  in  this  gathering  might 
have  been  secured  at  the  time  by  the  Mormons, 
though  of  course  the  catholics  would  have  fought 
hard  against  it.  California  was  one  of  their  objective 
points,  but  the  Yankees  having  secured  the  country, 
they  stopped  at  Utah. 

For  centuries  California  had  lain  slumbering,  lulled 
by  the  monotone  of  ocean.  The  first  fitful  dream  of 
explorers  in  search  of  an  ever-eluding  strait,  of  cities 
stored  with  treasures,  had  subsided  into  pastoral 
scenes,  with  converts  and  settlers  clustering  round 
white-walled  missions  in  the  shadow  of  the  cross. 
Then  came  the  awakening,  caused  by  a  rude  invasion 
of  soldiers  and  land-greedy  frontiersmen,  the  premoni- 
tory ripple  of  international  interest,  and  world-absorb- 
ing excitement.  It  is  the  dawn  of  history,  presently 
to  be  followed  by  a  golden  sunlight,  flooding  the  whole 
western  world,  and  casting  visions  of  empire  far  down 
the  vistas  of  time. 

It  was  on  the  24th  of  January,  1848,  that  Marshall 
discovered  gold  at  Coloma.  The  fact  once  fully 
realized,  a  thrill  passed  through  the  world,  and  forth- 
with was  started  a  migration  of  peculiar  significance. 
Never  was  a  shrine  more  revered  than  this  of  the 
Sierra  foothills,  with  their  Pactolian  streams.  Thither 
all  men  turned  for  means  to  gratify  their  longings, 
their  love  and  hate,  their  lust  and  domination. 

First  the  people  of  the  seaboard  turned  their  steps 
toward  the  mountains.  Farms  and  villages  were 
abandoned.  Then  Oregon,  Sonora,  and  the  Hawaiian 
islands  sent  their  representatives,  and  by  the  end  of 
1848  the  diggers  numbered  about  ten  thousand. 
Skimming  the  surface  of  the  placers  they  obtained 
probably  ten  millions  of  dollars,  and  left  their  mark 
m  a  series  of  camps  extending  from  the  Tuolumne 
to  the  Trinity. 

This  glittering  aflirmation  of  former  rumors,  spread 
abroad  in  magnified  proportions,  stirred  to  their  foun- 
dations the  four  quarters  of  the  world,  particularly 


Tin:  GREAT  GOLD  DISCOVERY. 


289 


western  Europe  and  the  eastern  United  States.  Trade 
and  industries  were  thrown  out  of  their  channels  by 
the  sudden  diversion  of  laborers,  craft,  and  shipping 
to  meet  the  pressint^  call,  and  society  was  seriously  in- 
convenienced by  the  secession  of  so  large  a  proportion 
of  its  youth  and  sinews.  The  period  was  ripe  for  a 
great  movement,  with  Europe  m  the  throes  of  revo- 
lutionarv  fever,  and  the  North  American  continent 
roused  oy  the  late  transfer  of  Important  territories, 
and  the  disbanding  of  soldiers,  while  steam  was  short- 
ening the  highways  by  sea  and  land. 

From  Maine  to  Texas  resounded  the  noise  of  prepa- 
rations for  the  journey.  The  excitement  began  in  the 
winter  of  1848-9,  when  the  overland  route  was  im- 
passable; and  so  the  currents  turned  to  the  sea-ports, 
to  seek  the  way  round  Cape  Horn,  or  across  the 
different  isthmuses.  For  the  year  ending  1850  over 
eleven  hundred  vessels  were  reported  at  Sin  Fran- 
cisco, fully  one-half  American,  and  the  influx  by  sea 
continued  so  large  for  years  as  to  necessitate  the 
doubling  of  the  Panamd,  steamer  service,  and  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  special  passenger  lino  by  way  of 
Nicaragua.  In  the  spring  new  routes  were  opened 
across  the  continent. 

Thus  came  in  1849  alone  a  hundred  thousand  peo- 
ple, sufficient  to  lift  California  at  a  bound  from  an 
insignificant  colony  to  an  important  state,  with  camps 
and  towns,  well-beaten  roads,  and  steam-furrowed 
rivers;  and  to  place  the  federal  union  a  half  century 
forward  in  commercial  enterprise. 

San  Francisco  was  raised  from  a  hamlet  to  a  bust- 
ling city,  from  a  local  town  to  the  metropolis  of  the 
coast.  Her  position  at  the  entrance  to  the  great 
river  system  of  the  country,  leading  to  the  gold 
region,  and  her  judicious  adoption  of  a  well-known 
name,  guided  to  her  wharves  the  in-pouring  fleets 
with  their  crowded  passengers  and  cargoes.  Thus 
was  assured  her  future.  The  growing  confidence  in 
her  permanence,  and  the  frequent  conflagrations,  led 


C.  B.— I.    19 


ill 

;    ) 

i 

*  ! 

i 

Mm 

} 

iflpjl;^ 

I 

WP';:'i^h 

> 

•               "■''■:l- 

■   ■■:]]} 

'  ■  ■    ^   ;■  i  * 

, 

\      Vnii 

1       .                     ■    '  d'. 

;                  ■   i 

1 

290 


DOMINATINO  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


k 


to  a  prompt  transformation  of  the  scattered  tents  into 
substantial  buildings.  With  an  improved  fire  depart- 
ment, and  cheap  lumber,  the  predilection  for  wooden 
houses  was  freely  gratified.  The  hilly  nature  of  the 
site,  and  the  shelving  shore,  suggested  the  filling  in  of 
the  cove  behind  the  wharves;  and  so  hills  were  tum- 
bled into  the  bay,  and  the  area  for  building  widened, 
although  at  the  sacrifice  of  drainage  and  of  picturesque- 
ness.  Within  three  years  the  place  took  rank  with 
the  leading  mercantile  entrep6ts  of  the  world.  It 
was  a  Herculean  achievement,  in  the  face  of  discour- 
aging ob«itructions,  and  a  constant  struggle  with 
political  corruption  and  social  disorder.  Twice  the 
people  rose  to  purify  the  moral  atmosphere  of  the 
city,  and  in  1856  the  young  metropolis  emerged  a 
model  of  wise  and  economic  management. 

As  the  chief  seat  of  manufactures,  trade,  and 
society,  she  presented  in  miniature  the  progress  and 
fluctuations  of  the  state.  She  felt  the  blows  inflicted 
by  a  growing  agriculture  upon  the  import  trade ;  by 
the  Fraser  river  mining  excitement,  though  more  than 
balanced  by  the  tributary  Nevada  developments ;  by 
the  transcontinental  railway,  which  cut  off  much  of 
her  trade  by  distribution  along  its  route,  and  under- 
mined many  of  the  industries  started  by  the  war 
for  the  union ;  and  by  the  flnancial  crisis  of  1876-7,  with 
the  attendant  depression  and  riots.  Since  then  the 
ever  returning  wave  of  prosperity  has  risen  higher 
and  higher,  impelled  by  the  several  agricultural  and 
horticultural  developments,  and  the  augmenting  con- 
centration of  tribute-bearing  railway  lines.  Assured 
land  titles  and  hill-climbing  cable  cars  added  their 
quota  to  the  prosperity  which  was  sustained  by  the 
growing  manufactures  and  trade,  the  latter  finding  here 
a  concentrating  point  between  the  north  and  south, 
the  Orient  and  the  interior.  Sea-girt  and  en- 
throned upon  her  seven  hills,  here  was  a  new  Rome, 
whose  far-reaching  iniluence  swept  round  the  earth, 
obstructed  neither  by  seas  nor  mountains. 


GENERAL  DEVELOPMENT. 


^ 


The  first  two  years  of  the  era  of  gold  present  a 
peculiar  and  rapid  development,  the  result  of  an  elect 
community  of  intellectual  and  energetic  men,  thus 
abnormally  thrown  together,  and  aided  by  the  most 
effective  appliances  of  the  age.  Started  and  sus- 
tained by  innate  manhood  and  self-reliance,  its  ad- 
vance was  marked  by  upturned  ravines,  and  streams 
diverted  from  their  course;  by  a  wilderness  trans- 
formed; by  the  rise  of  towns  in  a  day;  by  the  mute 
eloquence  of  many  an  abandoned  site;  and  by  the 
bustling  traffic  along  every  road  and  stream. 

Perceiving  their  importance  in  the  federal  body 
politic,  the  people,  within  a  short  time  after  their 
gathering,  framed  a  state  constitution,  and  although 
congress  had  taken  no  action,  they  elected  a  governor 
and  other  officials,  to  whom  the  military  commander 
relinquished  the  administration.  Senators  then  went 
to  Washington,  and  aided  in  procuring  national  recog- 
nition and  admission  as  a  state. 

With  the  decadence  of  mining,  business  sought 
another  field,  and  -here  arose  the  agricultural  in- 
dustry which  proved  of  surpassing  importance. 
When  the  Fraser  river  excitement  carried  away  its 
thousands,  overspreading  the  skies  of  San  Francisco 
with  gloom,  man}'^  who  had  unbounded  faith  in  her 
future  stood  by  to  give  confidence  and  profit  by  the 
sure  return  of  prosperity.  During  the  union  war, 
in  hastening  which  California  had  been  in  some  de- 
gree instrumental  by  securing  admission  as  a  free 
state  in  face  of  slave-holding  opposition,  the  people 
displayed  their  loj'^alty  by  turning  from  the  lately 
dominant  democratic  party,  and  giving  men  and 
money  to  the  cause.  The  reward  came  in  a  large 
immigration  of  refugees,  who  in  this  secluded  nook 
sought  shelter  from  war,  and  assisted  to  build  up  the 
manufactures  fostered  by  interrupted  freight  commu- 
nication with  the  east. 

The  inflictions  of  the  drought  of  1862-4  were  off- 


Ti 


m 


'1' 

1 1 


292 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


'i 


- 


ft^ 


i» 


ij  '^ 


set  by  the  mining  output,  and  by  prosecuting  the 
more  secure  branches  of  agriculture,  as  grain  and 
fruit-growing  instead  of  stock-raishig ;  and  the  havoc 
created  by  the  transcontinental  railway  to  incipient 
manufactures  was  more  than  atoned  ^br  by  bringing 
nearer  eastern  men  and  markets,  promoting  immigra- 
tion, and  building  up  a  number  of  way-side  settle- 
ments, even  at  the  temporary  expense  of  San  Fran- 
cisco and  her  trade  channels.  The  Nevada  silver 
mines  poured  their  wealth  into  the  lap  of  the  bay 
city;  but  in  the  train  followed  extravagance  and 
gambling,  all  the  more  ruinous  by  reason  of  its 
respectability,  and  the  panic  waiting  on  collapse.  The 
lesson  was  not  wasted.  Rash  speculation  yielded  to 
prudent  investments,  and  a  glorious  period  of  pros- 
perity enriched  the  entire  state. 

A  characteristic  self-reliance  callec!  early  Califor- 
nians  to  impromptu  organizations,  alike  for  the  per- 
formance of  great  tasks  and  for  government.  Original 
as  well  as  practical,  on  all  lines  of  thought  they 
turned  to  fundamental  principles  for  starting  points. 
They  believed  in  popular  sovereignty  as  superior  to 
tradition  or  precedent,  and  regarded  law  as  the  voice 
of  the  people,  which  they  were  ready  to  do  without 
if  necessary,  or  to  modify  to  suit  circumstances. 
They  framed  rules  for  camps  and  mines  which  re- 
ceived the  sanction  of  world-wide  acceptance.  They 
looked  upon  ofiioials  as  servants  for  executing  the 
popular  will,  and  considered  it  proper  to  enforce  ob- 
servance of  duty.  This  right  to  watch  and  punish 
villainy  formed  the  actuating  principle  of  the  vigilance 
committees,  which  in  California  attained  their  loftiest 
proportions,  fit  to  command  the  admiration  and  imi- 
tation of  all. 

Preoccupied  with  mining  and  trading,  the  respecta- 
ble portion  of  the  connnunity  gave  little  heed  to 
local  and  judicial  administration.  Observing  this 
neglect,  the  growing  vicious  element  yielded  to  its 
instincts,  until  crime  stalked  openly  abroad,  shielded 


S'f?V.' 


1 


I 


VIGILANCE  AND  FILIBUSTERING. 


293 


by  corrupt  judges  and  parasitic  politicians.  Twice 
the  smouldering  indignation  of  the  people  of  San 
Francisco  burst  into  a  flame,  first  in  1851,  and  finally 
in  1856.  Taking  the  law  into  their  own  hands  they 
executed  the  more  atrocious  villains;  exiled  several 
score  of  convicts,  vagrants,  and  ballot  stuffers,  and 
frightened  into  flight  a  cloud  of  other  birds  of  prey. 
The  lesson  was  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  public 
servants;  a  reform  party  was  organized,  which  for 
years  assured  an  honest  administration;  and  San 
Francisco,  purified,  became  famed  as  one  of  the  best 
governed  among  cities.  Her  example  was  followed 
throughout  the  state  with  the  most  beneficent  results. 

Another  phase  of  California  abnormities  crops 
out  in  filibustering.  The  United  States  inherited 
from  European  ancestry  the  thirst  for  Spanish  treas- 
ures; but  rising  above  the  vulgar  pillage  which  tar- 
nished the  daring  deeds  of  the  early  freebooters,  she 
struck  for  the  sources  whence  those  treasures  flowed; 
and  so  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  California  were  suc- 
cessively slipped  into  her  fold.  Herein  lay  to  many 
an  affirmation  of  tlie  doctrine  of  manifest  destiny,  of 
United  States  expansion  perhaps  to  Tierra  del  Fuego. 
Prophets  rose  to  enunciate  the  gospel.  Special  atten- 
tion was  accorded  to  them  in  California,  filled  as  it 
was  with  adventurers  stirred  by  the  gambling  spirit, 
and  by  a  mania  for  roaming,  and  intensified  by  the 
belief  in  auriferous  deposits  to  the  south.  They  were 
trained  alike  for  fighting  and  for  wandering ;  expedi- 
tions were  constantly  forming  for  opening  new  mining 
fields,  for  swooping  down  upon  some  Indian  rancheria 
ripe  for  butchering,  or  for  descent  upon  some  foreign- 
er's camp,  rendered  obnoxious  by  its  good  fortune  in 
finding  rich  claims. 

Such  abuses  led  in  1851-2  to  the  departure  of  a 
large  force  of  Frenchmen,  under  arrangements  with 
the  Mexican  o-overnuicnt  for  defendintj  the  Sonora 
frontier  against  Apaches,  and  developing  mineral  re- 
sources.    True  to  her  instincts  and  habits,  Mexico 


ti    ^ 


•n 


iji 


i-l 


^ 


.li; 
ii'i" 


I'll 


S94 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


broke  faith  with  the  adventurers,  and  in  their  despair 
the  company,  under  the  leadership  of  Count  de 
Raousset-Boulbon,  performed  a  brilliant  coup  d'etat, 
the  fruits  of  which,  however,  were  spoiled  by  the 
discord  fomented  by  Mexican  intrigues. 

The  undertaking  served  to  show  the  weakness  of 
the  Spanish- American  states,  and  to  encourage  Anglo- 
American  imitators.  The  most  famous  of  these  was 
William  Walker,  known  as  the  gray-eyed  man  of 
destiny,  who  after  a  fiasco  in  Lower  California,  re- 
deemed his  fame  as  a  leader  by  a  series  of  dashing 
victories  in  Nicaragua.  Success  blinded  his  prudence  ; 
he  clouded  his  achievements  by  numerous  outrages, 
and  roused  an  indignant  people  to  consign  him  to  a. 
pirate's  fate. 

The  scheming  factions  at  Washington  did  not  find 
sufficient  attractions  in  these  ventures  to  induce  the 
government  to  uphold  them,  and  Mexico  joined  in 
inflicting  a  lesson  so  revolting  in  its  severity  as  to 
check  further  invasions.  Carried  away  by  unscrup- 
ulous ambition,  abettors  in  these  undertakings  be- 
came oblivious  to  the  abhorrent  crimes,  here  cloaked 
by  political  plans  and  false  aphorisms,  of  theft  and 
enslavement,  slaughter  and  devastation,  all  committed 
in  the  name  of  liberty,  and  veiled  by  the  glamour  of 
romance. 

The  greater  part  of  the  in-pouring  migration  during 
the  flush  times  passed  to  the  mining  region,  chiefly 
to  the  famed  American  river,  thence  to  follow  the 
guidinsj  star  of  gilded  rumor  to  promising  fields ;  or 
to  swell  the  train  of  rushes,  which  seeking  a  mythic 
gold  lake  or  a  metal  mountain,  filled  up  one  district 
after  another,  from  the  bank  of  the  Gila  to  the  borders 
of  Oregon.  On  their  heels  stepped  closely  the  cara- 
vans of  the  trader,  prepared  to  form  the  solitary 
business  street  of  the  budding  camp,  to  open  trails 
through  the  spreading  districts,  and  to  pave  the  way 
for  settlement. 

It  was  an  attractive  life,  in  free  communion  with 


i 

i 


1 


MATERIAL  RESOURCES. 


296 


nature,  unfettered  by  conventionalities,  and  with  fas- 
cinating vistas  of  adventure  and  enrichment  to  gild 
the  monotony  of  toil.  The  illusion  was  a  necessary 
stimulant,  for  the  average  yield  to  each  miner  had  by 
^852  fallen  to  two  dollars  a  day,  which  implied  a  bare 
subsistence  to  the  luckless  majority,  after  deducting 
the  gains  of  the  fortunate  few.  No  wonder  then 
that  desertion  set  in  from  their  ranks  for  agricultural 
and  other  industries,  as  well  as  for  rum  and  swift 
perdition. 

Those  who  conformed  to  the  varying  demands  of 
circumstances  continued  to  wrest  substantial  rewards 
from  the  field.  They  were  men  who  could  meet  diffi- 
culties with  energy,  and  surmount  obstacles  with 
happy  devices.  When  the  immortal  pan  and  rocker 
failed  to  draw  enough  from  the  skimmed  placers,  im- 
proved machinery  and  methods  were  applied,  as  sluice 
and  hose,  dredger  and  flume,  stamp-mill  and  quick- 
silver reduction,  to  cover  large '  areas  with  the  help  of 
a  few  hands,  and  at  less  than  a  hundredth  part  of 
the  former  expenditure.  Placers  were  supplemented 
by  hydraulic  and  quartz  mines,  and  ground  hitherto 
rejected  as  worhless  was  reopened  to  yield  fortunes. 

California's  inventions  created  a  transformation  in 
gold  mining,  and  brought  about  a  revival  of  the  in- 
dustry in  different  parts  of  the  world,  guided  by  laws 
of  admirable  simplicity  and  effectiveness  from  the 
same  source,  and  by  her  pioneers,  who  poured  out 
over  the  coast  and  across  the  seas  to  open  new  fields, 
and  lend  their  skill,  wealth,  and  energy  for  the  un- 
folding of  many  more  industries. 

The  state  herself  found  auxiliary  resources  in  coal, 
quicksilver,  oil,  and  other  mineral  products,  which 
built  up  flourishing  villages  and  opened  trade  chan- 
nels; yet  she  will  ever  remain  indebted  to  gold  for 
ringing  in  the  nations,  and  opening  a  prosperity 
wiiich  has  since  struck  deeper  roots  in  richer  soil. 

Along  the  path  of  the  advancing  gold-diggers 
sprang  up  camps  and  towns,  founded  by  men  who, 


'«■■  It 


■.:.:     IE 


if.'i 


i'l 


296 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


\t 


•-% 


1  -f^. 


Ii:: 


though  unaccustomed  to  subduing  the  wilderness  or 
to  city-building,  were,  nevertheless,  trained  in  organ- 
ized proceedings  and  political  movements.  In  meet- 
ings formed  on  the  spur  of  the  moment  rules  and 
constitutions  would  be  framed  of  admirable  tenor, 
and  by  the  same  show  of  hands,  or  decisive  ayes,  dis- 
putes were  settled  and  sentences  passed. 

Many  of  the  camps  were  creations  of  a  day,  whicn 
faded  away  with  the  decaying  mines.  Others  sur- 
vived the  misfortunes  of  minor  tributary  settlements, 
to  attain  the  dignity  of  commercial  centres  or  county 
seats,  and  in  time  to  turn  with  the  changing  industries 
for  support  to  agriculture  and  manufactures.  Some 
became  noted  for  their  mills,  factories,  or  canneries; 
some  prided  themselves  on  educational  institutions,  or 
sought  to  attract  attention  as  health  or  pleasure 
resorts.  W^ith  the  increasing  traffic,  several  towns 
rose  at  eligible  outlets  to  secure  entrep6t  trade,  or 
as  heads  of  navigation  for  river  or  coast  trade.  But 
of  all  the  towns  projected  in  California  not  one  in  ten 
had  any  existence  except  on  paper. 

Railways  came  in  time  to  determine  countless  des- 
tinies, dooming  to  decay  the  less  enterprising  settle- 
ments, while  exalting  others  from  the  condition  of 
petty  stations  to  centres  of  trade.  San  Diego  lived 
and  grew  in  spite  of  the  malign  influence  of  railway 
men,  owing  to  her  harbor  and  climate;  while  Vallejo, 
which  once  dared  to  measure  itself  with  the  City  at 
the  Gate,  was  shorn  by  monopoly  of  her  prospective 
glory.  A  similar  early  disappointment  fell  to  the  lot 
of  Benicia,  both  of  these  towns  being  deluded  in 
their  aspirations  to  become  the  seat  of  state  govern- 
ment. The  capital  passed  from  them,  as  it  had  from 
Monterey  and  San  Jose,  to  fix  itself  at  Sacramento, 
whose  prospects  stand  assured  as  a  railway  centre, 
and  arbiter  of  the  great  northern  valley,  as  is  Stockton 
of  the  southern. 

Counties  underwent  similar  transformations.  Soon 
after  the  first  nish  of  population  to  the  Sierra  slope,  a 


AGRICUmURE  AND  SETTLEMENTS. 


297 


reflux  set  in  for  the  bay  and  coast  region.  Then  with 
the  increasing  wheat  culture,  the  movement  turned  to 
the  centre  of  the  great  valley,  accelerated  thereto  by 
the  disastrous  drought  of  1862-4,  which  cut  short 
the  pastoral  prospects  of  several  districts,  especially 
in  the  south,  forcing  them  to  have  recourse  to  irri- 
gation. The  cost  of  water  retarded  the  cultivation  of 
cereals,  which  vineyards  and  orange  groves  supplanted. 
The  fame  of  the  south  spread  as  a  terrestrial  paradise, 
and  an  inflowing  migration  lifted  the  region  to  un- 
paralleled prosperty.  The  example  led  to  the  trans- 
formation of  several  interior  so-called  deserts  into 
blooming  gardens;  and  once  more  the  current  of 
population  gradually  returned  to  the  long  neglected 
auriferous  slope,  and  harvested  golden  fruit  instead 
of  golden  nuggets. 

The  evolution  of  settlement  parallels  in  a  measure 
that  of  agriculture,  which  in  California  presents  three 
great  successive  periods,  the  pastoral,  cereal,  and  hor- 
ticultural. The  spontaneous  products  of  the  soil  suf- 
ficed for  the  aborigines.  The  conquering  Spaniards 
taught  them  to  till  fields  and  plant  orchards,  where- 
with to  sustain  the  military-ecclesiastical  establish- 
ments, and  to  encourage  the  formation  of  colonies ;  but 
the  assignment  of  farming  to  a  low  race  stamped  it  as 
degrading  in  the  eyes  of  the  settlers;  and  yiel  ling  to 
their  proud  as  well  as  indolent  disposition,  they  pre- 
ferred stock-raising  which  might  be  proseo';  'ed  largely 
on  horseback.  While  long  circumscribed  by  the 
narrow  policy  of  the  government,  this  industry  rose 
in  time,  under  the  liberating  influence  of  revolution 
and  independence,  to  become  a  basis  for  foreign  trade, 
and  to  stamp  the  province  as  a  pastoral  region. 

Anglo-Americans  introduced  superior  methods,  and 
fostered  by  the  high  prices  of  the  flush  times,  garden- 
ing and  farming  assumed  respectability,  and  within  a 
few  years  the  proportion  of  a  fast-growing  source  of 
export.  The  discovery  of  the  peculiar  advantages  of 
the  great  valleys,  especially  the  San  Joaquin,  for  the 


'SI; 


■h 


f 


tl 

r'    til 


298 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


is 

>3t 


o 


,$ 


1( 

7 

, 

i    ; 

t'  I 

!'' 

, 

1 1 

1 

^ 

i 

t    1 

(7   ■ 

(; 

ail' 

ii. 

L. 

cultivation  of  grain,  increased  the  product,  which  soon 
lifted  California  to  the  front  rank  among  wheat 
regions.  The  blow  inflicted  by  the  drought  of  1 862-4 
reduced  pastoral  interests  to  a  subordinate  position, 
principally  as  an  adjunct  to  farming,  but  with  im- 
proved breeding  which  brought  into  fame  the  sheep  and 
horses  of  the  country. 

In  conformity  with  the  energy  and  exubei-ance  of 
Californian  disposition  and  habits,  operations  are  con- 
ducted on  a  large  scale.     The  farms  are  large,  and  ma- 
chinery is  of  the  most  advanced  and  combined  form 
for  cheap  and  rapid  plowing,  seeding,  and  harvesting. 

The  increased  appreciation  of  California  fruit  and 
wines  has  at  last  matured  the  several  petty  excite- 
ments for  these  industries  into  a  lasting  and  substan- 
tial development.  For  this  the  climate  is  particularly 
favorable,  as  it  is  also  for  the  glutinous  and  self- 
curing  grain,  insuring  rapidity  of  growth,  heavy 
crops,  and  fine  qualities.  While  of  decided  advantage 
to  the  greater  part  of  the  state,  the  dry  summer  is 
too  severe  for  a  redundant  vegetation  in  the  south; 
but  the  absence  of  a  heavy  fall  is  overcome  by  irriga- 
tion, which  assures  crops,  as  well  as  often  doubling 
and  trebling  them.  The  new  era  implies  subdivision 
of  grants  into  small  and  wealth-producing  holdings, 
with  a  farming  community  noted  for  its  respectability 
and  intelligence,  intent  upon  creating  here  a  semi- 
tropic  paradise. 

In  common  with  other  industries,  manufactures 
suffered  from  a  lack  of  enterprise,  and  an  illiberal 
policy.  The  high  prices  during  the  flush  times  pre- 
sented an  obstacle,  to  which  had  to  be  added  the  ir- 
regular habits  and  inexperience  of  artisans,  and  the 
lack  of  hard  wood  and  cheap  coal  and  iron.  On  the 
other  hand  came  decided  advantages  in  the  distance 
of  foreign  markets,  high  freights,  the  demand  for 
repairs  and  urgent  orders,  which  provided  training, 
means,  and  capacity  for  a  gradual  preparation  of  stock 
for  the  trade.     Cheap  Chinese  labor  proved  of  value 


COMMERCE  AND  INDUSTRIES. 


299 


im 


in  starting  and  maintaining  several  branches  of  indus- 
try, and  in  paving  the  way  for  others ;  and  the  union 
war  gave  an  impetus  to  numerous  enterprises,  al- 
though the  transcontinental  railway  undermined  a 
proportion  of  them. 

The  possession  of  .tallow,  wool,  and  hides  favored 
the  establishment  of  soap  factories,  woollen-mills  and 
tanneries,  the  latter  aided  by  the  excellent  quality  of 
our  oak  bark.  The  production  of  good  wheat  led 
to  the  grinding  of  flour  for  export.  The  vast  opera- 
tions in  farming  called  for  peculiar  plows  and  harvest- 
ers. The  demand  for  fish  for  canning  gave 
employment  to  a  fleet  of  boats  and  sea-going  vessels. 
The  expense  of  bringing  beer  from  a  distance,  and  the 
possession  of  good  hops,  gave  rise  to  breweries,  which 
again  gave  employment;  to  coopers  and  glass  factories. 
Good  fruit  and  early  vegetables  sustained  a  number 
of  canneries,  and  also  several  vinegar  factories, 
sugar  refineries,  and  box  factories.  New  mining 
methods  called  for  special  machinery  which  could  be 
made  here  alone ,  and  valuable  forests  gave  rise  to 
saw  and  planing  mills,  flumes,  and  other  contrivances. 
All  help  to  increase  settlement  and  trafiic,  and  many 
more  branches  of  industry  are  awaiting  cheaper  labor 
and  trained  hands,  the  increase  of  raw  material  and 
adjuncts,  to  enter  a  field  for  which  support  is  prom- 
ised by  interior  and  adjoining  tributary  countries. 

Brought  thus  face  to  face  with  the  gorgeous  and 
mystic  east,  the  circle  of  civilization  is  completed, 
which,  if  earlier  accomplished,  might  have  engrafted 
in  California  the  barbaric  splendor  of  Asia  on  to  the 
more  refined  enlightenment  of  Europe.  Almost  as 
rapidly  as  rose  that  fabled  race  of  mailed  men,  cele- 
brated in  Boeotian  story,  a  new  and  unique  nation  is 
here  springing  into  existence,  having  its  home  in  a  cli- 
mate for  the  most  part  as  stimulating  as  that  of  Scan- 
dinavia, interspersed  with  spots  as  lethargic  as  that 
of  Bceotia  itself.  United  with  the  advanced  present 
are  phases  of  aesthetics  which  obtained  only  in  the 


. 


300 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


remote  imposing  past;  slumbering  humanity  we  see 
to-day  driven  before  the  fierce  enginery  of  science, 
yet  enduring  with  all  the  philosophy  of  the  stoic,  and 
enjoying  with  the  taste  of  the  Sybarite  and  the  relish 
of  the  Epicurean. 

The  thoughtful  student  of  the  history  of  material 
and  intellectual  development  in  California,  during  the 
first  century  of  her  existence  under  civilizing  influ- 
ences, cannot  fail  to  observe  that  by  far  the  most 
important  episode  was  the  popular  uprising  under  the 
organization  commonly  called  the  Committee  of 
Vigilance.  And  as  the  chief  of  that  organization, 
William  Tell  Coleman,  was  likewise  chief  among  mer- 
chants, chief  among  those  who  loved  order  and  good 
citizenship,  it  is  most  fitting  that  his  biography  should 
fill  this  place,  and  that  he  should  be  forever  held  up 
to  the  present  and  future  generations  as  the  ideal  man 
of  an  ideal  movement. 

There  had  been  before  this  in  various  times  and 
places  public  manifestations  of  political  and  social 
power  inherent  in  every  people  fairly  emerged  from 
savagism,  but  there  had  never  beioie  in  the  world 
been  any  such  demonstration  as  that  made  by  the 
citizens  of  San  Francisco  in  the  year  1856.  It  v/as 
nothing  like  the  feudal  confederation  of  the  knights 
of  Germany  in  the  fifteenth  century,  nor  the  secret 
tribunal  o^  Venice,  nor  the  French  council  of  five 
hundred,  j  )r  the  Spanish  council  of  Castile,  nor  the 
holy  broth  jrliood  of  Aragon,  nor  the  vehmgericht  of 
Westphal'!  ,  nor  the  burlaw  of  Scotland,  nor  Robe- 
spierre's cc lamittee  of  public  safety,  nor  the  witena- 
gem6t,  or  g  eat  national  council  of  England,  abolished 
by  William  the  Conqueror ;  nothing  at  all  like  the 
hanging  law  of  Halifax,  Galway,  or  Lynchburg. 
Here  was  a  people  intelligent,  free,  absolutely  self- 
governing,  executing  as  well  as  making  their  laws; 
and  though  doing  much  as  they  pleased  in  every 
respect,  it  pleased  them  to  obey  the  laws  which  they 


w 


■yn 


WILLIAM  T.   COLEMAN. 


801 


made  and  executed.  This  was  the  rule,  though  there 
might  be  now  and  then  an  exception  to  it.  If  laws 
were  not  obeyed,  if  punishment  followed  not  quickly 
on  the  heels  of  crime,  why  spend  time  and  money  in 
making  laws,  building  prisons,  and  running  a  govern- 
ment^ Moreover,  in  this  very  year  of  1856,  they 
were  perfectly  satisfied  with  all  the  forms  and  princi- 
ples of  their  government ;  they  loved  their  institu- 
tions; and  though  they  did  not  wish  to  break  the 
law  they  were  compelled  to  enforce  its  execution. 

The  vigilance  committee  was  an  organization  far 
removed  in  its  nature  from  mobocracy  or  lynch-law. 
Its  ideas  were  revolutionary,  not  rebellious ;  its  acts 
sprang  from  impulses  of  right  and  reason,  and  not  of 
brute  force,  though  the  latter  might  be  temporarily 
employed  for  the  re-enthronement  of  right  and  legit- 
imate authority  unjustly  overturned. 

And  not  only  were  these  merchants,  mechanics,  of 
1856,  lovers  of  law  and  promoters  of  peace,  but  they 
held  almost  as  superstitious  a  veneration  for  legal 
courts  and  formulas  as  did  those  who  lived  by  the  law, 
and  manipulated  it  to  suit  their  purposes.  But  intel- 
lectual emancipation  was  rapid  in  those  days,  especially 
when  not  conflicting  with  pecuniary  interest.  It 
would  not  do  for  law^^ers  and  judges  to  sanction  the 
breaking  of  the  law  for  righteous  purposes  by  others, 
no  matter  how  often  they  themselves  might  choose  to 
wink  at  irregularities  for  the  accomplishment  of  base 
objects,  else  were  their  occupation  gone. 

William  Tell  Coleman  was  bom  in  Harrison  county, 
Kentucky,  February  29,  1824.  His  ancestors,  who 
were  English  and  Irish,  and  well  conditioned,  came 
to  Virginia  in  the  seventeenth  and  early  in  the 
eighteenth  centuries.  William  Coleman,  the  earliest 
direct  ancestor  of  whom  there  is  any  record,  arrived 
in  Boston  in  1671 ;  branches  of  the  family  extended 
into  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia.  Henry  Coleman, 
great-grandfather,  was  born  in  Virginia,  December 
12,   1744,  and    his   wife,   Mary   Ann   Hutchinson, 


1 1 


■;M 


'"■-Hit 


Mm 


102 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


sJ 


January  22,  1748.     He  was  a  planter  in  Virginia,  a 
man  of  fortune,  and  a  soldier  in  the  revolution ;  moved 
to  Kentucky  in   1788,  and  acquired  large  tracts  of 
land.     His  homestead  was  in  Harrison  county.     He 
was  a  prominent  member  of  the  convention  which 
formed  the  constitution  of  the  state.     At  his  death, 
February   29,   1808,  he   divided   his  estates  among 
many  descendants,  some  of  the  lands  still  being  in  the 
family.    The  grandfather,  William  Coleman,  was  born 
in  Virginia,  December  5,  1768,  married  Ann  Wood,  in 
Mason  county,  Kentucky,  in  1798,  and  lived  and  died 
on  his  portion  of  the  estate.     Napoleon  B.  Coleman, 
their  first-born,  and  the  father  of  William  T.,  was  born 
in  Mason  county,  July  11,  1799,  received  an  academic 
education,  and  began  the  study  of  law  at  an  early  age. 
He  became  prominent  in  his  profession,  and  was  an  ac- 
tive politician  of  the  Jacksonian  school.    He  was  also  a 
civil  engineer  and  the  surveyor  of  his  county ;  being, 
however,  largely  occupied  in  public  life,  he  gave  but 
little  personal  attention  to  this  office.    He  stood  in  the 
front  rank  among  his  contemporaries  at  the  bar,  and 
was  the  leading  lawyer  in  his  district.    He  was  a  charm- 
ing speaker,  a  man  of  letters,  scholarly  in  his  tastes, 
and  possessed  of  wide  general  information.     He  was 
intellectual,  laborious,  and  earnest,  altogether  a  strong 
character,  and  was  looked  upon  in  the  state  as  a  man 
of  unusual  promise.    At  the  time  of  his  death,  which 
occurred  August  11,  1833,  when  he  was  thirty-four 
years  old,  he  was  the  accepted  nominee  for  congress 
from  his  district,  which  was  more  of  a  distinction  then 
than  at  the  present  time.     He  impressed  those  with 
whom  he  came  in  contact  as  being  well-poised,  self- 
contained,  and  decided  in  his  convictions.     A  metho- 
dist   in   faith,  he  was  fairly  religious;   and   he  was 
actuated  at  all  times,  in  his  relations  with  others,  by 
a  refined  sense  of  honor.     His  disposition  was  kind 
and  sympathetic.      He  was  high-spirited  and  sensi- 
tive, but  dignified  and  urbane  in  expression  and  man- 
ner.    He  was  generous  to  a  fault,  more  disposed  to 


i>.\- 


I 


I 


I 


:  ,  !  . 
lit 


T '  11 


l\ 


I  ,  I 


.':..y '  sj  jfiSi/r « soii.wV''*' i'"' ' 


WILLIAM   T.  (.  OLEMAN. 


«•• 


coiisidor  his  family,  his  friends,  and  liis  iicigliljors  first, 
and  hiinseh  second-  too  open-hearted  and  free  with 
his  nioncy,  ever  )'eady  to  liclp  the  poor,  to  leFid  with- 
out security,  and  t.)  indorse  his  neigh)>ors'  riotes.  lie 
had  no  ndsuivinL*'  us  to  his  ahihtv  to  take  eart  .tf  Iiini- 
self,  thou!j;'}i  tliis  (  jurse  often  *  inharrassed  au'i  finally 
impoverished  liii.i.  Wlien  lie  died  his  estate  wi».« 
greatly  involved,  and  with  the  exception  *,»f  sf^me 
pro[)erty  in  Vitigatioii,  was  all  swept  away.  h.  is  not 
sin5jfular  that  one  of  such  int(;llii^ence  an<l  arnial>ihty 
sliovdd  have  many  warm  friends.  His  ptn'sonal  ap~ 
pea  ranee  was  handsome  and  agroeahle.  He  lacked 
only  a  little  of  hein^  five  feet  eleven  inches  tall :  was 
well  l)uilt  and  graceful,  and  weighed  one  hundred 
find  seventy-five  pounds,  which  also  liis  son  Willinm 
weighed  when  grown. 

fn  J  821  he  married  the  daughter  of  Joliii  (Miiiiii, 
who^e  family  was  directly  connecttrl  with.  th;»t  of 
Wasliiiigton,  and  many  of  tI>eold  families  of  A'iri;inia; 
that  is  to  say,  Haleigh  Chinn,  A\'ilham  T.  (^)lon)an's 
mother's  great-grandfather,  married  Estlni  l>ali,  tlu; 
eid(>r  daughter  of  Colonel  Thomas  IWl,  "f  Laiicaster. 
Aucrustine  \Vashin'j:ton  married  ^Nfarv.  her  V"un<'est 
sister,  and  George  Washington  was  their  son.  In 
tiie  traditions  of  the  family,  Washington  was  very 
oft<'ii  called  cousin  George. 

William  T.  Gpleman's  mother  was  a  woman  of  pro- 
nclunced   chara<'ter,  verv  handsom(\   tall,  with   .s  hm 
}»hysi<|ue  and  nohle  presence.      lii>r  family  wore  lead- 
ing people,  and   duvout  l>aptists;  and   sin    icaicf]    \\>r 
children    in  the    ha[)tist  faitli,     }?areiits   were  jnucb 
mor(!  strict  then  than  now,  hut  she  was  t:.»t  «'V«'r-ri«rid  ; 
her  disposition  was  symi;)athotic  and  tender.     VViliiaiir 
a  precocious,  sjn'igiitly,  aggreitwive  h<  3,  was  fairly  ♦•■; 
dulged.      V^ery  s(lf.posse.^se<h  ami   having  a  rwtp'ittvt 
memory,  he  got  a  numherof  Kpeeclies  liy  h-.^rt  ai'U->«t 
U'tore   he  liad   done    l-'arning   his  lettv.rs,    aiwl  bf?inj[T' 
called  upon  oceasionaliy  to  do<:laim  at  hokls  aivi  f,)thef 
ptibhc  places,  ]i.>  ac.<i|uired   village   lame  iw  «  JMVi.iuIt 


i  im  I. 


■■,'■  '  ■ 


'   c 


i% 


w»  % 


ll'i 


V  i 


Or 


^^JtXj 


.  I 


V  i 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


consider  his  family,  his  friends,  and  his  neighbors  first, 
and  himself  second — too  open-hearted  and  free  with 
his  money,  ever  ready  to  help  the  poor,  to  lend  with- 
out security,  and  to  indorse  his  neighbors'  notes.  He 
had  no  misgiving  as  to  his  ability  to  take  care  of  him- 
self, though  this  course  often  embarrassed  and  finally 
impoverished  him.  When  he  died  his  estate  was 
greatly  mvolved,  and  with  the  exception  of  some 
property  in  litigation,  was  all  swept  away.  It  is  not 
singular  that  one  of  such  intelligence  and  amiability 
should  have  many  warm  friends.  His  personal  ap- 
pearance was  handsome  and  agreeable.  He  lacked 
only  a  little  of  being  five  feet  eleven  inches  tall ;  was 
well  built  and  graceful,  and  weighed  one  hundred 
and  seventy -five  pounds,  which  also  his  son  William 
weighed  when  grown. 

In  1821  he  married  the  daughter  of  John  Chinn, 
whose  family  was  directly  connected  with  that  of 
Washington,  and  many  of  the  old  families  of  Virginia ; 
that  is  to  say,  Raleigh  Chinn,  William  T.  Coleman's 
mother's  great-grandfather,  married  Esther  Ball,  the 
older  daughter  of  Colonel  Thomas  Ball,  of  Lancaster. 
Augustine  Washington  married  Mary,  her  youngest 
sister,  and  George  Washington  was  their  son.  In 
the  traditions  of  the  family,  Washington  was  very 
often  called  cousin  George. 

William  T.  Coleman's  mother  was  a  woman  of  pro- 
nounced character,  very  handsome,  tall,  with  a  fine 
physique  and  noble  presence.  Her  family  were  lead- 
ing people,  and  devout  baptists;  and  she  reared  her 
children  in  the  baptist  faith.  Parents  were  much 
more  strict  then  than  now,  but  she  was  not  over-rigid ; 
her  disposition  was  sympathetic  and  tender.  William, 
a  jirccocious,  sprightly,  aggressive  boy,  was  fairly  in- 
dulged. Very  self  possessed,  iJid  having  a  retentive 
memory,  he  got  a  number  of  speeches  by  heart  almost 
before  he  had  done  learning  his  letters,  and  being 
called  upon  occasionally  to  declaim  at  hotels  and  other 
public  places,  he  acquired  village  fame  as  a  juvenile 


■;tii 


304 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


J 


a  '    1 


■M 


orator.  Among  his  earliest  recollections  was  the 
birth  of  a  younger  brother,  De  Witt  Clinton,  when  he 
was  four  years  old,  and  the  election  of  General  Jack- 
son in  1828.  At  the  age  of  six  years  he  was  sent  to 
school,  as  were  all  the  children.  The  family  lived 
at  Cynthiana,  but  spent  much  of  the  time  on  their 
own  farm  and  the  grandfather's  a  few  miles  away. 
William,  thus  early  put  to  books,  went  through  the 
ordinary  curriculum  of  the  neighborhood  schools,  in- 
cluding a  course  in  Latin  and  the  almost  daily  casti- 
gation  which  he  received  rather  stoically.  Among 
his  associates  he  was  kindly  and  genial,  yet  inde- 
pendent, alert,  and  efficient  in  self-defence.  The  few 
fights  he  had  established  his  prowess,  and  gave  him 
immunity  from  much  of  the  tyranny  that  boys  of  less 
grit  and  decision  have  to  put  up  with.  At  the  age 
of  seven  years  he  fell  desperately  in  love  with  a  little 
maid  of  eight,  who  sat  next  to  him  in  school.  The 
affair  became  the  talk  of  all  the  loys  and  girls.  One 
day,  after  considerable  courtship,  it  was  reported  that 
he  was  going  to  her  father's  house  at  evening  twi- 
light to  bear  away  his  bride.  He  had  never  seen  a 
marriage,  and  thought  that  all  he  had  to  do  was  to 
take  the  loved  one  to  his  home.  Donning  his  best, 
he  went  to  her  father's  house,  and  told  him  he  had 
come  to  get  his  wife.  The  father  tried  to  coax  him 
off  with  sweetmeats,  but  he  would  none  of  them.  "I 
have  come  for  my  wife,"  he  said.  Again  the  father 
politely  put  him  off.  The  beautiful  girl  was  expect- 
ing him,  and  ready  to  go.  With  patience  at  last 
exhausted,  the  boy  crossed  the  street,  and  with  brick- 
bats smashed  the  only  plate-glass  window  ever  known 
in  that  village.  He  was  severely  punished  for  this 
piece  of  savagery,  and  thereby  effectually  cured  of  his 
infatuation.  He  could  never  speak  to  or  look  at  his 
dulcinea  again. 

On  the  death  of  his  father,  William's  maternal 
grandfather  took  him  into  his  family.  He  worked 
on  the  farm,  and  worked  hard.     At  the  age  of  thir- 


|..i^ 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


m 


teen  he  did  the  work  of  a  man,  excepting  the  heaviest 
tasks.  It  was  a  regular  Kentucky  farm,  on  which 
were  raised  grain,  stock,  hemp,  and  tobacco.  He  was 
a  dashing  young  fellow,  a  favorite  with  the  family 
and  neighbors;  and  what  people  usually  called  a 
promising  boy.  He  was  fond  of  reading,  particularly 
history,  reading  the  history  of  Rome  almost  entirely 
by  firelight,  often  lying  on  his  back  to  catch  the  flick- 
ering rays.  Entering  Sunday-school,  he  was  given  as 
his  first  lesson  some  pages  of  the  book  of  Matthew 
to  memorize.  The  next  Sunday  he  recited  the 
whole  book,  having  committed  it  to  memory  during 
the  week,  mostly  while  holding  the  plough  with  one 
hand  and  his  testament  in  the  other.  At  a  quilting 
party  he  took  occasion  to  criticise  a  preacher  in  the 
neighborhood,  who,  he  thought,  did  not  know  how  to 
preach.  "Could  you  do  better?"  asked  an  aunt. 
"  I  think  I  could,"  was  the  reply.  "  Try,"  eaid  she. 
Opening  the  bible,  he  poured  forth  his  thoughts  with 
fluency  and  fervor.  It  cost  him  a  severe  flogging  at 
the  hand  of  his  grandfather,  who  wrongly  attributed 
the  effort  to  irreverence.  This  was  his  final  attempt 
at  preaching. 

Two  winters  at  school  carried  this  now  well-grown 
boy,  who  was  vigorous  in  health,  clear-minded,  ex- 
tremely industrious,  and  often  honored  with  special 
mention  and  a  gift  as  one  of  the  first  pupils  in  the 
school,  well  along  through  the  usual  studies,  and 
into  algebra  and  rhetoric.  Naturally  a  leader,  he 
took  his  place  at  the  head  of  his  comrades  almost 
unconsciously,  his  influence  over  them  exciting  the 
jealousy  of  his  teacher.  Among  other  pastimes  he 
formed  a  military  company  and  drilled  it  every  day. 
While  on  the  farm  his  grandfather  gave  him  a  little 
orphaned  colt,  for  which  he  built  a  stable  of  fence 
rails,  roofing  it  witL  hemp-stocks.  He  took  good 
care  of  the  animal,  and  trained  it  so  that  it  became  a 
fast  pacer,  finally  selling  it  for  $200,  a  large  price  for 


•f  m 


c.  B.-I.  ao 


306 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


f^^ 


i 


'0 


a  young  horse  in  those  days.  This  was  the  first 
stone  in  the  foundation  of  his  fortune. 

Young  Coleman  grew  up  an  expert  horseman; 
active,  strong,  and  fearless.  On  the  farm  there  was  a 
finely  formed  cream-colored  horse,  but  ill-trained,  and 
so  vicious  that  no  one  wished  to  ride  him  or  work 
him.  Coleman  solicited  the  privilege.  He  would 
play  Alexander  to  this  Bucephalus.  In  a  season  or 
two,  he  became  known  as  the  most  skilful  and  boldest 
hurdle-racer  and  steeple-chaser  of  the  whole  country 
around.  Rider  and  horse,  both  lusty  and  game,  kept 
closer  to  the  hounds  in  a  fox-chase  than  others;  always 
in  the  lead,  they  were  favorites  in  every  field. 

There  was  an  uncle,  Marcus  Chinn,  chief  engineer 
of  certain  railroads  in  Illinois,  who  had  several  times 
written  for  William  to  come  to  him,  and  he  now 
concluded  to  go.  Giving  his  sister  $150  of  his 
money,  he  bought  a  trunk  for  $1.50,  put  into  it  his 
two  suits  of  clothes,  and  with  $50  in  his  pocket 
started  off.  He  travelled  alone — stage  to  Louisville, 
steamer  to  St  Louis,  and  thence  to  Jacksonville, 
where  he  made  his  home  at  the  house  of  Porter 
Clay,  brother  of  Henry  Clay.  He  was  assigned  to 
duty,  first  as  rodman,  afterward  to  carry  the  levels, 
and  such  was  his  proficiency  that  he  received  $500 
dollars  a  year,  an  un,  sual  salary  for  a  youth  at  that 
day.  And  his  earnings  were  not  lessened  when, 
in  1840,  he  went  to  St  Louis,  where  good  introduc- 
tions brought  him  into  friendly  relations  with  worthy 
people  who  gave  him  a  position,  first  in  an  insurance 
office,  and  afterward  in  the  lumber  business.  These 
are  the  first  of  his  self-helpful  eflbrts  in  a  career  of 
far-reaching  activity  and  influence.  There  were  some 
longings  ungratified,  of  course;  he  would  have  gone 
to  West  Point  and  become  a  soldier;  he  would  have 
liked  to  be  a  lawyer;  what  he  did  was  to  take  $300, 
saved  from  his  earnings,  and  enter  the  St  Louis  uni- 
versity, where  he  accomplished  the  full  conmicrcial 
and  scientific  four  years'  course  in  two  years,  and  re- 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


301 


ceived  tlie  degree  of  bachelor  of  science.     It  was  a 
remarkable    feat,   but    unwholesome.     Entering    as 
freshman  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  with  fine  health, 
full  of  vigor,  splendid  memory,  with  far  more  ambi- 
tion and  enthusiasm  than  time  or  money,  he  came  out 
at  twenty  jaded  and  worn,  and  threatened  with  con- 
sumption as  the  result  of  a  neglected  cold.     After  a 
visit   to   Florida  for  health,  he  spent  the  winter  in 
Louisiana,  where  he  had  many  relatives  and  friends, 
among  them  his  uncle,  Richard  Chinn,  at  New  Or- 
leans, former  law  partner  of  Henry  Clay,  and  Thomas 
Chinn,  United  States  minister  at  the  Sicilies,  who 
owned  a  plantation  at  West  Baton  Rouge,  of  which 
William  was  for  a  time  placed  in  charge.     The  fol- 
lowing spring  he  went  to  St  Louis,  where  he  earned 
a  little  money.     Thence,  in  order  to  acquire  a  further 
knowledge  of  lumbering,  he  proceeded  to  the  reserva- 
tion of  the  Menomonees  and  Chippewas  in  the  Wis- 
consin territory,  a  wild  region  with  immense  areas  of 
pine  timber  just  then  being  opened  to  lumber  manu- 
facturers.    The  result  was  further  experience  in  that 
direction,  one   episode   in  which  I  will   permit   Mr 
Coleman  to  state  in  his  own  words;  for  besides  the 
light  thrown  upon  the  traffic  of  the  time,  we  have 
here  manifested  capabilities  and  qualities  which  he 
afterward  displayed  in  the  popular  tribunals  in  Cal- 
ifornia. 

"My  old  friends,"  he  says,  "Morrison  and  Boswell, 
lumber  dealers  of  St  Louis,  owned  large  timber 
tracts  and  saw-mills  at  the  great  falls  of  the  Wiscon- 
sin river,  where  the  town  of  Waseau  now  stands. 
As  their  agent  and  representative,  I  made  the  round 
trip  every  year,  starting  from  St  Louis  in  the  early 
spring,  and  returning  during  the  summer.  The  last 
year  I  was  so  engaged,  1847,  I  had  a  rough  experi- 
ence. The  timber  lands  and  mills  were  rented  to  a 
Mr  Pierson,  rental  payable  in  sawed  lumber,  500,000 
feet  per  annum;  I  was  commissioned  to  receive  that 
lumber  at  the  mill,  and  raft  it  to  St  Louis. 


Hi 
t*  I 


if'iii 


;:t 


:    : 


i'"? 


!i:;i 


w 


DOMINATING  INFl.UENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


"Pierson  was  successful  with  the  mill,  but  refused 
to  pay  his  rent,  determined  if  possible  to  defraud  my 
friends;  he  thought  he  was  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
law,  or  the  power  of  the  owners  to  enforce  a  contract, 
and  that  he  would  manufacture  and  sell  the  products 
as  loiig  as  practicable,  and  then  leave  the  country. 
When  I  asked  payment,  he  put  me  off,  and  would 
not  even  discuss  the  matter,  gave  me  no  hope,  and  I 
could  see  no  prospect.  His  scheme  soon  became  evi- 
dent. I  made  a  formal  demand  in  writing,  and  re- 
quired immediate  compliance;  he  defied  me.  Prompt 
action  on  my  part  was  necessary,  in  order  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  the  high  waters  of  the  summer  to  float  the 
timber  down  the  river;  delays  would  carry  the  busi- 
ness over  into  another  year.  Finding  that  I  could  do 
nothing  with  him,  and  get  nothing,  not  even  encour- 
agement or  a  hope,  I  matured  my  plans.  I  deter- 
mined to  invoke  the  aid  of  the  law,  and  failing  in  that, 
to  use  force,  but  in  no  event  to  return  to  St  Louis 
without  my  rent.  I  started  early,  walked  to  the 
nearest  station,  fifty  miles  distant,  there  took  a  horse, 
and  rode  day  and  night  to  Madison,  the  capital  of 
the  territory,  and  seat  of  the  United  States  court.  I 
applied  for  an  injunction  to  prevent  Pierson  from 
running  the  mill,  and  an  order  enforcing  payment  of 
dues.  My  lawyer  drew  a  strong  petition  and  accom- 
panying papers,  and  waited  on  the  judge.  After  read- 
ing and  considering  the  question,  he  lefused  to  sign 
the  instrument,  saying  my  authority  was  sufficient  for 
mercantile  purposes,  but  not  in  form  for  such  legal 
proceedings,  and  raised  other  objections  which  were 
technical.  I  was  left  without  aid  or  hope  from  that 
source,  but  I  was  not  without  other  resources,  of 
which  I  resolved  to  avail  myself. 

"I  took  the  j)etition,  and  some  red  tape  and  wax, 
and  made  the  document  look  as  formal  and  as  formi- 
dable as  could  be  to  a  frontiersman,  and  straightway 
returned  to  the  mill,  caused  it  to  be  understood  that 
I  had  the  injunction  papers,  and  that  force  would  soon 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


309 


appear,  take  possession,  and  collect  all  that  was  due. 
I  then  determined  to  finesse,  and  try  negotiations  with 
the  view  of  a  settlement  with  Pierson,  but  I  soon  found 
that  this  was  impracticable.     He  would  do  nothing, 
and  gruffly  suggested  that  it  would  be  better  for  me 
to  go  back  home  at  once,  as  I  was  not  needed  there 
any  longer,  and  could  do  no  good.     I  thereupon  con- 
cluded definite  arrangements  with,  and  enlisted  for  the 
season,  the  services  of  the  two  leading  men  on  the 
river,  both  pilots  and  both  champion  fighters  in  the 
district.     I  also  quietly  and  promptly  secured  several 
others  of  the  best  men  in  the  camp.     I  had  money, 
which  was  not  a  common  commodity  at  that  time, 
and  could  pay  my  men  promptly  in  cash,  instead  of 
in  promises.     It  was  a  strong  point.     They  also  saw 
and    appreciated    my    position  with    Pierson,    whose 
course  they  conscientiously  condemned.     I  soon  ar- 
ranojed  for  a  sufficient  force  which  I  was  sure  I  could 
rely  upon.     Everything  being  ready,  I  determined  to 
take  possession  of  the  mill,  take  the  lumber  already 
sawed,  some  GOO, 000  feet,  run  the  mill  as  long  as  the 
water  would  admit,  and  make  the  best  success  possible 
in  carrying  out  what    I   had  undertaken.     My  first 
move  was  to  take  possession  of  the  lumber  already  in 
rafts,  and  put  my  men  upon  it.     He  saw  the  attack 
and  came  for  me  at  once.     He  was  heavier  than  I,  but 
older,  being  thirty-five  to  my  twenty-three  years.     I 
reminded  him  of  the  difterence;  he  said  he  waived  all 
differences,  and   we  came  together;   he  had  greater 
strength,  I  greater  activity;  I  was  better  equipped  for 
the  encounter.     After  a  few  complimentary  remarks 
between  us,  we  came  to  blows,  then  clinched.     We 
had  a  severe  engagement;  I  got  the  better  of  it,  ac- 
quitting myself  as  well  as  I  could.     He  finally  begged, 
declared  himself  done  and  satisfied.     He  quit,  thor- 
oughly vanquished;  I  suggested  his  leaving  the  prem- 
ises   and    neighborhood   within    an    hour,    which    he 
promptly  did.     I  entered  the  mill,  called  in  my  men, 
arranged  my  forces,  took   possession  of  everything, 


810 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


1!^; . ; 


1;?    'H 


W'h- 


lands  and  works,  and  my  right  was  promptly  acknowl- 
edged by  every  man  present.  Being  short-handed, 
I  took  part  in  the  work  myself,  and  stood  what  is 
called  a  tour  of  twelve  hours  a  day.  Finally  I  rafted 
my  lumber,  got  it  read3''  in  every  way,  hired  my  river- 
men,  ran  the  rapids,  and  took  out  that  year's  product 
as  well  as  a  large  portion  of  that  of  the  year  before, 
which  had  been  held  over,  amounting  in  all  to  800,000 
feet. 

"While  I  was  at  this  work,  Pierson  tried  to  raise 
a  force  to  regain  possession  of  the  mill,  but  did  not 
succeed.  I  had  captured  the  fort  with  all  the  forces, 
and  the  entire  body  had  sworn  allegiance  to  me,  and 
remained  steadfast.  I  had  heard  that  he  had  threat- 
ened me  with  vengeance,  to  which  I  returned  the 
message  of  'good  morning.'  He  threatened  to  take 
me  on  my  way  home  and  try  and  replevin  the  lumber 
at  jome  convenient  point,  for  all  of  which  I  was  fully 
prepared.  Enabled  thereby  to  take  the  lead  of  the 
fleet,  I  continued  with  my  men  the  whole  distance 
down  the  Mississippi  to  Alton,  which  was  twent3'^-five 
miles  above  St  Louis,  never  once  leaving  the  prop- 
erty." 

There  were  few  young  men  in  the  year  1848  with 
whom  William  T.  Coleman  would  have  wished  to 
change  places.  With  health  reestablished  and  for- 
tune at  his  feet,  a  clear,  well-balanced,  and  disciplined 
mind,  a  symmetrical  body  seasoned  to  work,  a  face 
expressing  energy  and  will,  he  was  a  fair  sample  of 
the  thorough-bred,  progressive  American  youth.  His 
portrait  at  this  time,  though  that  of  a  beardless  boy, 
shows  a  reserve  force  remarkable  in  the  character  of 
one  so  young.  His  face  is  a  picture  of  the  thought- 
fulness  of  power  in  repose,  with  no  shadow  of  pride, 
vanity,  or  egotism.  Of  medium  stature  and  well 
proportioned,  head  oblong  though  well  squared,  and 
solidly  placed  on  broad  shoulders;  forehead  high, 
fairly  Grecian   nose   and   chin,   brown   auburn   hair 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


311 


worn  longer  than  present  fashion;  clear,  calm,  pene- 
trating grayish  blue  eyes;  mouth  and  lips  showing 
courage  and  determination,  here,  as  elsewhere,  denot- 
ing that  strength  whose  prominent  characteristic  lay 
in  the  power  of  pleasing,  we  have  before  us  a  youth- 
ful personage  who,  whilo  filled  with  lofty  purpose,  is 
still  at  peace  with  himself  and  his  environment.  En- 
joying the  friendship  of  prominent  men  of  the  day,  a 
favorite  and  a  conspicuous  figure  in  society,  he  took 
his  fill  of  pleasure,  being  now  thoroughly  in  the 
mood  to  enjoy  it.  He  was  fortunate  at  this  juncture 
in  not  being  rich  or  poor;  for  if  he  had  been  rich, 
with  his  youth,  and  his  adaptability  for  fruition,  the 
energy,  activity,  and  usefulness  which  he  developed 
might  have  been  greatly  impaired,  while  to  call  a 
young  American  such  as  this,  though  without  a  dol- 
lar, poor,  would  seem  absurd.  Everywhere  was  for- 
tune, and  here  was  capability  to  grasp  it.  Whither- 
soever he  turned  himself,  in  whatsoever  department 
he  should  put  forth  his  efforts,  whether  in  a  learned 
profession  or  in  plain  business,  he  would  probably 
succeed. 

As  early  as  1844-45,  after  reading  Irving's  Astoria, 
Dana's  Two  Years  Before  the  Mast,  the  reports  of  gov- 
ernment expeditions,  and  the  accounts  of  trappers 
and  explorers  of  the  Rocky  mountains  who  had  vis- 
ited California,  young  Coleman  thought  seriously  of 
that  country,  and  partially  organized  a  party  to  cross 
the  plains  for  San  Francisco,  with  the  purpose  of 
making  it  their  home  in  the  future.  This  would 
doubtless  have  been  carried  out,  but  for  the  failure  of 
some  of  the  party  to  join  the  expedition.  The  acqui- 
sition of  California  by  the  American  government  in 
1G46-47,  the  discovery  of  gold  and  the  excitements 
in  1848,  revived  his  desire  to  reach  California;  and 
although  then  well  situated  and  with  fine  prospects 
in  St  Louis,  he  determined  the  following  winter  to 
cross  the  continent,  and  early  in  the  spring  of  1849 
organized   a   second   party,    including   his   only  and 


) 


I  c 


.1    ;•  ■ 


312 


DOMINATING   INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFOIINIA. 


younger  brother  and  two  friends.  He  realized  on 
his  little  landed  property,  inherited,  but  not  before 
available;  had  wagons  built,  bought  provisions,  mining 
tools,  clothing,  arms,  tents,  rockers  for  washing  gold, 
and  an  ample  stock  of  all  sorts  of  supplies;  proceeded 
to  St  Joseph,  where  he  purchased  animals,  and  early 
in  May  the  expedition  struck  out  across  the  broad 
plains. 

"The  trip  embraced  the  usual  vicissitudes,"  says 
Mr  Coleman.  "We  moved  up  north  through  Iowa, 
which  then  had  a  very  sparse  population.  We 
crossed  the  Missouri  river  at  what  was  called  Platte 
rock,  now  Platteville.  We  had  two  wagons  heavily 
loaded  with  merchandise,  machinery,  and  supplies.  I 
was  in  command  of  our  party  and  of  a  company 
made  up  in  St  Joseph.  Between  the  Missouri  river 
and  Salt  Lake  City,  where  we  stopped,  we  passed  but 
one  house,  and  that  was  deserted,  excepting  the  mili- 
tary stations  at  forts  Laramie  and  Kearny.  At  Salt 
Lake  City  I  was  ill  with  the  mountain  fever,  and  our 
party  called  a  halt.  In  fact,  all  the  emigrants  taking 
that  route  rested  at  this  point.  As  soon  as  I  recov- 
ered I  asked  my  associates  to  have  a  conference,  and 
proposed  that  we  abandon  our  wagons  and  take  pack- 
raules  the  rest  of  the  way.  All  objected  except  my 
brother;  but  we  agreed  to  divide  our  effects,  cacli 
being  at  liberty  to  pursue  his  own  course.  This  ar- 
rangement made,  we  procured  fresh  horses  and  packs, 
and  fitted  out  for  California,  where  we  arrived  in  due 
time,  my  brother  and  myself  being  alone  and  without 
arms,  save  an  old  Allen  revolver,  and  knives.  Mean- 
time, in  looking  about  Salt  Lake  City,  I  discovered 
many  poor  and  needy  people.  I  found  whole  families. 
Mormons,  living  in  tiie  wagon-beds  in  which  they 
had  crossed  the  plains  the  year  before ;  sometimes  two 
families  were  in  a  single  emigrant  wagon-bed.  Some 
of  these  people  had  not  for  months  tasted  of  what 
might  be  called  luxuries.  They  were  in  need  of  the 
commonest  necessaries  of  life.     After  reserving  for 


WILLIAM  T.   COLEMAN. 


313 


ourselves  cnougli  to  last  uh  to  California,  and  keep  us 
above  want  for  a  while  afterward,  I  distributed  to 
these  poor  people  all  my  remaining  supplies,  which 
were  considerable,  flour,  bacon,  and,  what  was  more 
eagerly  craved  by  them,  coftee,  tea,  and  sugar. 

"  About  the  same  time  I  proposed  to  a  number  of 
immigrants,  our  own  company  in   particular,  whicli 
was  a  large  one,  that   we   give   Brigham   Young  a 
dinner,  and  express  to  him  our  pleasure  at  the  cour- 
tesies we  had  received  from  his  people,  and  the  bene- 
fits we  had  enjoyed  in  the  city.     He   accepted   the 
invitation,  and  I  was  asked  to  do  the  h<mors.     Pro- 
curing the  best  house  we  could  find  for  the  purpose, 
we  ordered  as  elaborate  a  dinner  as  practicable,  served 
in  the  middle  of  the  day.     There  was  but  one  chair 
in  the  house,  and  that  we  reserved  for  the  guest  of 
the  occasion.     We  used  benches  an(    blocks,  or  what- 
ever we  might,  for  the  rest  of  the  company,  and  I 
took  the  end  of  the  table.     We  enjoyed  a  rich  repast, 
with  very  brief  remarks.     We  had  an  excellent  ser- 
vice of  fresh  vegetables,  peas,  beans,  etc.,  which  was 
a  great  luxury  to  us  at  the  time,  as  we  had  had  noth- 
ino-  of  the  kind  since  we  left  the  Missouri  river,  and 
scarcely  any  since  the  year  previous.     We  had,  what 
was  a  luxury  to  them,  good  tea,  coffee,  and  sugar. 
There  were  also  supplies  of  game  and  fresh  meats, 
these  being  plentiful.     We  had  no  spirits  or  wine,  in- 
toxicating drink  not  being  allowed  in  the  country. 

"Next  day  my  brother  and  I  started  about  noon, 
with  eight  animals,  to  make  Weaver  creek  for  the 
night  camp.  We  had  given  away  our  wagons,  and  in 
fact  almost  everything  else.  We  could  have  sold  our 
supplies,  for  they  were  valuable,  but  I  could  not 
refrain  from  giving  them  to  the  miserably  poor 
people  who  needed  them  most.  I  did  not  need  the 
money  they  would  bring.  In  fact,  I  had  prepared 
myself  in  St  Louis  with  funds  sufficient  to  carry  me 
and  my  brother  to  China,  and  thence  home,  in  the 
event  of  the  failure  of  the  gold-fields,  the  character  of 


814 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


It 


which  had  not  been  fully  determined,  and  which  were 
still  regarded  as  very  uncertain.  My  brother  and  I 
carried  this  money  about  our  persons.  We  were 
provided  with  a  mormon  guide-book,  published  by 
one  who  had  become  familiar  with  the  overland  routes 
during  the  Mexican  war,  and  later  by  a  trip  to  and 
from  California. 

"Being  well  equipped,  we  struck  out  boldly,  and 
made  the  journey  to  Sacramento  in  twenty-one  days, 
which  then  was  rather  unusual,   but  by  knowing  all 
the  camping  grounds,  taking   care   of  our   animals, 
having  one  or  two  extra  ones  running  loose  all  the 
time  without  pack  or  burden,  we  came  on  without 
accident,  and  every  animal  in  good  condition.     We 
stood  guard  every  night,  my  watch  being  until  about 
two  o'clock.      My  brother  stood   guard  from  then 
until  morning,  and  had  breakfast  ready  and  the  ani- 
mals packed  before  calling  me.     I  usually  ate  break- 
fast  in   the   saddle.     Arrivinjjj  at   the   sink   of   the 
Humboldt,  we  found  the  water  there  strongly  alka- 
line, and  unfit  for  man  or  beast.     The  moon  was  at 
the  last  quarter,  and  it  was  several  hours  before  day- 
break when  we  broke  camp  at  that  point.     As  we 
rode  out  in  the  utter  and  almost  palpable  stillness  of 
night,  the  bright  moonshine  revealed  chiefly  carcasses 
of  animals  that  had  perished  on  the  desert  trail;  no 
vej;-etation  whatever  or  any  other  form  of  life  was 
visible.     About  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  a  fine 
mule  which  I  was  riding  sniffled  in  a  very  sugges- 
tive manner,   then  stopped  and  brayed.     I  said   to 
my   brother,   'That  means  water.'     We  were   then 
seven  miles  from  the   Truckce  river,  and  when   we 
reached  the  stream  the  famished  animals  plunged  their 
heads  up  to  their  eyes  and  even  up  to  their  ears  into 
the  swift  current.    It  was  delicious.     We  had  had  but 
little  water,  and  none  so  good  as  this  for  several  days. 
"Resting  one  day  at  the   mouth  of  the  Truckce 
river,  our  animals  luxuriating  in  the  rich  grasses  and 
pure  waters,  we  determined  not  to  cross  the  mountains 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


315 


on  that  route,  but  instead  moved  in  a  southeasterly 
direction  to  the  Carson  river,  and  crossed  the  Sierras 
by  the  Carson  route,  passing  to  the  eastward  of  lake 
Tahoe,  and  coming  in  by  Strawberry,  all  of  which  in- 
volved about  three  days." 

Their  entrance  into  California,  a  land  attracting 
them  by  its  promise  and  its  mystery,  was  an  event 
calculated  to  impress  itself  upon  these  young  men. 

They  camped  on  the  night  of  Saturday,  August 
13th,  at  a  muddy  spring  some  forty  miles  from  Sacra- 
mento. The  dried  grass,  which  would  have  filled  their 
beasts  with  gladness  if  only  they  might  liave  had  it, 
their  masters  forced  them  by  as  unfit  for  food,  and  gave 
them  instead  a  meagre  remnant  of  oats  packed  from  the 
Missouri  river.  They  had  seen  scarcely  any  one  since 
leaving  the  Mormon  country,  but  here  they  found  in 
the  dust  the  imprint  of  a  multitude  of  bare  feet.  Can 
it  be,  they  thought,  that  the  pilgrims  hither  have  been 
reduced  to  going  barefoot?  Not  so  bad  as  that;  the 
tracks  were  those  of  Digger  Indians.  Presently  they 
saw  coming  toward  them  a  fine,  dashing  fellow,  splen- 
didly mounted. 

"Is  this  California?"  Mr  Coleman  ventured  to  ask. 

"Yes,"  was  the  reply,  "this  is  California." 

**How  about  the  gold;  are  the  mines  a  success?" 

"  I  will  show  you,"  he  said,  as  he  drew  from  a 
leathern  bag  a  handful  of  gold,  in  which  beautiful 
specimens  glittered  beside  the  finer  dust.  "  This  I 
dug  two  miles  from  here;  take  some." 

"My  dear  fellow,"  exclaimed  Coleman,  "  is  it  not  a 
little  hazardous  exposing  your  wealth  in  this  way?" 

The  cavalier  laughed.  "Oh,  no;  people  don't  steal 
here  now.  They  used  to,  but  we  strung  a  lot  of  'em 
up  over  at  old  Dry  Diggings — they  call  the  place 
Hangtown  now." 

In  answer  to  inquiries  about  the  road  to  Sacra- 
mento the  Coleraans  were  told  to  turn  to  the  right  on 
passing  Sutter's  fort,  and  cross  the  American  river ; 
there  they  would  find  water  and  grass,  and  could 


i 


I  I 


M 

it '  t 


'  > 


816 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


'    i 


<' 


^^WW  fc^^^^ 


make  their  camp  two  miles  nearer  Sacramento  than 
at  any  other  available  place.  On  the  way  they  met 
a  dozen  parties  pushing  toward  the  mines.  They 
were  chiefly  Americans.  They  looked  to  the  incom- 
ers pale  and  bleached  compared  to  the  men  they  had 
been  with  for  three  months.  Hailing  some  of  them, 
it  was  ascertained  that  they  were  passengers  by  sail- 
ing vessel  and  steamer,  and  had  not  been  exposed 
to  the  scorching  sun  of  plain  and  desert.  There 
was  also  a  company  of  Chinese,  the  first  they  had 
ever  seen;  two  groups  of  Spanish- Americans,  and 
others.  * 

"After a  day's  rest,  on  August  14th,"  Mr  Coleman 
continues,  "I  visited  Sacramento.  I  found  it  like 
an  old-fashioned  methodist  camp-meeting  on  a  grand 
scale ;  there  were  long  ranges  of  tents,  with  a  number 
of  indifferent  buildings,  and  a  few  of  more  dignified  ap- 
pearance. The  town  was  laid  out  regularly,  and  lots 
had  been  sold.  I  met  a  number  of  acquaintances  from 
St  Louis,  and  before  night  was  crammed  with  infor- 
mation regarding  the  condition  of  the  country,  parti- 
cularly the  mines.  I  had  come  to  California  to  dig 
gold;  had  no  other  idea;  but  being  now  pretty  well 
informed  of  the  vicissitudes  of  that  labor,  and  espe- 
cially of  the  sickness  pervading  most  parts  of  the 
minintr  country,  and  seeing,  as  I  thought,  prospects  of 
a  greater  certainty  in  Sacramento,  1  determined  to 
abandon  for  the  moment  my  idea  of  mining,  and  try 
my  fortunes  there.  I  had  come  to  stay  in  California, 
if  there  was  anything  to  stay  for. 

"  The  second  day  I  spent  in  exploring  the  town  for 
something  to  do,  meanwhile  renewing  old  acquaint- 
ances and  making  new  ones.  The  third  day  I  deter- 
mined to  buy  some  town  lots,  in  which  there  was  then 
great  activity.  I  selected  a  fine  tract  at  the  corner 
of  K  and  Seventii  streets,  where  the  trees  and  under- 
l)rush  were  being  cleared  away  for  business  purposes. 
After  obtaining  the  lowest  price,  1  asked  the  owner 
if  he  would  take  some  live-stock  in  part  payment.    He 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


replied  that  he  would — an  ox  team  and  wagon.  I 
had  horses  and  mules,  but  no  oxen.  Yet  I  felt  that 
if  1  was  to  do  business  in  California,  I  might  as  well 
begin  here  as  anywhere  else ;  so  without  hesitation  I 
agreed  to  deliver  him  a  wagon  and  three  yoke  of  oxen 
for  $550,  the  remainder  of  the  money  for  the  land, 
$250,  to  be  paid  in  cash,  which  I  had.  I  went  up  to 
the  emigrant  neighborhood,  where  there  were  a  great 
many  cattle-teams,  and  more  constantly  arriving.  I 
bought  a  fine  wagon  and  five  yoke  of  oxen  for  $550  ; 
took  out  the  two  extra  yoke,  and  sent  them  to  auc- 
tion, where  they  brought  $225.  The  other  three  yoke 
and  wagon  I  delivered,  according  to  contract,  as  the 
price  of  the  land.  My  choice  tract  thus  cost  me  but 
$575. 

"My  next  requirement  was  a  house  of  wood  or 
cloth,  not  for  myself,  for  I  had  not  slept  in  one  for 
months,  but  for  business  uses.  The  man  who  sold  me 
tl  e  rattle  had  two  large  fly-tents,  which  he  wished 
to  dispose  of,  as  he  was  going  to  the  mines.  He  had 
also  a  lot  of  luggage  to  be  stored.  I  saw  here  an 
opportunity  for  a  transaction  of  profit  to  both  of  us, 
and  a  convenience  to  him.  I  bought  the  tents,  set 
them  up  on  my  land,  and  took  his  traps  on  storage  at 
a  dollar  a  month  for  each  package.  Returning  from 
the  mines  in  six  weeks,  the  owner  of  the  articles  called 
for  his  property,  which  he  found  all  right;  but  in 
settling  with  me,  it  figured  itself  out  that  he  owed 
about  twice  as  much  for  storage  as  he  received  for 
the  tents.  This  he  thought  a  hard  bargain,  though 
he  did  not  deny  that  it  was  fair.  I  proposed  to  can- 
cel the  difference  and  call  our  account  square,  which 
he  was  well  satisfied  to  do. 

"When  I  first  pitched  my  tents,  I  had  in  my  party 
two  young  men,  carpenters,  from  St  Louis,  whom  1 
had  known  there  slightly,  and  who  were  without 
money  or  any  other  means  of  support.  They  had 
failed  to  get  work;  they  begged  me  to  put  them  at 
something.     *  Well,'  I  said,  '  I  am  no  architect,  but  if 


i> 


* 


i'i; 


318 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


■ 

^  '■'■  i'< 

■f 

'  S'^ 

'4.^     i 

>:«:  ]  *■ 

:<!■.  ■    ' 

^ 

'  1   '      ' 

1 

^; 

-, 

J 

■ 

;  1 
il 

1 

d 

} 


you  can  handle  the  tools  I  think  I  can  build  a  house.' 
I  went  to  the  St  Louis  Exchange,  a  hotel  then  kept 
in  Sacramento  by  Oliver  Garrison,  brother  of  Com- 
modore C.  K.  Garrison,  and  wrote  out  a  placard: 
*Wm  T.  Coleman  and  company,  Contractors  and 
Builders;  Anything  from  a  dry-goods  box  to  a  block 
of  buildings  put  up  with  neatness  and  despatch.  Ref- 
erences: Oliver  Garrison,  St  Louis  Exchange,  and 
Mr  Gillespie,  merchant,  J  street.' 

"I  then  went  to  Gillespie's  store,  and  put  up  a 
similar  notice  there,  calling  his  attention  to  it,  and 
asking  him  to  refer  applicants  to  me.  I  heard  next 
day  that  John  Merrill,  of  the  schooner  Gazelle,  from 
New  Bedford,  lying  in  the  river,  wanted  a  small 
building  put  up,  the  lumber  for  which  he  had  just 
landed.  I  called  on  Mr  Merrill — later  of  J.  C.  Merrill 
and  company,  California  street,  San  Francisco — and 
made  a  bargain  with  him  to  put  up  his  house  for  $100. 
He  pointed  out  the  ground,  and  I  set  my  carpenters 
to  work.  By  noon  the  next  day  the  house  was  fin- 
ished, and  I  handed  the  key  to  the  owner,  who  gave 
me  the  money,  which  I  divided  among  the  men  who 
had  assisted  in  the  work. 

"Encouraged  by  this  beginning,  I  pushed  on  and 
soon  obtained  further  work  of  different  kinds,  among 
which  was  a  building  for  the  New  Bedford  company, 
of  which  Ephraim  Leonard,  of  San  Francisco,  was 
the  head.  The  contract  price  was  $G00.  It  was 
tough  work,  as  the  lumber  had  come  round  the  Horn, 
on  deck,  and  was  thoroughly  saturated  with  salt 
water;  then  the  structure  had  to  be  set  upon  blocks 
cut  from  large  trees  felled  on  the  ground,  as  Captain 
Sutter  had  informed  us  that  the  whole  reofion  was 
periodically  overflowed  from  the  river.  Meanwhile 
I  kept  on  at  my  new  business,  building  fences, 
bridges,  gold-rockers — anything  which  offered.  For 
common  sheet-iron  I  paid  a  dollar  a  pound,  and  for 
the  use  of  a  punch  and  block  to  make  lioles  in  it,  for 
rockers,  a  dollar  for  each  sheet,  of  about  one  foot  by 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


319 


two  in  Size.  The  rockers  were  of  wood,  like  a  child's 
cradle,  very  plain,  with  cleats  for  catching  the  gold, 
and  cost  us,  including  what  we  had  to  pay  for  mate- 
rial, from  six  to  ten  dollars  each.  We  sold  them  as 
rapidly  as  we  could  make  them,  at  an  advance  of  a 
hundred  per  cent.  The  business  increased,  until  we 
had  become  the  first  manufacturers  in  the  town.  Yet 
I  felt  all  the  time  that  it  was  rather  more  of  a  make- 
shift than  a  legitimate  business  for  me,  as  I  did  not 
know  a  fore-plane  from  a  jack-plane,  and  was  in  no 
sense  a  carpenter,  builder,  or  architect. 

**I  had  heard  of  a  finished  mechanic  and  draughts- 
man from  Cincinnati,  and  hunting  him  up,  I  explained 
my  position  and  offered  him  a  partnership,  or  a  cash 
payment  of  fifty  dollars  a  day,  at  his  option.  He  de- 
clined, saying  that  he  could  make  a  hundred  dollars 
a  day  digging  in  the  mines,  and  that  was  what  he 
came  out  here  to  do.  He  went  up  on  the  Stanislaus, 
and  died  there  within  a  month.  I  determined  to 
close  up  the  business,  although  offers  were  being 
made  to  me  for  large  undertakings,  buildings,  and 
other  work.  It  was  rather  a  traffic  in  talk,  in  which 
I  could  no  doubt  do  well  enough,  but  I  did  not  care 
to  engage  in  it  permanently. 

"  One  day  I  was  at  Stevens'  store,  where  was  prom- 
inently displayed  a  lot  of  Osgood's  India  cholagogue, 
a  fever  and  ague  remedy,  popular  in  the  Mississippi 
valley  at  that  time.     I  inquired  the  price. 

"  '  Eight  dollars  a  bottle,'  was  the  reply. 

"  '  How  much  if  I  take  the  lot  ? ' 

"'Nothing  less;  it  is  cheap  enough  at  that  price.' 

"  *  Perhaps  you  would  like  to  buy  some  at  $5  or  $G  ?' 

"  *  I  will  take  all  you  can  bring  at  $5  a  bottle,' 
Stevens  testily  replied. 

"  I  closed   the  bargain  with   him,  and   told   him   I 
would  deliver  several  gross  within  an  hour.     He  fan 
cied  I  was  bantering,  but  I  remembered  to  ha  ve  seen 
some  at   the  store  of  Leonard,  Potter,  and   Delnn  ^ 
which  they  were  selling  at  $3  a  bottle.     I  immedi..->-  .\ 


ii'- 


1' 


I 


II 


320 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


II 


proceeded  to  the  store,  where  I  saw  Mr  Potter,  for 
whom  I  had  built  a  house.  I  asked  him  how  much 
of  the  cholagogue  he  had.  He  said  three  gross.  I 
told  him  I  would  take  the  lot.  He  hesitated,  and 
finally  concluded  that  he  could  spare  but  two  gross, 
which  I  might  have  at  $3  a  bottle.  I  told  him  to 
turn  it  out  immediately,  as  I  had  a  customer  for  it. 
I  looked  about  for  a  cart  to  take  it  down  to  Stevens', 
and  not  being  able  to  find  one  at  once,  I  borrowed  a 
wheelbarrow,  piled  on  the  four  boxes  containing  the 
two  gross,  and  trudged  off  with  them  to  the  purchaser. 
Stevens  was  petrified  at  seeing  such  a  stock  of  the 
commodity  presented  to  him.  I  told  him  there  it 
was.  He  wanted  to  look  at  it,  and  we  opened  a  case. 
He  then  pretended  that  it  was  not  genuine.  I  took 
a  bottle  of  his  and  one  of  my  own  and  compared  them, 
and  asked  him  where  was  the  difference. 

"*0,  every  difference,'  said  Stevens. 

"  '  You  evidently  want  to  back  out,'  I  said,  '  but 
it  will  not  do.  You  made  a  bargain,  upon  which  I 
acted  in  good  faith,  and  here  are  the  goods,  which  I 
tender  on  the  contract,  and  demand  the  money.  And. 
sir,'  I  said,  '  if  you  don't  .settle  fairly  and  quickly,  I 
will  have  the  sheriff  here  in  fifteen  minutes,  and  fur- 
thermore, I  will  burst  the  cholagogue  market  on  you. 

"  Stevens  and  a  neighbor  in  the  trade  who  had  a 
suppi}^  agreed  to  divide  it,  and  sustain  the  market. 
They  paid  me  five  dollars  a  bottle,  thus  netting  mo 
S576  for  an  hour's  work,  and  no  money  invested. 
This  was  the  first  mereantile  transaction  of  my  life. 
It  .set  mo  to  thinking  in  a  new  direction — to  weigh- 
inoc  eholauoy^ue  ayainst  carpenter  work,  and  I  con- 
eluded  that  the  nureantile  business  was  more  in  my 
line  than  house-building. 

"The  field  being  pretty  well  occupied  at  Sacra- 
mento, I  determined  to  try  merchandising  at  the 
mines;  so  selling  all  I  liad,  including  my  lots  on  K 
street  at  a  fine  profit,  1  bought  a  six-horse  team, 
loaded  it  with  goods,  threw  my  tent  on  the  wagon, 


I 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


321 


and  directed  my  brother  to  drive  it  to  Placerville. 
Mounting  a  horse  I  took  a  short  cut  for  the  same 
place.  To  show  the  cost  of  things  then,  I  bought 
one  bushel  (60  pounds),  of  half-shrunken  Sandwich 
islands  potatoes,  for  which  I  paid  $60.  I  have  seen 
better  potatoes  sell  at  thirty  cents  a  bushel.  I  paid 
for  a  half-barrel  of  pickles  $90,  and  was  glad  to  get 
it  at  that.  The  cost  in  New  York  was  perhaps  $3. 
Some  other  things  were  cheaper,  proportionately,  but 
when  I  came  to  sell  my  stuff,  the  lowest  average 
price  was  abont  one  dollar  a  pound.  I  set  up  my 
tent,  fixed  the  prices  which  my  brother  was  to  ask 
for  the  goods,  took  the  team  myself,  and  made  three 
trips  to  Sacramento  that  season.  Being  quite  suc- 
cessful, and  keeping  well  up  with  the  trade,  I  built  a 
large  log  house  for  protection  against  the  winter 
weather,  and  gained  money  very  rapidly. 

"Everybody  knows  that  the  winter  of  1849  was 
exceptionally  rainy.  A  heavy  storm  came  on  early, 
and  the  roads  were  almost  i  mpassable.  Looking  about 
me,  I  saw  that  there  was  not  enough  flour  in  the  min- 
ing towns  to  carry  the  people  half  through  the  winter. 
It  was  then  selling  at  a  dollar  a  pound,  and  the  fear 
of  starvation  was  even  at  this  time  frightening  many 
persons.  Mounting  my  horse,  I  hastened  to  Sacra- 
mento, and  with  no  little  difficulty  secured  two  large 
wagons,  with  a  long  line  of  oxen  before  each  one — all 
the  transportation  facilities  that  could  be  had.  I 
agreed  to  pay  $50  a  barrel  for  hauling  flour  to  Placer- 
ville, forty-five  miles,  the  same  that  I  paid,  per  baiTCil, 
for  the  flour  itself  I  remained  with  the  teams  during 
the  entire  trip,  which  was  successfully  made.  It  was 
the  last  load  that  went  into  camp  before  the  heavy 
rains  set  in.  I  could  have  sold  all  my  flour,  which 
had  cost  me  $100  a  barrel,  or  fifty  cents  a  pound,  im- 
Tuediately  in  one  lot,  for  $1.50  a  pound,  but  I  was 
thinkins,'  of  three  or  five  dollars  a  pound  before  the 
winter  was  over.  I  sold  sparingly  at  $1.50  a  pound, 
until  n  jws  of  the  scarcity  having  reached  Sacramento^ 

C.  U.-I.    21 


'i 


-N 


A 


^1 

1 

I 

1.     .          i 

I    I  If 


322 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFOllNIA. 


and  the  weather  temporarily  clearing  up  a  little,  such 
a  flood  of  flour  was  poured  in  upon  us  that  I  was 
finally  glad  to  get  twenty-five  cents  a  pound  for  my 
stock.  This  experience  taught  me  a  life-long  lesson 
— never  to  grasp  for  too  much,  but  to  be  satisfied 
with  reasonable  immediate  success. 

"  We  had  in  the  mining  towns  the  same  spirit  of 
speculation  and  combination  that  was  more  exten- 
sively developed  in  the  larger  places.  I  bought  this 
same  season  all  the  barley  I  could  get,  which  consisted, 
however,  of  less  than  a  dozen  sacks,  paying  $1.50  a 
pound   and  selling  it  readily  at  |2.50  a  pound. 

"During  the  depression  in  trade  I  tried  mining. 
Finding  an  unoccupied  space,  I  staked  out  a  claim  ten 
feet  square,  took  a  little  rocker,  pick,  and  shovel,  and 
went  to  work.  Adjoining  me  was  a  company  of  Irish- 
men uttder  the  leadership  of  a  njan  from  Charleston, 
South  Carolina,  who,  as  he  plied  his  rocker,  kept  up  a 
lively  whistling  of  Norma,  but  to  the  rhytlim  of  which 
the  nujrffets  did  not  seem  inclined  to  move.  The  first 
day  I  panned  out  $40,  and  although  I  was  accustomed 
to  vigorous  exertion,  and  fancied  myself  equal  to  any 
ordinary  labor,  I  found  my  system  wonderfully  racked 
by  picking  in  the  hard  roadway  and  rocks.  The 
second  day  I  got  two  ou.ices;  the  third  day  I  got 
only  a  small  prospect.  With  this  I  retired  from  dig- 
ging operations,  being  satisfied  that  my  brain  would 
carry  me  througli  the  world  better  than  my  sinews. 
After  I  had  abandoned  my  claim,  the  Norma  whistler 
went  onto  it,  and  his  first  day's  work  was  twelve 
ounces,  or  about  $200;  and  it  afterward  averaged 
sometimes  a  pound  of  gold  a  day  for  his  entire  com- 
pany. Such  are  the  vicissitudes  attending  mind  and 
muscle,  the  results  of  labor  by  hand  or  head  being, 
at  times,  equally  uncertain  and  speculative. 

"While  at  Placerville  I  met  many  men  who  were 
later  prominent  in  the  affairs  of  the  state.  Among 
them  was  Lloyd  Tevis,  whom  I  had  known  in  St 
Louis  as  a  boy,  and  who  had  crossed  the  plains  that 


WILLIAM  T.   COLEMAN. 


323 


same  year  and  was  digging  at  Weaverville  with  con- 
siderable   success.       He   visited    me   at   Placerville 
almost  every  Sunday,  and  it  was  a  great  pleasure  to 
both  of  us  to  talk  over  the  days  of  our  youth,  of  the 
old  associations,  as  well  as  to  discuss  current  events 
appertaining  to  our  new  country.     One  night  after 
we  had  retired,  one  sleeping  on  the  counter  in  the 
store  and   the  other   under  it,  a  fire  of  pine  knots 
brightly  burning  outside,  Tevis  asked  me  what  was 
my  ambition  in  regard  to  the  future,  what  plans  I 
had,  if  any,  and  what  I  would  like  to  do.     I  told  him 
I  would  like  to  go  to  San  Francisco,  become  a  leading 
merchant  there,  and  pictured  to  him  very  fully  the 
place  in  the  world  I  would  like  to  fill.     He  in  turn 
told  me  what  kind  of  a  career  would  best  please  him; 
and  it  is  a  singular  coincidence  that  each  cf  us  after- 
ward pursued  the  course  of  life  almost  exactly  as  we 
had  foreshadowed  it  that  evening,  realizing  even  more 
in  fact  than  we  had  anticipated  in  our  castle-building. 
"  Leaving  my  brother  to  close  up  the  business  in 
the  mines,  about  the  1st  of  January  1850, 1  proceeded 
to  San  Francisco.     It  was  an  interesting  period  in 
the  history  of  the   city.     The  rush   was    over ;  the 
year's  immigration  had  practically  ceased  ;  the  harbor 
was  filled  with  vessels  bearing  various  cargoes,  many 
of  them  ill  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  people.     Heavy, 
drenching  rains  continued  to  flood  the  country.     North 
of  California  street,  the  road  was  almost  impassable. 
Temporary  causeways  were  laid  with  boxes  of  tobacco, 
or  any  packages  the  contents  of  which  were  for  the 
moment    unsalable.     The    inhabitants   of    the   town 
entertained    widely    different    views    regarding    the 
situation  and  prospects,  some  being   cheerful,  many 
discouraged,  a  few    full    of  hope,   but   all    generally 
making  the  best  of  the  situation.     Trade  with  the  inte- 
rior was  entirely  cut  off.     All  kinds  of  business  were 
practically  stagnant,  except  such  small  transactions  as 
arose  from  the  daily  necessities  of  the  people,  some  of 
these  being  of  an  interesting  and  curious  nature.     For 


t  ii 


m 


liUl 


Mi 


i'.ii 


1=1, 1 


ill  <i  ^ 


824 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN   CALIFORNIA. 


example,  the  heavy  rains  and  deep  mud  created  a  call 
for  big  boots,  and  I  have  seen  men  attend  the  auction 
sales,  where  such  goods  were  sold,  and  buy  boots  at 
ten,  twelve,  or  sixteen  dollars  a  pair,  which  they  would 
take  to  the  corners  of  the  streets  and  promptly  sell 
at  fifty,  eighty,  or  a  hundred  dollars  a  pair.  I  have 
seen  fine  wine  sold  at  auction  at  five  dollars  a  barrel, 
and  the  purchaser  take  samples  of  the  same  to  the 
leading  saloons  and  sell  it  by  the  package  at  five 
dollars  a  gallon.  There  were  many  articles  almost 
worthless  in  the  market,  as  tobacco,  fine  brandies, 
very  fine  wines,  etc.,  on  account  of  overstock,  and  lack 
of  demand.  Some  of  these  in  unbroken  packages 
were  used  in  the  construction  of  street  crossings; 
some  were  bought  up  on  speculation  and  shipped 
back  to  the  place  whence  they  came  ;  some  were  kept 
a  week  or  a  month  and  sold  at  an  enormous  profit  on 
the  spot.  Great  quantities  of  goods  were  sacrificed 
at  auctions,  the  importer  being  compelled  to  receive 
his  cargo  from  the  vessel  when  he  had  no  place  in 
whicli  to  store  it.  It  was  a  grand  opportunity  for  a 
small  dealer  so  situated  as  to  step  in  and  take  advan- 
tage of  the  opportunities  arising  every  day.  But 
while  great  profits  were  realized  in  some  instances,  the 
average  run  of  trade  was  not  more  profitable  than  in 
other  countries  under  a  more  settled  state  of  affairs, 
and  losses  often  overbalanced  these  excessive  profits. 
Each  day's  business  was  like  playing  a  new  game  of 
hazard.  I  recollect  once  writing  home,  while  Moore's 
Lalla  Rookh  was  running  through  my  mind: 

"Ah,  Zelical  there  was  a  time,  when  bliss 
Shone  o'er  thy  heart  from  every  look  of  his. 

Too  happy  days !  when  if  he  touehM  a  flow'r         > 
Or  gem  of  thine,  'twas  sacred  from  that  hour." 

which  I  parodied  in  my  letter: 

"Now  is  the  time 
When  if  we  t<  i.-li  v  barrel  of  flour, 
Or  pork,  'tis  dciu.led  from  that  hour." 

"  But  the  doubling  would  not  keep  on  ;  it  would  too 
often  halve  itself  instead. 


»«»T| 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


325 


"  I  established  myself  on  the  east  side  of  Sansome 
street,  near  Jackson,  then  the  water  front,  the  rear 
end  opening  on  three  feet  of  water  at  low  tide.     Most 
of  the  ships  then  arriving  with  assorted  cargoes  came 
consigned  to  the  captain,  who  generally  had  an  interest 
in  the  venture,  and  was  his  own  merchant.     Enter- 
prising  San    Franciscans,  a  few   of  them,    regularly 
visited  those    ships.     I  soon  had  a  splendid   whale- 
boat  and  two  stalwart  oarsmen  in  my  service.     There 
was  often  more  humor  than  profit  in  my  visits  to  and 
negotiations  with  the  burly  ship  captains.     One  day, 
the  American  ship  Manchester,  from  Nantucket,  Cap- 
tain Job  Coleman,  with  an  assorted  cargo,  was  reported 
off  north    beach.     I  hauled   away  and   boarded  the 
ship.     The  captain  had  gone  ashore.     I  left  my  card, 
with  the  request  that  he  should  see  me  before  doing 
any  business.     When  on  returning  to  his  vessel  he 
found  this  message,  he  came  again  on  shore  and  visited 
my  place.     He  saw  my  partner,  made  some  inqui- 
ries   about   me,   and    then    quoted    some    doggerel, 
well   known  in  Nantucket,  about   the    Coiemans,  a 
rather  numerous  family  there,  the  gist  of  which  was 
that  they  never  amounted  to  much.     I  had  not  yet 
seen  the  captain,  but  from  the  description  I  was  rather 
pleased.     I  finally  met  him  and  found  him  to  be  a  tall, 
grave,  dignified,  almost  austere,  man,  who  knew  his 
business  and  had  a  fair  appreciation  of  self. 

"  He  had  a  large  invoice  of  pickles,  then  scarce  and 
very  desirable  in  the  market  as  anti-scorbutic.  I  told 
him  frankly  that  I  wanted  the  lot.  He  asked  me  for 
an  offer,  but  I  told  him  to  go  into  the  market  every- 
where, to  every  store,  and  get  the  views  of  the  trade, 
to  inform  himself  fully  about  everything,  and  then 
come  and  see  me  and  we  would  do  business ;  that  I 
would  not  make  him  an  offer  to  trade  on,  but  when 
he  had  completed  his  inquiries,  I  would  take  his  goods. 
He  went  his  way,  and  after  two  days  returned  and 
sold  me  a  large  invoice,  including  half-barrels  of 
pickles  at  $15  each,  which  cost  $3  in  New  York, 


p.™?^ 


'    ■!    I 


»l 


■■  1-1 


''^11 


• :  I 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


■^  Uk   12.2 
M    12.0 


ik 


1 

1.25  II  u  1^ 

^^IHI^^B^                 II     IISSI^^^S                Hill  SSS^^^M 

^ 

_  4« 

► 

V 


v: 


'^^^ 


'/ 


Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WIST  liAA'Ai  SiirRT 

WltSTH.N.Y.  14&M 

(7t6)  •73-4S03 


'^ 


\ 


4 


•SJ 


<> 


c> 


.. 


&^ 


7.. 


^ 


<> 


k"Q 


\ 


U 


I 


m 


'i    fc 


11 

J 

I; 

'\ 

ili 

1. 

^2& 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


eases  of  pickles,  one  dozen  each  of  gallon  jars,  for  $16, 
which  cost  $3.50  or  $4  in  New  York,  and  other  things 
in  proportion.  These  were  the  cream  cif  his  cargo, 
very  desirable,  and  I  knew  I  could  make  a  profit-^n 
them,  but  he  compelled  me  to  take  some  articles  in 
the  same  purchase  which  were  not  desirable.  He 
agreed  to  deliver  them  on  the  platform  at  the  east 
end  of  my  store,  bringing  them  in  his  long-boats.  I 
advertised  these  articles  freely  in  the  next  morning's 
papers.  He  had  his  loaded  boats  there,  and  half  an 
hour  later  the  platform  was  crowded  with  customers 
asking  the  price  of  pickles — pickles  in  half  barrels  and 
pickles  in  gallons  in  cases.  I  replied  for  the  latter, 
$36  a  case.  Before  another  half  hour  had  passed  by 
I  had  sold  the  greater  part  of  my  purchase  for  over 
one  hundred  per  cent  profit.  The  captain,  standing 
in  the  store,  saw  it  all,  and  when  he  fully  realized  how 
the  thing  was  working,  his  figure  rose  to  its  full 
height,  six  feet  two,  while  his  countenance  expressed 
his  amazement.  'Coleman,'  said  he,  the  next  day 
when  he  CcUne  on  shore,  *I  wrote  my  wife  in  Nan- 
tucket last  night,  saying  tiiat  there  was  a  Coleman 
here  who  did  not  belong  to  the  Nantucket  family, 
and  I  am  sure  I  was  right.'  We  were  close  friends 
ever  afterward. 

**  At  that  time  this  country  was  importing  from  the 
Hawaiian  islands  and  Australia  nearly  all  the  pota- 
toes and  onions  used,  as  from  Peru  and  Chili  came 
flour  and  feed  grain.  In  our  dependent  position, 
delayed  shipments,  or  a  scarcity  from  any  cause,  sent 
up  prices,  while  an  over-supply  brought  them  down 
correspondingly.  I  have  known  onions  to  find  quick 
sale  at  fifty  cents  a  pound  on  one  day,  and  to  be  a  drug 
on  the  market  the  next  day  at  twenty  or  twenty-five 
cents,  and  if  the  supply  increased  dropping  to  half  that 
price,  or  less. 

"  The  early  bird  was  eminently  successful  in  those 
times.  Ships  arriving  overnight  with  desirable  car- 
goes, the  doors  of  the  consignees  would  be  besieged 
at   six   o'clock   next    morning   by  the   more  active 


WILUAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


S27 


people  in  the  trade,  awaiting  the  arrival  of  the  owner. 
Sometimes  a  dozen  would  be  in  a  line,  those  coming 
first  having  the  preference  of  the  first  interview 
and  opportunity  to  trade.  It  was  often  a  severe 
experience  for  both  buyer  and  seller.  The  seller,  seeing 
the  buyers  outside,  would  naturally  feel  that  in  case 
the  first  did  not  accept  his  terms,  the  second  one 
would,  and  consequently  he  might  put  up  his  prices 
to  suit  himself.  But  it  sometimes  happened  that  the 
consignee  did  not  know  what  articles  of  an  invoice 
were  most  desirable,  when  the  buyer  would  have  the 
advantage.  I  have  frequently  seen  the  first  person 
in  line  leaving  without  making  a  purchase ;  or,  on  the 
other  hand,  he  might  secure  every  desirable  article 
on  the  vessel,  leaving  those  in  his  wake  to  get  nothing, 
and  the  consignee  with  a  large  quantity  of  unsalable 
goods  on  his  hands.  In  all  this  there  was  little  of 
sharp  practice,  very  little  of  trickery  or  dishonorable 
dealing.  Business  was  carried  on  to  a  great  extent 
upon  honor,  men  regarding  their  word  as  sacred  as 
their  bond.  But  of  course  the  shrewder  sort,  and 
those  having  the  best  knowledge  of  their  business, 
the  most  active  and  intelligent,  would  make  money 
where  others  would  lose." 

In  1852  Mr  Coleman  began  business  in  New  York, 
increasing  his  shipping  interests  to  such  an  extent 
that  in  1856,  after  closing  the  work  of  the  vigilance 
committee,  he  started  a  regular  line  of  ships  to  San 
Francisco,  the  enterprise  being  attended  with  signal 
success.  At  this  time  California  was  considered  an 
outpost  of  civilization  and  of  commerce.  Merchants 
there  were  regarded  as  adventurers,  worthy  of  some 
credit  perhaps,  but  not  ranking  at  all  in  responsibility 
with  those  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  or  even  of  the 
southern  or  western  states.  Means  of  communication 
with  the  west  coast  were  limited.  It  was  the  part  of 
prudence  in  the  California  merchant  having  obliga- 
tions to  meet  in  the  Atlantic  states  to  keep  there  a 
reserve  fund,  as  large  as  possible,  to  draw  upon  in 


^-1, 

;  "  , 

■  i   i  i    -  ■ 
:■   .  i    Ml 

. 

;       1      .  (■ 

'■'    '  '      ;  ■ 

"    ■    ■'  li 

1    i  ( '^■ 

■    I    ' 

i'M'J 

ii 

fill  I,! 

i 


I 
ft 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


case  of  an  emergency.  During  the  financial  panic 
of  1857,  however,  the  moneyed  men  of  New  York 
began  to  regard  the  San  Francisco  merchants  at 
somewhat  nearer  their  true  value,  the  Pacific  coast 
being  less  affected  at  such  times  than  the  Atlantic 
coast.  All  through  this  period  of  stringency,  Mr 
Coleman  had  in  bank  at  New  York  money  sufficient 
to  pay  all  his  obligations,  discounting  many  of  them 
sixty  or  ninety  days  before  they  became  due.  Further 
than  this,  rates  of  discount  being  at  one  time  very 
high,  four  or  five  per  cent  a  month,  he  bought 
some  first-class  paper  of  other  houses  as  an  invest- 
ment. No  man  ever  did  more  than  Mr  Coleman  to 
elevate  the  standard  of  California  credits  in  New 
York.  For  example :  while  this  panic  was  at  its 
height,  he  had  some  acceptances  in  Boston,  which 
he  was  especially  desirous  of  retiring.  They  were 
held  by  the  City  Bank,  of  which  Samuel  Hooper 
was  president.  Mr  Coleman  went  to  the  bank  and 
saw  the  president. 

"You  hold  some  paper  of  mine,  Mr  Hooper,  which 
I  should  like  to  retire." 

"  At  what  rate  ? "  asked  the  president,  with  an  air 
of  surprise. 

"Well,"  said  Mr  Coleman,  "good  New  York  paper 
is  selling  at  three  per  cent  a  month,  but  I  do  not 
want  any  such  rate." 

"  Do  you  really  desire  to  purchase  your  paper? "  he 
asked,  still  incredulous. 

"  I  do ;  that  is  why  I  am  here." 

"  Then  I  will  not  sell  it,"  said  the  bank  president. 
"  If  there  is  any  good  paper  about  I  want  it." 

"Not  at  seven  per  cent  per  annum?" 

"  No." 

"  I  would  like  to  have  it,  Mr  Hooper,  and  I  would 
like  it  at  six  per  cent  per  annum." 

"I  will  not  sell  it  at  all,"  he  replied. 

A  few  hours  later,  meeting  Mr  Coleman  on  'change, 
where   he  stood  talking   with  several  friends,   Mr 


WILUAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


329 


Hooper  came  up  and  said :  "  We  must  have  a  glass 
case  made  for  this  man,"  putting  his  hand  on 
Coleman's  shoulder,  **  who  is  ready  to  buy  his  paper 
in  the  midst  of  this  panic  at  six  per  cent  per  annum 
interest."  **  You  may  dispense  with  the  glass  case," 
Coleman  replied,  "  but  I  would  like  you  to  understand 
California  a  little  better,  and  give  her  merchants  their 
due,  for  there  are  men  and  resources  there  that  the 
people  in  the  Atlantic  states  and  Europe  do  not  yet 
appreciate." 

Indeed,  Mr  Coleman's  course  throughout  this  finan- 
cial episode  was  not  without  premeditation  and  pur- 
pose. He  saw  here  an  opportunity  to  raise  the 
credit  of  California  to  a  higher  plane  than  it  had  ever 
before  enjoyed.  In  no  other  way  could  he  better 
make  her  true  strength  understood,  and  he  resolved 
that  he  would  embrace  every  similar  opportunity  to 
increase  her  credit  and  exhibit  her  strength.  Hence, 
in  the  panic  of  1861,  he  further  strengthened  the 
reputation  of  California;  and  so  in  every  subsequent 
disturbance,  until  the  panic  of  1873  brought  Califor- 
nia credit  to  the  front  rank,  and  placed  it  above  that 
of  any  other  state  in  the  union. 

But  it  was  not  alone  in  times  of  anxiety  in  the 
money  market  or  of  bodily  danger  at  the  hands  of 
banded  ruffians  that  Mr  Coleman  has  shown  himself 
available  and  helpful.  In  the  presence  of  that  most 
appalling  of  pestilential  horrors,  yellow  fever,  before 
which  ordinarily  stout-hearted  men  and  heroic  women 
flee  with  terror,  his  courage,  self-possession,  and  readi- 
ness in  devising  expedients  brought  him  to  the  relief 
of  hundreds  of  his  fellow-beings. 

In  January  1853,  being  en  route  from  New  York 
to  San  Francisco,  he  took  passage  at  Panamd,  on  the 
steamer  Tennessee,  Captain  Totten.  It  was  a  boister- 
ous winter,  but  warm.  They  laid  in  the  usual  stores 
at  that  point,  and,  among  other  things,  Mr  Coleman's 
party  bought  all  the  ice  there  was  remaining  in  Pana- 
md, about  a  ton,  for  which  twenty-five  cents  a  pound 


i 

*  . 


\ 


880 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


I   1 


was  paid.  There  were  about  seven  hundred  passen- 
gers on  board,  and  among  the  more  prominent  was  a 
bishop  of  the  methodist  church. 

Two  days  from  Panama  the  yellow  fever  appeared, 
first  attacking  a  young  lieutenant  in  the  United  States 
army.  This  naturally  caused  great  uneasiness.  The 
next  day  several  new  cases  were  reported.  The  sur- 
geon of  the  ship,  a  very  good  man,  was  entirely  unac- 
quainted with  yellow  fever,  and  these  being  his  first 
cases,  and  seeing  the  terror  spread  around  Lim,  became 
demoralized,  and  losing  sleep,  resorted  to  stimulants, 
and  finally  arrived  at  such  a  condition  that  his  brother 
oflficers  felt  it  necessary  to  put  him  in  irons.  He  was, 
in  fact,  from  excitement,  almost  a  maniac. 

Here  was  truly  an  alarming  state  of  affairs.     On  a 
sm^ll  ship,  out  at  sea,  with  no  relief  possible,  no  port 
of  refuge  near  by,  with  seven  hundred  passengers,  of 
all  grades  of  society,  crowding  every  nook  and  corner, 
a  long  run  before  reaching  their  destination,  fully  ten 
days'  exposure  to  tropical  influences,  without  a  doctor 
or  medical  man  on  board  except  the  surgeon,  and  he 
totally  incapacitated,  the  whole  ship  became  terror- 
stricken.     Several  deaths  occurred.     The  first  funeral 
was  attended  with  much  solemnity ;  a  long  and  solemn 
service  was  read,  and  the  body,  wrapped  in  sheets, 
was  committed  to  the  deep.     The  second  was  alike 
solemn ;  the  third  less  so ;  the  fourth  still  less  so,  and 
so  on,  until  the  living  hastened  to  get  the  dead  out  of 
the  way  as  soon  as  possible.     Neither  the  good  bishop 
nor  the  passengers  seemed  inclined  to  give  much  time, 
if  any,  to  further  funeral  ceremonies.     The  gloom  of 
a  charnel-house  settled  over  the  vessel;  deep  melan- 
choly prevailed;  mothers  gathered  their  children  to 
their  arms,  fathers    drew    their    families   together, 
friends  whispered  or  talked  only  in  subdued  tones. 
The  captain  of  the  ship  himself,  a  good  sailor  and  a 
good  man,  was,  because  of  impaired   health,  much 
alarmed  and  unequal  to  the  occasion.     What  was  to 
be  done  ?    There  seemed  to  be  no  one  who  had  any 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


831 


confidence  in  his  ability  to  assist,  or  who  was  willing 
to  assume  any  risk  that  might  be  shunned.  There 
was  the  greatest  solicitude  to  avoid  contact  with  any 
fever-stricken  patient.  It  was  evident,  then,  that  a 
crisis  had  come,  and  that  prompt  measures  were  neces- 
sary to  prevent  still  more  serious  results.  At  this 
point,  Mr  Coleman  canvassed  the  ship  thoroughly, 
to  find  some  one  who  could  act  as  surgeon.  The 
nearest  approach  was  Mr  Tilotson,  who  had  seen  some 
service  as  an  apothecary.  Coleman  urged  him  to 
take  charge.  Tilotson  declined,  but  said  if  Coleman 
would  lead,  he  would  follow.  They  consulted  the 
captain,  and  were  asked  to  act  quickly.  Coleman  had 
no  medical  education,  and  little  experience,  except 
such  as  a  thoughtful  and  observant  person  acquires  in 
malarial  regions.  He  overhauled  the  ship's  medicine- 
chest  and  library,  studied  the  few  books  on  fever 
symptoms  and  remedies,  and  soon  became  able  to  pre- 
scribe simple  remedies  and  suitable  regime  and  diet. 
He  appropriated  th^  ice  purchased  at  Panamd,  to 
the  sole  use  of  the  fever-stricken ;  organized  corps  of 
nurses  and  assistants,  divided  the  ship  into  wards 
and  watches,  labored  to  make  each  one  as  valuable 
as  practicable,  and  to  divert  the  minds  of  passengers, 
by  keeping  them  usefully  employed.  His  equanim- 
ity, matter-of-fact  activities,  and  sympathetic  atten- 
tion gave  hope  to  the  sick  and  encouraged  all  others. 

The  captain,  appreciating  the  work  done,  gave 
Coleman  complete  control  of  the  hygiene  of  the  ship, 
ordered  his  deck  officers  and  stewards  to  promptly 
obey  his  directions  in  everything.  The  work  of 
cleanliness  and  fumigation  was  made  complete,  and 
temperance  enjoined  on  every  one. 

The  happy  effect  thus  produced  was  marvellous ;  the 
alarm  subsided;  those  who  had  looked  despondent 
began  to  brighten  up,  and  hope  blossomed  out  of 
despair.  The  number  of  deaths  decreased  rapidly, 
but  few  new  cases  appeared  ;  there  was  an  encourag- 
ing improvement  throughout  day  by  day ;  yet  it  was 


i. 


'>l 


i  i^ 


IV   1 


IT 


•• 


332 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


nearly  a  week  of  lingering  fear  and  doubt  before  the 
worst  was  safely  over,  and  passengers  and  crew  felt 
they  were  freed  from  the  plague.  There  were  sev- 
eral days  when  only  seven  persons  appeared  regu- 
larly at  the  cabin  dining-table.  Among  them  were  the 
late  William  Barron  and  an  old  ship  captain  and  Mr 
Coleman,  but  no  ladies.  But  as  the  ship  approached 
the  northern  latitudes  there  was  notable  improvement, 
and  after  passing  Cape  St  Lucas  it  was  very  marked, 
and  when  the  steamer  arrived  off  San  Francisco  there 
was  very  little  evidence  of  the  fever  left.  A  few  per- 
sons, however,  were  still  ill  or  complaining. 

To  bring  out  more  fully  the  character  of  the  man 
on  this  occasion,  I  trespass  upon  the  bounds  of  a  pri- 
vate reminiscence  of  Mr  Coleman,  and  give  an  ex- 
tract from  his  own  modest  writing  in  reference  to  this 
incident:  "I  was  not  a  doctor,  and  probably  no  more 
fitted  to  take  charge  of  the  ship  at  this  ci  itical  period 
than  many  other  persons  who  were  on  board.  But  I 
had  a  little  more  energy,  possibly,  or  something  which 
impelled  me  to  do  what  I  could  to  better  the  state  of 
things  around  me.  I  did  not  want  to  run  the  risk  of 
yellow  fever  any  more  than  anybody  else.  I  knew 
the  danger;  but  I  felt  that  shirking  or  desponding 
would  do  me  no  good,  and  certainly  do  no  one  else 
good,  and  I  met  the  or^casion  promptly,  and,  I  may 
say,  almost  cheerfully.  I  never  missed  a  meal,  though 
living  lightly  and  carefully ;  I  slept  my  regular  hours, 
as  nearly  as  the  work  in  hand  would  permit.  Above 
all  things,  I  cultivated  a  cheerful  spirit,  and  although 
nursing,  watching,  and  handling  those  ill,  and  souie 
who  were  probably  in  the  pangs  of  death,  I  fortu- 
nately escaped  entirely." 

While  Mr  Coleman  was  finding  his  way  across  the 
plains  to  California  in  1849,  the  associated  "Hounds" 
were  holding  high  carnival  in  San  Francisco.  Hon- 
esty was  now  no  longer  universal.  In  fact,  before 
the  dawn  of  the  memorable  year  just  mentioned,  it 
was  whispered  that  villany  was  banding  in  Califor- 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


338 


nia.  I  have  given  the  history  of  the  origin  and  de- 
velopment of  the  association  of  "Hounds"  in  volume 
one  of  my  Popular  Tribunals.  Organized  first  as  a 
kind  of  benevolent  and  relief  society,  the  character  of 
its  worst  members  was  not  long  in  reasserting  itself. 
The  temptation  to  live  in  idleness  and  take  advantage 
of  the  pastoral  condition  which  then  prevailed  was  too 
great  for  them.  By  the  spring  of  1849  these  non- 
producers,  in  open  organized  lawlessness,  were  subsist- 
ing as  thieves.  They  had  their  Tammany  Hall,  from 
which  they  sallied  forth.  With  threats  of  violence 
they  extorted  money  or  goods  from  whomsoever  they 
thought  prudent  to  attack.  Stores  they  would  enter, 
and  selecting  such  goods  as  they  fancied,  carry  them 
away,  or  help  themselves  to  whatever  they  required 
from  exposed  piles  of  merchandise ;  and  so  strong  did 
they  become  that  no  one  dared  oppose  them.  As 
might  be  expected,  these  "  Hounds  "  directed  their 
early  attention  to  politics,  the  school  in  which  some 
of  the  worst  of  them  had  been  brought  up  in  New 
York  citv.  Yet,  even  to-dav,  such  men  as  these,  un- 
der  a  different  semblance,  have  much  to  do  in  shaping 
our  affairs,  national,  state,  and  municipal.  San  Fran- 
cisco has  had  continuously  to  provide  for  and  suffer 
from  other  parasitic  hounds.  Largely  on  account  of 
the  apathy  of  the  better  class  of  citizens,  tricksters  and 
bosses  are  allowed  to  pervert  the  administration  of 
affairs.  It  is  almost  a  truism  that  the  American  peo- 
ple will  tolerate  this  sort  of  tyranny  to  a  degree  which 
would  drive  people  living  under  monarchical  rule  to 
desperation. 

With  increased  numbers  and  opportunities,  the 
Hounds  Association  put  on  new  dignities.  Becom- 
ing thereupon  somewhat  ashamed  of  their  canine  ap- 
pellation, they  changed  their  name  to  that  of  the  San 
Francisco  Society  of  Regulators,  and  organized  and 
officered  their  body  upon  the  usual  respectable  models. 
The  main  difference  between  the  Hounds  and  the 
Regulators  was,  that  the  latter  were  more  pretentious, 


h 


:;I 


'!  I 


rl\ 


9M 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CAUFORNIA. 


r  i^.' 


«i 


more  diplomatic,  and  worked  more  generally  through 
politics  as  their  instrumentality  than  the  former. 

Prior  to  the  admission  of  California  into  the  union 
in  1850,  while  there  was  ample  law  for  all  the  re- 
quirements under  the  regime  which  had  prevailed 
until  the  gold  excitement,  peace  reigned  supreme,  and 
the  potency  of  the  law  was  shown  in  this,  that  it  was 
seldom  invoked,  and  was  administered  with  the  mini- 
mum friction.  Except  at  a  few  points  where  military 
discipline  and  Mexican  forms  held  sway,  Californians 
were  governed  with  little  more  legal  restraint  than  the 
aborigines. 

From  the  beginning  crime  in  California  had  an 
individuality.  Deadly  weapons  were  worn  as  orna- 
ments, and  theft  was  more  wicked  than  murder.  In 
the  race  for  wealth  loss  of  life  was  expected  ;  the 
sacredness  of  property  was  beyond  question  ;  if  half 
the  gold-seekers  were  killed  there  were  enough  of 
them  left.  The  characteristics  of  crime  grow  out  of 
the  conditions.  Where  rope  is  scarce,  and  gunpowder 
plenty,  and  time  limited,  and  everybody  generally 
impatient  of  the  hypocrisy,  subterfuge,  and  injustice 
of  law-courts,  naturally  the  revolver  is  the  favorite 
code,  placing  as  it  does  the  vicious  and  brutal  on  the 
same  plane  with  the  righteous  and  humane. 

A  pastoral  innocence  attended  the  gold-diggers  of 
1848.  Crime  came  to  the  front  the  following  year, 
increasing  in  1850,  until  in  1851  hanging  for  stealing 
w^as  in  order.  Here  arose  the  vigilance  principle — 
in  San  Francisco  in  the  year  1851.  There  were  law- 
courts  then,  fairly  honest,  but  justice  was  an  uncer- 
tain quantity,  proceedings  tedious  and  costly,  and 
jails  small  and  insecure.  The  principal  crimes  which 
caused  the  popular  uprising  of  1851  were  incen- 
diarism, robbery,  and  murder  ;  the  people  arose  and 
executed  the  law  which  the  court  satellites  refused  or 
neglected  to  do.  In  1856  it  was  entirely  different. 
There  were  law-courts  enough,  and  law  was  strong, 
and  the  prisons  were  in  fair  condition.     But  the  min- 


WILLIAM  T.   COLEMAN. 


335 


isters  of  the  law  were  exceedingly  corrupt.  Murder- 
ers, thieves,  and  gamblers  saw  and  seized  the  oppor- 
tunity, seating  themselves  upon  the  judicial  benches 
left  exposed  by  preoccupied  merchants,  mechanics, 
and  miners,  unblushingly  stuffing  ballot  boxes  to 
secure  their  reelection.  Hence  it  was  for  the  pro- 
tection of  outraged  law,  and  the  purification  of  the 
courts,  that  the  people  of  San  Francisco  organized 
in  1856,  as  well  as  for  the  direct  punishment  of 
crime.  The  last  uprising,  that  of  1877,  grew  out  of 
a  conflict  between  labor  and  capital,  wherein  low 
foreigners,  and  kindred  American  spirits,  thought  to 
kill  or  drive  away  the  Chinese  who  did  too  much 
work  for  the  money  they  received. 

From  about  the  first  to  the  last,  William  T.  Cole- 
man was  prominent  in  all  these  movements.  He 
saw  at  once,  and  never  thereafter  had  reason  to  change 
his  opinion,  that  not  only  was  the  material  prosperity 
of  the  time  and  place  in  jeopardy,  but  the  vital 
interests,  social,  political,  and  industrial,  of  the  present 
and  future  generations  were  at  stake.  The  monster 
that  preyed  upon  the  life-blood  of  the  commonwealth 
must  be  seized  by  strong  hands  and  strangled,  and 
the  longer  the  delay  the  more  difficult  would  be  the 
task. 

Two  full  volumes  of  my  historical  series  are  devoted 
to  an  account  of  the  popular  tribunals  of  the  Pacific 
coast,  and  I  shall  be  able  in  this  sketch  to  give  but  a 
brief  description. 

Mr  Coleman  first  appears  upon  the  scene,  in  a  lead- 
ing part,  in  the  Burdue-Stuart  affair,  just  prior  to  the 
organization  of  the  San  Francisco  committee  of  vig- 
ilance of  1851.  There  was  already  much  mobocracy 
in  the  mines,  and  the  antics  of  justice  were  free  and 
peculiar  throughout  the  entire  country.  Mr  Coleman 
was  even  now  little  more  than  a  boy  in  years,  though 
a  full-grown  man  in  that  wisdom  which  comes  of  ex- 
perience.  And  it  is  a  little  singular  that  this  chief 
among  the  men  of  vigilance,  among  those  who  later 


'.'(. 


1 


m 


w'.> 


m.  - '       k 


t 


t 


836 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


were  so  freely  denounced  as  breakers  of  the  law, 
mobites,  and  stranglers,  should  make  his  first  ap- 
pearance in  an  endeavor  to  save  the  law  from  an 
excited  rabble  who  sought  to  overthrow  the  actions 
of  a  court  of  justice.  In  this  he  was  clearly  on  the 
side  of  right,  as  he  was  later,  and  as  we  find  him 
always. 

A  poor  fellow  named  Thomas  Burdue,  whose 
unfortunate  resemblance  to  the  noted  criminal  James 
Stuart  had  brought  upon  him  no  small  trouble,  was  in 
danger  of  his  life  from  the  mob,  when  Mr  Coleman 
stretched  forth  his  hand  to  save  him,  at  the  same 
time  advocating  organized  popular  proceedings  for 
securing  the  justice  which  courts  of  law  failed  to 
provide.  Robbery  and  murder  had  now  become  so 
frequetit,  and  punishment  so  rare,  that,  when  Burdue 
was  arrested  for  the  robbery  of  Jansen's  store,  the 
people  were  determined  to  make  an  example  by 
hanging  him  forthwith. 

It  was  on  a  Saturday  night  that  Burdue  was 
brought  up  for  examination,  and  after  the  evidence 
was  heard,  the  court  was  adjourned  until  Monday. 
Scarcely  was  this  done  when  a  rush  was  made  by  the 
crowd  upon  the  prisoner,  fully  determined  to  hang 
him  forthwith.  Turning  to  Popular  Trihwuils,  I  find 
there  given  the  action  of  the  future  chief  of  vigilance 
in  this  trying  emergency. 

"Like  many  others,  Mr  William  T.  Coleman  had 
been  attending  to  business  up  to  Saturday  night,  and 
although  interested  in  current  events  had  given  them 
no  special  attention.  Wending  his  way  Sunday  morn- 
ing after  breakfast  toward  the  old  Graham  house,  on 
the  corner  of  Pacific  and  Kearny  streets,  in  the  base- 
ment of  which  the  prisoners  were  confined,  he  saw  in 
the  faces  of  the  citizens  bent  in  that  direction  un- 
mistakable evidences  of  anger,  which  as  he  walked 
became  somewhat  contagious.  Considering  the  possi- 
bility of  a  rough  turn  in  afiairs  before  the  day  was 
over,  in  which  perchance  he  might  participate,  the 


WILUAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


S87 


thrifty  voung  merchant  returned  to  his  room,  laid 
aside  his  Sunday  suit,  and  put  on  plainer  apparel. 
When  he  reached  the  scene  of  action,  the  mayor 
from  the  balcony  was  urging  the  people  to  dispeise, 
and  proffering  the  strongest  pledges  that  proceedings 
in  this  trial  should  be  prompt  and  decisive.  Others 
spoke  in  the  same  strain. 

"It  soon  became  apparent  to  Mr  Coleman  that 
these  speeches  tended  to  irritate  rather  than  to  allay 
the  excitement.  Some  laughed  at  promises ;  others 
remained  sullenly  silent.  Many  had  their  small-arms, 
and  from  almost  every  eye  shot  angry  impatience. 
Though  without  leadership,  without  concert  of  notion, 
the  heterogeneous  throng  seemed  possessed  of  a  <  om- 
mon  purpose.  There  appeared  to  be  real  danger  that 
this  sense  of  burning  wrong  would  break  jut  into 
excess,  that  the  people  would  take  possession  of  the 
building  an'^  ^'  sngthe  prisoners. 

"  Coleman  hastily  revolved  the  matter  in  his  mind 
and  determined  to  try  a  middle  course.  Next  to  down- 
right villany  he  hated  mob  violence.  He  respected 
the  law ;  even  the  bloodless  skeleton  of  the  law  he 
had  ever  regarded  as  preferable  to  anarchy.  Was  it 
not  possible  to  organize  a  court  of  the  people,  sub 
colore  juriSy  if  the  law  would  ;  if  not,  without  the 
sanction  of  the  law,  and  so  maintain  the  integrity 
both  of  the  law  and  of  the  people  ?    He  would  try  it. 

"  Entering  the  building  and  making  his  way  to  the 
front  balcony,  he  waited  his  opportunity,  and  just  as 
one  of  the  speakers  closed  an  urgent  appeal  to  the 
people  to  disperse,  go  home,  and  leave  everything  to 
the  officers,  he  swung  himself  well  out,  and  with  a 
wave  of  the  hand  cried,  'Not  We  will  do  no  such 
thing  1  The  people  here  have  no  confidence  in  your 
promises,  and  unfortunately  they  have  no  confidence 
in  the  execution  of  the  law  by  its  officers.  This  state 
of  affairs  has  gone  too  far.  Patience  has  fled.  I  pro- 
pose that  the  people  here  present  form  themselves 
into  a  court,  to   be   organized  within   this  building 


i 


*  m 


C.  B.-I.    22 


D'-' 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


•• 


Vi    i,i 


immediately  ;  that  the  prisoners  be  brought  before  it 
that  the  testimony  be  taken,  counsel  on  each  side 
allotted ;  that  the  trial  be  begun  by  twelve  o'clock, 
and  conducted  fairly,  dispassionately,  resolutely  ;  and 
if  the  prisoners  be  found  innocent  let  them  be  dis- 
charged, but  if  guilty  let  them  be  hanged  as  high  as 
Hauian,  and  that  before  the  sun  goes  down  ! ' 

"For  an  instant  there  was  silence,  breathless,  almost 
painful ;  the  street  was  waiting  for  the  next  word ; 
but  it  was  only  for  an  instant.  Then  burst  forth  loud 
and  long  applause,  which  brought  relief  The  clouds 
cleared  from  men's  faces.  The  words  had  been  spoken 
which  each  wished  to  speak.  In  the  abrasions  of  this 
impetuous  society  the  steel  had  struck  the  flint,  and 
kindled  the  spark  which  should  liberate  its  smothered 
wrath.  From  a  thousand  tongues  the  shout  went 
up,  '  Yes  ;  that's  it  1 '  'You  are  right ! '  *  That's  the 
remedy  1 '  Already  the  great  heart  of  that  tumultu- 
ous assembly   was  won ;  now  to  the  quieting  of  it. 

*  We    don't   want   a   mob  1  '  continued  the   speaker. 

*  We  won't  have  a  mob  !  Let  us  organize  as  becomes 
men ;  here ;  now  ;  as  a  committee  of  citizens,  and 
insist  on  the  right.  All  is  ready ;  the  witnesses  are 
at  hand  ;  let  not  justice  be  further  cheated.' 

"  The  proposal  was  put  to  vote,  and  a  unanimous 

*  ay  '  was  the  answer.  Every  good  citizen  who  could 
was  then  invited  to  enter  the  building;  the  rest  were 
to  stand  on  guard  without  in  patient  quietude.  Cole- 
man then  entered  the  inner  hall,  which  was  used  as  a 
court-room,  followed  by  a  crowd.  Mounting  a  chair, 
he  asked  them  to  choose  from  among  their  number 
one  who  would  act  as  judge,  to  impanel  twelve  jury- 
men, and  select  counsel  for  the  prosecution  and  for 
the  defense.  He  also  recommended  that  those  with- 
out should  organize  and  surround  the  building,  which 
was  done.  J.  R.  Sj)ence  was  appointed  judge,  and  C. 
L.  Ross  and  H.  R.  Bowie  associate  justices.  Wm  T. 
Coleman  was  called  on  to  act  for  the  prosecution,  and 
Hall  McAllister,  Calhoun  Benbam,  and  D.  D.  Shat- 


for 

ith- 

ich 

lie. 

T. 

and 
ihat- 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


tuck  volunteered  their  services  for  the  defence.  The 
twelve  jurymen  were  sworn  in,  and  after  a  short 
adjournment,  about  half-past  two  all  was  ready  and 
the  trial  proceeded. 

"Judge  Shattuck  entered  his  official  protest  against 
the  proceedings,  but  no  attention  was  paid  to  him. 
Coleman  opened  the  case  briefly  for  the  people,  and 
w^as  followed  by  McAllister.  The  latter  asked  that 
a.  nolle  prosequi  should  be  entered,  and  remarked  that 
it  ill  became  men  to  trample  underfoot  the  high 
dignity  and  sacred  rights  of  that  law  the  blessings  of 
which  they  had  all  their  lives  enjoyed.  Coleman 
replied  that  for  the  Roman  code,  and  for  the  law  as 
executed  in  France  and  England,  and  for  the  great 
lights  of  the  law,  he  entertained  profound  respect. 
But  while  the  world  from  time  immemorial  has  had 
its  just  ordinances  and  able  advocates,  unfortunately 
there  have  always  been  parasites,  men  who  are  now-a- 
days  called  pettifoggers,  and  they  with  the  unworthy 
agents  of  law  had  unhappily  brought  it  too  often  into 
contempt,  had  thwarted  its  wise  and  just  designs, 
and  thereby  hazarded  the  lives  and  property  of  the 
people.  It  was  not  laws,  but  the  criminal  breach  of 
them,  that  he  complained  of;  for  the  vindication  of 
the  law,  not  for  its  overthrow,  the  people  were  there 
gathered. 

"  Every  exertion  was  made  to  calm  the  passions  of 
the  multitude,  and  except  occasional  outbursts,  general 
good  order  and  quiet  prevailed.  The  prisoners  were 
kept  out  of  court  lest  their  presence  should  fan  the 
excitement.  Witnesses  were  examined  and  the  case 
submitted.  About  nine  o'clock  the  jury  retired,  and 
after  a  loni;  absence  returned  with  the  announcement 
that  they  could  not  agree. 

"  It  was  well  that  tlie  bleak  winds  and  fatigue  had 
chilled  the  impetuosity  of  the  morning,  and  that 
many  had  in  consequence  withdrawn  to  their  liomcs. 
Nevertheless  there  were  yet  remaining  those  who  for 
twelve  consecutive  hours  hud  stood  massed  against 


w 

n 

1 

m 

/  ' 

4  ^-^ 

^i^^ 

;u: 

1  ' ' 

ii! 

i 


m 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


vr-   1 


ll.T 


that  building  waiting  to  see  what  this  new-fashioned 
tiibunal  would  do.  Their  patience  now  gave  way. 
*  Hang  them  anyhow  1 '  they  shouted  when  they 
learned  the  result.  *  They  deserve  itl  '  But  Cole- 
man said,  *No!  Though  I  feel  the  mortification  and 
chagrin  no  less  keenly  than  you,  and  though  I  be- 
lieve these  men  guilty,  there  must  be  no  violence. 
We  have  done  our  duty ;  we  cannot  afford  to  make 
a  mistake;  our  judgment  is  not  superior  to  that  of 
others,  and  we  must  abide  the  decision.'  The  jury 
was  discharged,  the  remainder  of  the  crowd  dis- 
persed, the  prisoners  were  left  with  the  county  offi- 
cers, and  remanded  to  jail. 

Burdue  was  finally  found  guilty  by  the  court,  which 
was  sufficiently  aroused  from  its  indifference  by  this 
popular  outburst  to  condemn  a  friendless  and  innocent 
man  to  fourteen  years'  imprisonment.  But  before  the 
sentence  of  the  court  was  executed,  Burdue  was  taken 
to  Marysville  and  narrowly  escaped  with  his  life  from 
a  charge  of  murder  committed  by  this  same  James 
Stuart. 

In  the  organization  of  the  first  San  Francisco  vig- 
ilance committee  in  1851,  shortly  after  the  Burdue- 
Stuart  affair,  Mr  Coleman  took  a  quiet  but  determined 
position.  While  he  would  shirk  no  responsibility,  he 
would  not  crowd  himself  forward.  It  was  not  power, 
prominence,  or  personal  consideration  of  any  kind 
which  actuated  these  social  reformers.  Hence  the 
hanging  of  Jenkins,  Stuart,  and  others  was  consum- 
mated while  Mr  Coleman  was  serving  his  apprentice- 
ship, I  might  say,  in  the  organization  and  administra- 
tion of  enforced  popular  justice.  As  member  of  the 
executive  committee  of  this  first  organization,  he 
rendered  the  most  efficient  service,  especially  in  the 
prevention  of  excesses  on  the  part  of  hot-headed 
associates  like  vehement  Sam  Brannan  and  others 
who  were  in  favor  of  hanging  first  and  trying  after- 
ward. Throughout  his  entire  career  as  apostle 
and   high  priest   of   popular   justice,   Mr   Coleman 


WILLIAM  T.   COLEMAN. 


841 


.  / 


would  never  permit  punishment  until  after  a  fair  trial, 
and  cool,  dispassionate  sentence,  all  conducted  and 
arrived  at  under  the  usual  forms  of  law  and  court 
proceedings,  and  such  alone  as  would  result  in  con- 
demnation in  any  of  the  legally  established  tribunals 
of  justice  inclining  toward  honesty. 

It  is  not  until  we  come  to  the  grand  tribunal  of  1856, 
however,  that  we  are  enabled  fully  to  appreciate  the 
man  in  all  the  fullness  of  his  genius  and  self-devotion. 
Here  we  behold  that  consecration  to  a  noble  purpose 
which  marks,  first  the  patriot,  and  if  destiny  should 
so  determine,  the  martyr.  In  him  was  found  in  an 
eminent  degree  that  happy  union  of  qualities  without 
which  success  would  have  been  impossible.  Patriotism 
and  self-devotion,  as  I  have  said,  first;  then  clear- 
siglitedness,  penetration,  and  rare  executive  ability, 
with  a  directness  of  aim  and  honesty  of  purpose  seldom 
found  outside  of  the  mercantile  profession.  He  made 
the  extinction  of  crime  and  the  reijeneration  of  the 
courts  a  business,  and  lent  to  the  accomplishment 
of  these  purposes  the  same  powers  which  he  would 
apply  to  the  accomplishment  of  results  in  any  other 
direction. 

The  immediate  cause  of  the  explosion  of  popular 
indignation,  destined  to  cleanse  for  many  years  the 
social  and  political  atmosphere  of  California,  and  save 
the  country  from  anarchy  and  ruin,  was  the  killing  of 
James  King  of  William  by  James  Casey,  on  the  14th 
of  May,  1856.  King  had  been  a  banker,  and  was,  at 
the  time,  an  editor,  writing  reformatory  and  inflam- 
matory articles,  partly  upon  principle,  partly  through 
spite,  and  partly  to  build  up  a  newspaper.  But, 
however  hotor  vehement  in  language,  he  was  generally 
on  the  right  side,  and  the  Bulletin  had  not  been  long 
established  before  it  was  evident  that  public  iniquity 
or  its  editor  must  go.  Casey  had  also  been  an  editor, 
and  was  now  lawyer,  ballot-box  stuffer,  buyer  of  votes 
and  verdicts,  judge  and  senator  maker,  and  general 


Hi'- 


' 


ii  i 


;•, 


312 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


J\ 


manipulator  of  judicial  and  legislative  villanies    for 
whomsoever  would  pay. 

Immediately  upon  firing  the  fatal  shot,  and  satis- 
fying himself  as  to  the  result,  Casey  proceeded  to 
deliver  himself  into  the  hands  of  the  law  as  the  surest 
method  of  escaping  justice — that  justice  which,  had 
he  not  hastened  his  steps,  would  have  overtaken  him 
ere  he  had  reached  the  jail. 

The  shooting  occurred  about  five  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon.  After  a  hasty  dinner  taken  between  six 
and  seven  o'clock,  Mr  Coleman  appeared  upon  the 
plaza,  where  he  found  himself  in  the  midst  of  a  surg- 
ing mass  of  men  wildly  determined  on  violent 
demonstrations.  Meeting  several  members  of  the 
committee  of  1851  they  said  : 

**  We  were  looking  for  you." 

"  For  what  ? "  asked  Coleman. 

"  To  organize  the  vigilance  committee." 

Mr  Coleman  admitted  that  the  necessity  existed, 
V.-at  declined  the  offered  leadership,  preferring  to  serve 
iu  the  ranks.  "I  .v^ent  my  way  among  the  people," 
he  says,  "comparing  the  various  sentiments  expressed, 
and  doing  everything  in  my  power  to  allay  the  ever- 
increasing  excitement.  I  urged  upon  my  friends  not 
to  allow  the  city  to  be  disgraced  by  any  rash  act. 
Recklessness  did  not  seem  to  me  the  remedy,  nor 
hasty  action  needful." 

That  is  to  say,  if  it  was  a  mob  the  citizens  of  San 
Francisco  were  determined  to  make  of  themselves, 
Mr  Coleman  could  not  join  them ;  if  in  the  most 
momentous  interests  affecting  the  commonwealth 
passion  was  to  usurp  the  place  of  reason,  no  reason- 
able man  would  join  the  madness;  but  if  time,  money, 
or  even  life  itself  were  necessary  to  sustain  the  arm 
of  justice  and  vindicate  the  honor  and  integrity  of 
the  city,  whatever  Mr  Coleman  had  was  at  the 
city's  service. 

And  a  feather  would  turn  the  scale.  Such  were  the 
conditions  of  things,  of  society,  law,  lawyers,  judges, 


1^,'.* 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


343 


legislators,  mobocracy  in  the  mines,  and  justice  pros- 
trate in  the  city,  that  the  voice  of  one  man,  and 
such  a  man  as  William  T.  Coleman  was  now  recognized 
to  be,  could  not  fail  to  exercise  a  powerful  influence 
in  this  centralized  and  highly  wrought  community — 
even  to  the  saving  of  both  city  and  country  from  the 
rule  of  ruffianism,  from  the  legal  trickeries  of  harpies 
of  the  law,  and  from  final  disunion  from  any  respect- 
able confederation  of  states,  particularly  from  the 
northern  United  States  in  their  coming  struggle. 

It  soon  became  evident  to  the  better  class  of 
thinking  people  that  in  Mr  Coleman,  more  than  in 
any  other,  were  united  the  essential  qualities  of 
leadership  in  the  present  emergency — courage  and 
prudence,  boldness  and  discretion,  respect  for  the  law, 
unswerving  faith  in  the  integrity  of  the  American 
people  and  the  American  government  properly 
administered,  and  an  abhorrence  equally  of  criminal 
rule  and  mobocracy.  This  they  again  made  known 
to  him,  insisting  upon  his  taking  his  place  at  the  front, 
which  he  finally  consented  to  do,  stipulating  only  on 
behalf  of  himself  and  his  associates  absolute  secrecy 
and  absolute  obedience. 

''It  is  a  serious  business,"  he  remarked  to  his 
friends.  "  It  is  no  child's  play.  It  may  prove  very 
serious.  We  may  get  through  quickly,  safely ;  we 
may  so  inv^olve  ourselves  as  never  to  get  through." 

But  his  mind  once  made  up,  thenceforward  to  the 
end  there  was  no  hesitancy,  no  thought  of  turning 
back :  it  must  be  victory  or  death.  He  wrote  a  call, 
and  '>sijd  "The  Committee  of  Thirteen,"  under 
whii..!  name  the  organization  of  1851  had  been  dis- 
banded. He  asked  a  friend  near  by  io  secure  a  good 
hall.  This  was  late  at  night,  and  after  every  eifort 
by  others  to  organize  had  seemed  to  entirely  fail. 
The  next  morning  this  call  appeared  in  the  Alta 
and  other  papers,  and  by  eight  A.  m.,  a  large  crowd 
had  already  assembled  in  front  of  the  hall  named, 
among   them  a    number   of  prominent  men,  all  of 


S44 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


whom  greeted  Coleman  cordially  when  he  appeared, 
and  asked  him  if  he  would  organize  a  committee,  and 
take  the  lead.  He  answered,  "  Yes,  if  it  must  be  so," 
and  provided  they  would  pledge  themselves  loyally  to 
do  as  he  said,  ana  adhere  to  it  to  the  death  if  need  be. 
The  answer  was,  "You  lead,  and  we  will  follow  to  the 
end."  He  then  dictated  a  very  solemn  obligation 
under  oath,  embracing  good  faith,  strict  secrecy  in  all 
things,  true  loyalty  to  one  another  and  to  the  entire 
organization,  risking  life,  liberty,  and  fortune,  if  need 
be,  with  implicit  and  unfaltering  obedience  to  their 
leader  at  all  times  and  under  all  circumstances.  It 
was  agreed  to,  promptly  and  unanimously.  He  sug- 
gested, further,  that  after  signing  this  obligation,  and 
at  all  times  thereafter,  instead  of  using  the  names  of 
the  individuals,  each  had  better,  for  obvious  reasons, 
be  known  by  a  number.  The  answer  was,  "Then, 
Mr  Coleman,  yours  is  number  one,"  and  he  signed  as 
such,  the  others  signing  with  avidity,  their  names  and 
following  numbers,  seriatim,  each  one  reading  the 
oath  and  affirming  it.  Enrolment  was  rapid,  fifteen 
hundred  taking  the  oath  the  first  day.  A  military 
organization  was  decided  upon,  and  an  executive  com- 
mittee selected,  of  which,  as  well  as  of  the  general 
committee,  Mr  Coleman  was  always  president.  He 
was  de  facto  commander  of  the  forces,  as  well  as 
supreme  in  all  things;  for  which  reason,  having  more 
than  he  could  do,  he  afterwards  asked  Doane  to 
take  immediate  command  of  the  troops,  as  he  was  an 
cx[)erienced  soldier,  and  could  devote  his  whole  time  to 
the  work.  Subscription  lists  were  started,  and  money 
Howed  in  freely.  More  permanent  quarters  were 
established ;  a  breastwork  of  gunnybags  filled  with 
sand  was  thrown  up,  giving  name  to  the  place.  Fort 
Gunnybags,  and  cannon  wee  planted  there.  All  tiiis 
was  assuredly  significant  of  sincerity  on  the  part  of 
plain,  hard-working  mercliants  and  mechanics,  accus- 
tomed to  say  what  they  meant  and  do  as  they  said. 
And  thus  was  uftected  an  organization  of  the  good 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


345 


citizens  of  San  Francisco  for  self-protection  against 
the  wicked  ones;  an  organization  of  those  who  lived 
honest  lives  and  labored  for  their  bread,  for  protection 
against  the  dishonest,  who  preferred  living  on  the 
labor  of  others;  an  organization  in  size  and  signifi- 
cance such  as  the  world  had  never  before  witnessed, 
its  number  soon  swelling  to  ten  thousand  strong, 
active,  ?>nd  intelligent  young  men,  who  spent  of  their 
own  money  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  for  the 
vindication  of  the  integrity  of  the  country  in  which 
they  had  cast  their  fortunes. 

It  is  due  to  Mr  Coleman  to  say  that  he  called,  and 
more  than  any  one  else,  crystallized  and  organized  the 
committee,  and  conceived  and  carried  out  most  of  its 
important  measures.  As  head  of  the  judiciary,  and 
chief  justice,  he  presided  at  all  trials.  He  stood 
steadfast  always,  encouraging  and  stimulating  his 
associates,  although  his  health  and  his  business  suf- 
fered severely  in  consequence.  "  I  urged  and  di- 
rected prudence,"  he  says.  "Our  effort  must  be  to 
avoid  the  commission  of  an  error  or  commission  of  an 
excess  in  anything;  be  sure  that  no  injustice  be  done 
to  any  one ;  better  a  thousand  villains  escape  than  one 
innocent  person  perish.  If  they  escaped  and  decamped, 
the  country  would  rejoice  in  their  absence.  Then,  as 
in  all  subsequent  occasions,  I  served  the  public  for  the 
public  good.  I  had  no  selfish,  personal  aims.  I 
thought  only  of  duty,  and  in  the  face  of  danger — 
physical,  political,  and  pecuniary — never  hesitated  a 
moment,  changed  my  course,  or  slowed  my  step.  I 
always  defrayed  my  own  expenses,  contributed  much 
to  the  expenses  of  others,  and  unstintingly  to  the 
public  enterprises,  which  I  afterward  espoused,  and 
never  in  any  of  them  would  receive  directly  or  indi- 
rectly one  cent  in  compensation  for  all  I  did  or  aided 
in  having  done." 

Mr  Coleman's  definition  of  vigilance  is  as  follows: 
**  The  forlorn  hope  of  good  citizens  who,  in  military 
form,  organize  quickly  in  the  face  of  danger  threat- 


:^    'i 


346 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


'     I 


ened  by  banded  criminals,  storm  tlicir  strongholds, 
overpower  their  forces,  organize  courts,  and  deliber- 
ately and  dispassionately  dispense  justice  in  legal 
forms  where  other  forces  have  failed,  and  leave  the 
good  people  free  frotn  further  fear  or  embarrassment 
to  resume  their  normal  positions  and  pursuits." 

In  1856  he  reannounced  what  ho  had  said  in  1851, 
as  a  basis  of  the  proposed  work,  i?\  the  following  words : 

"Who  made  the  laws  and  set  agents  over  them? 
The  people. 

"  Who  saw  these  laws  neglected,  disregarded, 
abused,  trampled  on?     The  people. 

**  Who  had  the  right  to  protect  these  laws,  and 
administer  where  their  servants  had  failed?  The 
people.  1 

"  The  people  are  the  power ;  it  is  theirs  by  birth- 
right, and  when  they  delegate  it,  it  is  expressed  and 
implied  that  upon  wrong-doing  tlio  servants  shall  be 
pushed  aside,  formally  or  informally,  and  their  places 
promptly  filled  by  other  and  better  agencies." 

What  Mr  Coloman  most  feared  was  that  some 
of  his  men  would  act  unadvisedly,  rashly,  or  injudi- 
ciously, perhaps  harshly.  Often  he  was  obliged  to 
remove  what  seemed  to  be  developing  jealousies.  In 
the  beginning,  there  was  on  hand  no  money,  yet  he 
never  lacked  means.  Some  men  he  pushed  forward, 
and  caused  others  to  make  motions,  and  offer  sugges- 
tions, or  volunteer  to  lead  in  movements,  so  that  no 
one,  himself  in  particular,  should  appear  too  promi- 
nent. 

While  the  men  of  vigilance  were  engaged  in  effect- 
ing their  organization,  securing  arms,  and  drilling  for 
active  duty,  their  enemies  were  not  idle.  The  day 
after  the  shooting,  there  was  scarcely  less  activity  in 
law-and-order  circles  than  at  the  rooms  of  the  vigi- 
lants.  The  military  companies  were  called  out,  the 
police  force  was  increased,  the  armories  were  replen- 
ished and  put  in  order,  and  recruiting  and  drilling 
were  prosecuted  vigorously. 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


847 


The  governor  of  the  state,  J.  Neely  Johnson,  was 
a  politician  of  no  very  pronounced  character,  the  Httle 
that  was  firm  or  consistent  in  him  being  susceptible  to 
the  influence  of  stronger  minds  rather  than  to  the  good. 
Coming  down  from  Sacramento,  he  sent  a  message  to 
the  president  of  the  vigilance  committee,  asking  for 
an  interview  at  the  Continental  hotel.  Mr  Coleman 
immediately  called  upon  him. 

"What  do  your  people  want,  Coleman?"  demanded 
the  governor. 

"Peace,"  replied  Coleman;  "and  we  would  like  it 
without  bloodshed.  Outrages  are  of  constant  occur- 
rence ;  our  suffrages  are  profaned,  our  fellow-citizens 
shot  down  in  the  street,  our  courts  afford  us  no 
redress;  this  state  of  things  we  will  endure  no  longer. 
You  are  asked  by  the  mayor  and  others  to  employ 
the  militia  to  crush  this  movement.  I  assure  you  it 
cannot  be  done.  We  ask  not  a  single  court  to  adjourn ; 
we  ask  not  a  single  officer  to  vacate  his  position ;  \v6 
demand  only  the  enforcement  of  the  laws  which  we 
have  made.  You  know  the  necessity  of  this  measure ; 
you  know  the  men  engaged  in  it ;  you  know  that  this 
is  no  mob,  no  distempered  faction,  but  San  Francisco 
herself  that  speaks.  Issue  your  proclamations,  if  you 
feel  that  the  dignity  of  the  law  may  be  best  main- 
tained by  frowning  on  justice;  declare  your  manifes- 
toes, if  the  government  can  maintain  its  self-respect 
only  by  public  protestations  against  virtue ;  but  leave 
us  alone  in  our  righteous  purposes ;  leave  us  alone  in 
our  shame  and  sorrow ;  for  as  God  lives,  we  will 
cleanse  this  city  of  her  corruption,  or  perish  in  the 
attempt.     So  we  have  sworn." 

"Sir,"  said  the  governor,  taking  Coleman  by  the 
hand,  "go  on  with  your  work.  Let  it  be  done  as 
speedily  as  possible,  and  my  best  wishes  attend  you." 

Had  the  governor  held  himself  to  this  promise,  all 
would  have  been  well,  and  ten  days  would  have  seen 
the  reform  accomplished.  But  the  pressure  brought 
upon  the  weak  official  by  the  men  of  law  and  their 


I  '! 


'■'•-i 

tp 

:,::l 

Jll 

848 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


^.'j,'. 


satellites  was  too  much  for  him.  They  wanted  im- 
mediate operations ;  they  wanted  to  fight. 

Reliable  information  (soon  after  commg  to  the  con^- 
mittee  that  the  governor  was  about  to  order  out  all 
his  forces,  which  he  had  promised  not  to  do,  on  the 
following  Sunday  the  committee  met  at  the  jail,  and 
in  the  presence  of  twenty  thousand  people  took  thence 
Casey,  and  another  notorious  character  named  Cora, 
and  conveyed  them  to  their  rooms,  where  after  a  full 
and  fair  trial,  such  as  they  would  have  received  in 
any  honest  court  of  justice,  they  were  hanged  at  the 
hour  the  body  of  James  King  of  William  was  being 
conveyed  to  its  tomb. 

So  runs  the  record  to  the  end  of  a  volume,  to  which 
the  reader  must  be  referred  for  particulars.  The 
committee  continued  its  calm  but  determined  course, 
finding  it  necessary  to  execute  but  four  persons,  all 
told,  and  send  from  the  country  some  twenty  or  thirty. 
The  criminal  element  for  the  most  part  became 
frightened  and  fled.  Similar  committees  were  formed 
elsewhere,  though  few  acted  with  the  coolness  and 
discretion  manifested  throughout  by  the  grand  tri- 
bunal in  San  Francisco.  The  whole  country  was 
purified  of  its  moral  pestilence  as  if  by  magic.  Hon- 
est men  breathed  more  freely,  and  many  a  dishonest 
one  quickly  reached  the  conclusion  that  rascality 
would  no  longer  pay. 

A  notable  incident  of  the  period,  and  one  which 
tried  the  temper  of  the  president  and  executive  com- 
mittee to  the  utmost,  was  the  arrest  and  trial  of 
Judge  Terry,  of  the  supreme  court,  for  stabbing  an 
officer  of  the  vigilance  committee  while  on  duty. 
The  governor,  after  having  exhausted  all  his  re- 
sources to  exterminate  the  mob,  as  he  called  it,  in- 
voked federal  aid,  though  to  little  purpose.  Yet 
these  impolitic  and  wholly  unnecessary  proceedings 
on  the  part  of  officials  and  their  satellites  tended  all 
the  more  to  complicate  affairs,  and  render  the  dangers 
and  difficulties  of  the  reformers  all  the  more  arduous. 


Lch 


re- 


WILUAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


M9 


The  federal  authorities  at  San  Francisco  bay  were 
at  first  disposed  to  side  with  the  committee,  under 
the  persuasion  of  Mr  Coleman.  Later  the  pressure 
of  the  law-and-order  politicians  caused  some  of  them 
to  waver.  The  labor  and  responsibility  of  treating 
with  General  Wool  and  Captain  Farragut  was  thrown 
entirely  on  Coleman,  who  described  to  them  the 
movements,  ambitions,  and  intentions  of  the  vigilance 
committee.  They  first  sent  their  aids  to  him,  inter- 
views being  held  at  the  old  Oriental  hotel ;  he  also 
invited  each  one  by  turns  to  drive  with  him,  so  that  he 
could  speak  to  them  entirely  alone ;  this  he  continued 
until  they  came  to  a  perfect  understanding. 

Finally,  after  three  months  of  active  operations, 
the  committee  adjourned.  There  was  a  grand  parade 
of  the  entire  body,  a  review  of  the  troops  by  the 
executive;  then  the  fortress  was  dismantled,  and  the 
military  quarters  abandoned,  the  predictions  of  the 
law-and-order  party  as  to  mobocratic  reaction  falling 
to  the  ground. 

But  although  to  most  of  the  members  of  the  com- 
mittee this  was  the  end,  '  3  Mr  Coleman  it  was  not  so. 
The  law  had  been  broken,  and  limbs  of  the  law  made 
to  sit  in  sackcloth.  Some  wicked  ones  had  been  ille- 
gally hanged;  others  had  been  illegally  expatriated; 
many  more  had  been  made  to  suffer  in  mind  or  estate, 
being  deprived  of  the  profits  on  crimes  they  were 
illegally  prevented  from  committing.  For  these  sins 
some  one  must  be  made  to  suffer. 

By  the  steamer  of  the  28th  of  August  Mr  Coleman 
sailed  for  the  east,  laden  with  the  heartfelt  gratitude 
of  all  good  citizens.  In  New  York,  suits  for  damages 
were  brought  against  Mr  Coleman  by  the  expatriated, 
aggregating  a  million  and  a  half  of  dollars,  in  all  of 
which  the  complainants  were  nonsuited  and  defeated. 


l\i' 


I  ■ 


r 


1         : 


IgS 

all 


After  the  close  of  the  war  between  the  states,  Mr 
Coleman,  who  then  spent  a  portion  of  his  time  in 
New  York  city,  was  zealous  in  his  efforts  toward  a 


\  i 


360 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


m 


reconciliation  between  the  north  and  the  south,  and 
the  ccraenting  of  peace  on  the  basis  of  sympathy. 
He  realized  that  it  would  require  a  new  generation  to 
come  forward  before  there  would  be  perfect  accord, 
in  spirit  and  reality,  but  that  much  could  be  done, 
and  in  fact  good  will  engendered  at  once  by  magna- 
nimity and  liberality  on  the  part  of  the  north.  Un- 
organized and  fugitive  attempts  had  been  made  by 
charitable  people  to  furnish  material  aid  to  the  des- 
titute people  of  the  south,  but  with  limited  success. 
Mr  Coleman  conceived  the  idea  of  organizing  a  gen- 
eral and  popular  movement  in  New  York  for  the 
double  purpose  of  benevolence  and  reconciliation.  He 
waited  on  the  Brown  Brothers,  bankers,  and  other 
leading  capitalists  and  philanthropists.  Dr  Bright,  an 
eminent  minister,  with  whom  he  first  discussed  the 
plan  of  the  grand  charity,  waited  on  Mr  Greeley  and 
Mr  Beecher,  and  represented  to  them  that  there  was 
a  great  work  before  them,  not  only  of  beneficence, 
but  of  patriotism ;  that  nothing  could  more  speedily 
and  surely  reestablish  the  actual  union  between  the 
two  sections  of  the  country  than  kindliness  and  sym- 
pathetic aid  and  support  to  those  who  were  in  need 
and  were  not  too  proud  to  accept  assistance,  of  whom 
there  were  many.  A  large  mass  meeting  was  held  in 
a  few  days  in  Cooper  institute,  in  which  Mr  Greeley 
did  himself  undying  credit  in  the  few  generous  words 
he  uttered.  Said  he :  "  It  is  needless  to  talk  about 
the  war,  its  faults  or  failings;  recrimination  now 
would  be  criminal;  we  nmst  look  to  the  fact  that 
there  are  in  the  south  two  hundred  thousand  widowed 
women,  and  five  hundred  thousand  orphans,  in  ex- 
treme need  of  food  and  raiment ;  houses  and  fences 
destroyed,  farms  despoiled,  cattle  an  i  all  implements 
gone ;  poverty,  pain,  and  distress  verywhere ;  in 
contrast,  the  north  is  luxuriating  .  a  superabun- 
dance of  everything  goodly.  If  the  so  -vhern  people 
were  enemies,  and  distant  enemies,  it  \\  >uld  become 
the  people  of  the  north  to  help  them  n  ;w;   but  we 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


8S1 


are  all  of  one  nation,  one  blood,  and  one  faith;  we 
shall  be  recreant  to  our  duty  if  we  do  not  come  to  the 
rescue  generously  and  at  once." 

This  meeting  and  similar  efforts  caused  a  revolu- 
tion of  sentiment  in  the  city  of  New  York  and  vi'^in- 
ity;  the  movement  to  supply  the  necessities  of  the 
south  became  general,  and  popular,  and  fashionable ; 
it  became  the  furore.  Individuals  vied  with  each 
other  in  generous  rivalry;  charitable  institutions  la- 
bored in  the  cause.  Several  hundred  thousand  dollars 
were  raised,  and  ship-loads  of  corn,  Lacon,  and  other 
staple  supplies  were  sent  south,  the  Freed  man's  Bu- 
reau being  selected  as  the  vehicle  for  disbursing  a 
large  portion  of  the  shipments,  ministers  of  the  gospel 
and  other  proper  agencies  doing  the  remainder.  The 
most  touching  tnd  perhaps  the  most  effective  feature 
of  this  activity,  in  its  moral  influence,  was  that  it  was 
purposely  confined,  as  far  as  practicable,  to  persons 
who  were  well  known  to  be  most  pronounced  and  un- 
compromising in  their  hostility  to  the  south  during 
the  war.  Those  conversant  with  the  workings  of 
this  plan  subsequently  reported,  and  satisfied  all  par- 
ties of  the  wonderful  good  accomplished  by  it,  not  only 
as  a  charity,  but  in  revolutionizing  public  sentiment 
in  the  south  with  regard  to  the  people  of  the  north. 

When  the  war  broke  out,  Mr  Coleman  was  among 
the  first  to  take  an  unequivocal  stand  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  union  at  whatever  sacrifice.  Tliroughout 
the  struggle  he  was  known  and  accepted  as  a  vigor- 
ous war  democrat.  He  took  an  active  part,  and  con- 
tributed liberally,  in  raising  and  equipping  troops 
in  the  state  of  New  York,  and  otherwise  practically 
and  efficiently  demonstrated  his  loyalty  and  spirit. 
Yet,  born  and  bred  among  southern  people,  and 
knowing  their  virtues,  he  has  never  ceased  to  cher- 
ish for  them  the  fondest  regards. 

Again,  in  the  labor  agitation  of  1877-8  Mr  Coleman 
was  called  upon  by  his  fellovz-citizens  to  render  them 
important  service  by  permitting  himself  to  be  placed 


'1 

,  ■ 

'■■   ^'i'  ■' 

i      ;V  ■  , 

■    '..■■>;■ 

.i^i 


£      3 


352 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


at  the  head  of  a  safety  committee  for  the  protection 
of  life  and  property  from  threatened  violence  and 
destruction. 

The  insurrectionists  complained  of  hard  times, 
reduction  of  wages,  and  lack  of  work;  while  enterprise 
lanofuished  and  manufactories  were  closed,  the  rich 
were  becoming  richer  and  the  poor  poorer.  Something 
or  somebody  was  at  fault — some  evil  influence  outside 
of  the  complainants  themselves;  otherwise  such  a  ^tate 
of  thino's  could  not  exist.  The  fault  could  not  be  in 
the  European,  the  natural  lord  of  all,  nor  in  the 
African,  the  natural  servant  of  all;  the  mischief, 
therefore,  must  lie  at  the  door  of  the  Asiatics,  mid- 
way between  the  others,  and  neither  high  enough  nor 
low  enough  to  become  good  American  citizens,  vote 
at  elections,  and  govern  men.  Hence  the  standing 
cry  against  the  Chinese  became  in  the  streets  of  San 
Francisco,  as  heretofore  in  the  mines,  fierce  and 
brutal ;  and  next  to  the  Chinaman  the  rich  man  was 
a  bad  element  in  the  community. 

The  country  was  deeply  agitated  over  the  labor 
(piestion.  The  great  riots  on  the  railways  east,  and 
especially  the  outbreak  at  Pittsburg,  which  was  the 
centre  of  the  severest  emeute  had  extended  to  this 
coast.  The  spirit  of  disorder  flew  across  the  continent 
and  settled  on  San  Francisco. 

On  July  24th  a  circular  was  issued  by  Brigadier- 
General  McComb,  calling  a  meeting  of  merchants  and 
property-holders  that  afternoon  at  two  o'clock,  at  ^he 
chamber  of  commerce.  McConib  called  the  meeting 
to  order.  It  was  well  attended.  William  T.  Coleman 
was  afterward  called  to  the  chair.  He  did  not  think 
great  danger  was  imminent,  but  the  moral  eftect  of. 
organization  he  fully  appreciated.  Mayor  l^ryant 
expressed  the  fullest  confidence  in  the  l.aw-abiding 
citizens  of  San  Francisco,  but  the  number  of  ruflians 
was  larger  than  was  generally  supposed,  and  an  in- 
creased police  force  he  deemed  desirable.     The  result 


of  the  meeting  was  the  formation  of  a,  y^eneral 


Com- 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


353 


mittee  of  Safety,  to  assist  the  civil  and  military- 
authorities  in  protecting  life  and  property  from  the 
bad  element  of  the  city.  The  police  force  at  this  time 
numbered  150,  and  the  militia  under  General  Mc- 
Comb  1,200;  this  force  was  regarded  as  inadequate 
for  the  work  in  hand. 

Mr  Coleman  had  come  to  this  meeting  in  common 
with  other  good  citizens,  not  to  take  any  prominent 
part  in  it,  but  to  contribute  his  aid  in  a  quiet  way, 
his  hands  being  full  of  business,  and  hoping  no  occa- 
sion would  arise  for  serious  effort.  But  the  occasion 
was  here  and  fortunately  the  man.  Mr  D.  O.  Mills 
moved  that  the  whole  organization  in  all  its  outlines 
and  in  all  its  details  be  entrusted  to  Mr  Coleman, 
and  the  motion  was  carried  unanimously.  Mr  Mills 
then  told  them  that  a  work  of  that  kind  required 
promptness  and  harmony,  great  activity,  the  use  of 
resources  without  stint,  a  single  head  with  absolute 
control,  or  it  would  be  liable  to  miscarry.  The  re- 
sponse was,  that  such  was  the  object  of  the  meeting 
and  of  the  movement.  Mr  Coleman  then  made  a  few 
remarks,  in  which  he  expressed  great  confidence  in 
the  people  of  San  Francisco  in  protecting  themselves, 
in  protecting  the  cause  of  right,  and  not  permitting 
wrong  to  go  unchecked;  but  there  must  be  united 
action  and  harmony;  there  was  no  time  for  delay 
or  for  lukewarmness.  He  expressed  a  faitli  that  with 
a  good  organization  properly  conducted  there  would 
be  little  danger  to  the  town.  But  that  there  was 
some  danger  every  one  know.  He  expressed  faith 
especially  in  the  mechanics  and  the  laboring  classes. 
He  disagreed  with  some  of  the  speakers  on  the  danger 
of  communism  or  of  mobocracry.  He  thought  San 
Francisco  was  especially  happy  in  the  possession  of 
an  unusually  large  number  of  conservative  people 
among  the  working  classes — men  who  had  education, 
who  had  property,  and  intelligence.  There  were 
relatively  more  property-owners  in  San  Francisco  to 
the  population  than  in  most  other  cities,  and  all  knew 


V,.  n.-I.     23 


1 1 

1  ■' 

■    ■  '  ! 

( 

i  i 

*'M 

ii 

IM 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


the  conservatism  of  land-owners  and  of  those  who 
had  established  home  relations. 

Mr  Coleman  was  assured  of  every  support.  He 
accepted  the  responsibility  and  quickly  crystallized 
the  organization,  selecting  committees  on  finance,  arms, 
enrolment,  and  commissary.  Being  informed  there 
was  an  inadequate  supply  of  arms  in  the  <5ity,  he 
applied  to  General  McDowell,  commanding  United 
States  forces,  for  ihe  loan  of  2,500  stand,  but  learned 
it  was  impracticable.  None  could  be  issued  except 
by  order  of  the  secretary  of  war.  Such  application 
was  immediately  made  by  telegraph,  supported  by 
all  available  influences,  which  proved  successful,  and 
the  needed  arms  were  at  hand  within  twenty-four 
hours. 

"This,"  continued  Mr  Coleman,  "of  course  was  the 
greatest  encouragement,  and  was  a  striking  example 
of  promptness,  the  effectiveness  of  the  service,  and 
the  confidence  the  government  had  in  us.  The  ques- 
tion then  arose  where  to  store  them,  and  having  pre- 
arranged in  my  own  mind  that  they  must  not  go  into 
the  hands  of  our  volunteers,  certainly  not  until  they 
were  organized  and  drilled,  and  in  a  reliable  position, 
and  even  then  not  until  absolutely  needed,  I  sent  for 
the  chief  of  police,  and  asked  1  o.v  many  of  those 
arms  he  could  take  care  of  at  his  headquarters.  His 
answer  being  satisfactory,  I  ordered  a  thousand  stand 
placed  in  his  charge  at  once." 

Within  forty-eight  hours  there  were  mustered  in 
five  thousand  men  in  com[)anies  of  100;  command  of 
these  was  given  not  only  to  soldiers  by  profession, 
but  to  prominent  citizens,  some  of  whom  had  high 
military  titles.  The  governor  caine  to  the  city,  and 
told  Mr  Coleman  that  the  power  of  the  city,  so  far  as 
it  could  be  given,  was  his,  at  once,  and  that  the  people 
looked  to  him.  They  had  learned  to  know  him  in 
previous  work  of  the  kind,  antl  they  leaned  upon  him, 
and  the  military,  in  fact,  was  at  his  connnand.  Colo- 
man  stated  that  he  deemed  it  prudent  for  the  state 


m 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


Ill 
dof 
ion, 
ligh 
ana 
ir  as 
oplc 
n  in 
hiui, 

o\c- 
titate 


troops  to  maintain  a  separate  position  from  the  vol- 
unteers, so  as  to  promote  harmony.  His  plan  was  to 
have  the  volunteers  divided  into  two  or  three  classes; 
first,  the  old  soldiers,  veterans,  of  whom  there  were 
in  the  city  some  two  or  three  thousand,  to  be  held  as 
a  reserve  guard,  to  be  called  the  old  guard ;  the  mass 
of  the  men  to  be  enrolled  as  militia  for  prompt  action 
if  needed.  He  w^anted  a  volunteer  corps  of  cavalry; 
and  such  artillery  as  could  be  obtained  and  handled. 
He  wanted  McComb,  then  in  command  of  the  state 
troops,  to  look  to  him  for  orders  in  general,  but  not 
in  detail.  If  the  forces  came  into  action,  then  of 
course  the  detail  work  would  be  his,  but  when  to 
come  to  action,  if  at  all,  he  thought  that,  as  the  ex- 
ecutive, the  determination  of  such  points  should  be 
his.  All  this  was  accorded  and  agreed  to  by  the 
governor.  The  volunteers  were  detailed  as  special 
policemen,  and  numbers  of  them  received  their 
badges. 

They  organized,  drilled  night  and  day,  established 
a  telegraphic  department,  with  outposts  and  a  staff  of 
correspondents  and  operators,  and  went  on  with  the 
work  daily.  Independent  of  the  city  police,  which 
of  course  were  only  a  few  hundred  men,  and  the 
special  policemen  which  they  enlisted  under  the  im- 
mediate orders  of  the  chief  of  police,  there  were  on 
guard  under  general  orders,  but  with  cooperative 
orders  of  the  city  police  department  at  all  times,  an 
average  of  five  hundred  men.  General  McComb  and 
the  militia  were  anxious  for  action.  They  appealed 
to  Coleman  to  allow  them  to  take  the  field,  but  he 
held  them  in  the  barracks,  with  only  the  pleasures  of 
drill,  and  of  general  display  and  exercise  at  opportune 
times. 

Such  was  the  true  inwardness,  the  personal  and 
private  workings  of  this  important  historical  episode, 
now  for  the  first  time  revealed  to  the  public. 

The  proprietors  of  certain  impers  were  ordered  by 


'I'.'  ' ' 


r ''i  ■• 


<-.• 


I'. 


I      ! 


856 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


'•... 


i :: ! 


!l;i 


the  mayor  to  take  down  their  bulletin  boards  on 
which  they  were  accustomed  to  post  insurrectionary 
news  items  from  the  east.  One  Antonio  Quanchi, 
arrested  for  violence  July  23d,  was  refused  bail,  and 
sentenced  to  six  months'  imprisonment  by  the  police 
judge. 

At  difterent  hours  of  the  day  large  ci'owds  of 
vicious-looking  men  collected  on  the  corners  along 
Kearny  street  and  elsewhere,  and  there  was  quite  a 
gathering  of  them  in  front  of  the  city  hall.  In  the 
Chinese  quarters  there  was  the  stillness  of  death.  It 
was  an  ominous  quiet.  The  theatres,  gambling-dens, 
and  all  places  of  business  were  closed.  Yet  John 
was  not  dead.  With  a  stoicism  born  of  the  centuries, 
he  was  preparing  to  meet  the  issue.  He  not  only 
armed  himself,  but  built  barricades  on  the  inside  of 
his  house,  and  was  ready  to  fight,  for  his  life  or  to  the 
death,  as  the  case  might  be.  City,  state,  and  federal 
authorities,  and  all  good  men,  were  on  his  side.  The 
j)olice  wore  watchful  and  active.  The  methodist  mis- 
sion house  on  Washington  street,  where  the  Chinese 
were  taught,  was  the  object  of  their  special  care. 

Two  hundred  rioters  mot  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
mint  about  half-past  nine.  Dispersed  by  the  police, 
they  came  together  again  on  Eighth  street,  mean- 
while demolishinof  four  laundries.  On  tlie  Presidio 
road  two  Chinamen  were  murdered  and  their  houses 
burned.  One  celestial  committed  suicide  by  taking 
opium,  on  account  of  his  losses  and  the  troublous 
times. 

Wednesday,  the  24th,  the  riot  assumed  yet  more 
formidable  proportions.  A  feverish  anxiety  pervaded 
the  comnmnity.  Though  opposed  to  club  law,  the 
law  did  not  now  object  to  the  clubs. 

About  noon  the  mayor  issued  a  proclamation : 

"Sax  FiiANCi.s(;o,  .Inly  24,  1877. 
"  To  the  People  of  San  Francinco:  Wliereas,  great  excitement  prevails 
tlirnugliout  the  cuuntry,  and  has  extuiitled  to  tliis  city,  and  there  arc  present 
in  this  conitnnnity  a  largo  class  of  dcHperate  men  and  youtlis  who  are  ready 
to  take  advantage  of  it,  and  commit  crimes  against  the  ])rnperty  and  persona 
of  the  citizens  and  residents  of  the  city,  it  becomes  my  duty  as  mayor  of  the 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


357 


city  and  county  of  San  Francisco  to  appeal  to  all  law-abiding  people  to  assist 
in  preserving  the  peace,  and  thereby  avoid  the  necessity  of  employing  the 
power  of  the  law  for  that  purpose.  I  trust  that  in  the  performance  of  my 
official  duties  I  shall  not  be  called  upon  to  suppress  a  riot,  but  I  certainly 
shall  not  shrink  from  doing  so  if  the  occasion  shall  demand  the  duty;  and  in 
such  event  I  will  see  that  all  offenders  receive  the  punishment  which  the 
magnitude  of  such  offences  requires.  But  to  avoid  the  exercise  of  this  ex- 
treme power,  I  counsel  the  citizens  to  take  measures  of  precaution,  to  pre- 
vent causes  of  excitement,  and  particularly  to  guard  against  assemblies  on 
the  streets  and  public  places.  I  advise  all  persons  to  pur8"e  their  usual 
avocations,  or  to  remain  quietly  at  their  homes,  and  not  stand  lu  g;;'C"p')  on 
the  streets,  as  in  this  way  crowds  are  made,  which  aid  the  designs  of  persons 
who  would  promote  riots,  and  also  obstruct  the  movements  necessary  to 
prevent  or  suppress  them.  I  would  also  say  that  there  is  no  cause  for  undvd 
excitement.  The  city  has  a  force  of  ten  thousand  men  ready  for  any  er^.er- 
geucy.  It  is  only  necessary  for  every  one  to  be  quiet  and  prudent,  :.ad  aid 
the  authorities  when  called  upon.  The  city  being  forewarned  and  fore- 
armed, any  attempt  to  excite  a  riot  will  be  crushed  at  the  cor>imencement. 
I  hereby  make  known  that  all  assemblies  and  crowds  of  persons  will  be  dis- 
persed, and  should  resistance  be  made,  arrests  and  punishment  will  follow. 
In  doing  our  duty,  should  unfortunately  the  criminals  and  rioters  resist,  and 
inaugurate  bloodshed,  on  their  heads  rest  the  responsibility.  The  law  is 
supreme,  and  shall  be  maintained  at  all  hazards. 

"A.  J.  Bryant,  mayor." 

In  the  evening  papers  Mr  Coleman  issued  the  fol- 
lowing address : 

"  Citizens  of  San  FrancUco:  The  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  selected  by 
yesterday's  meeting  at  the  chamber  of  commerce,  are  receiving  additional 
enrolments  of  good  people,  and  deem  it  wise  to  announce  the  motives  and 
purposes  of  the  organization.  Recent  events  demonstrate  that  dangers 
environ  us,  which  may  render  it  necessary  for  the  authorities  to  use  more 
force  than  they  have  hitherto  had  at  their  disposal.  The  mere  organization 
of  this  force  will  probably  prevent  any  occurrence  demanding  its  active 
efforts.  Both  as  a  preventive  and  as  a  remedy,  its  existence  is  absolutely 
necessary.  We  have  encouraged  all  good  citizens  to  enroll  au<l  prepare  for 
action.  The  purpose  of  the  organization  is  to  sustain  the  constituted  au- 
thorities, undertaking  no  duty  not  immediately  connected  with  securing  the 
safety  of  life  and  property.  It  embraces  citizens  of  all  sects  and  all  parties, 
iiolding  all  shades  of  opinion,  each  ready,  in  the  presence  of  danger  to  the 
public  welfare,  to  lay  aside  all  differences,  and  to  refrain  for  a  time  from 
urging  individual  views.  In  common  with  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  state, 
we  are  embarrassed  by  what  is  properly  called  the  Chinese  question,  and  are 
most  desirous  to  see  its  early  solution  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  our  whole 
people.  We  all  realize  alike  the  difficulties  by  which  it  is  surrounded.  But 
however  desirable  it  may  appear  that  this  disturbing  element  should  finally 
be  withdrawn,  and  removed  from  our  midst,  we  are  unanimous  in  the  con- 
viction that  violence  will  not  hasten  its  proper  adjustment,  and  may  produce 
incalculable  injury  to  ivll.  The  public  peace,  and  security  to  life  and  prop- 
erty in  this  city,  shall  be  maintained  and  protected  at  all  hazards.  In  this 
purpose  every  good  citizen  must  concur,  and  we  seek  the  membership  and 
active  cooperation  of  all  such. 

"By  order  of  the  Executive  Committee, 

"Wm  T.  Coleman,  president." 

At  two  o'clock  the  committee  met  at  the  Mer- 
chants exchange.  The  large  hall  was  crowded  by 
men  of  all  trades  and  professions,  representing  the 


I  '\ 

• 

i  M 

. 

f  n 

1  ;; 

!i  1  i 

; 

'■,  I 


:i'l;  - !: 


'; 


858 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


i  :i  ? 


I'ii 


i:riJ: 


wealth  and  respectability  of  the  city.     The  following 
pledge  was  signed  by  all  present ; 

"We  the  underBigned,  citizens  of  San  Francisco,  do  hereby  enroll  our- 
selves as  a  General  Committee  of  Safety,  subject  to  V.  i  requiremets  of  the 
special  committee  of  twenty-four,  of  which  Willia.n  T.  Coleman  is  president; 
and  we  do  hereby  bind  ourselves  to  act  with  this  committee  to  preserve  the 
peace  and  well-being  of  this  city  with  our  money  and  persons." 

All  day  long  six  streams  of  applicants  for  member- 
ship poured  in  upon  as  many  secretaries  for  enrol- 
ment, and  before  night  ohe  number  had  increased  very 
largely. 

There  were  several  anti-coolie  associations  in  the 
city  and  throughout  the  state,  of  which  most  of  the 
rioters,  as  well  as  many  of  the  working-men's  party, 
were  members.  These,  in  disregard  of  the  mayor's 
proclamation  forbidding  such  gatherings,  issued  hand- 
bills calling  a  meeting  before  the  now  City  hall  for 
this  same  Wednesday  evening.  Shortly  after  seven 
o'clock  they  appeared  upon  the  ground  to  the  number 
of  about  80''^,  with  lumber  and  nails,  which  were 
speedily  thrown  together  in  the  form  of  speakers* 
platforms.  Unmolested  by  police  or  citizen,  the  pas- 
time soon  proved  tame,  and  leaving  their  position, 
they  rushed  off  on  a  raid  in  the  direction  of  Howard 
street. 

During  the  day  and  evening  orders  and  reports 
were  conveyed  from  and  to  headquarters  at  the  City 
hall,  where  were  the  mayor  and  chief  of  police,  by  the 
boys  of  the  District  Telegraph  company ,  who,  mounted 
on  their  fleet  ponies,  commanded  universal  admiration 
for  their  skill  and  bravery  in  dodging  the  missiles  of 
the  rioters,  and  their  success  in  the  discharge  of  their 
duty.  From  Garratt's  foundry  five  12-pound  Dahl- 
gren  guns  and  one  swivel  gun  were  sent  to  the  City 
Guard's  armory  for  safe-keeping.  A  battery  of  artil- 
lery was  secretly  stationed  at  the  Mechanics'  pavilion, 
lo  be  employed  in  case  the  mob  became  too  strong 
:V>r  the  police,  militia,  and  safety  people.  Men  and 
offiot  rs  were  in  attendance  from  six  o'clock  until  two 
every  night. 


WILUAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


8S9 


In  Oakland  a  committee  of  safety  was  organized 
by  prominent  citizens,  assembled  for  that  purpose  on 
the  evening  of  the  24th  at  the  Union  club  rooms. 
At  San  Josd  the  people  held  a  meeting,  which, 
though  anti-Chinese  in  its  character,  expressed  its 
sentiments  as  law-abiding,  and  offered  its  aid  to  the 
safety  committee  of  San  Francisco.  It  was  deter- 
mined that  no  public  labor  meetings  should  be  held 
in  Oakland  until  after  the  present  excitement  should 
have  abated.  The  Pensacola  and  the  steam  frigate 
Lackawanna  anchored  at  the  foot  of  Market  street. 
Archbishop  Alemany  issued  an  appeal  to  his  people 
to  preserve  order.  The  associated  firemen  came  to 
the  front,  thus  doubling  the  force  of  the  department 
during  the  crisis. 

Thursday,  the  26th,  it  was  determined  to  resort  to 
stronger  measures.  The  rioters  had  been  hitherto 
treated  too  tenderly.  When  they  saw  that  their  lives 
were  not  in  danger,  it  became  rare  sport  for  them 
thus  to  hold  the  staid  inhabitants  of  this  great  city  by 
the  nose.  The  board  of  police  commissioners,  at  a 
special  meeting  held  this  afternoon,  resolved  to  in- 
struct the  police  to  shoot  down,  without  further  risk 
or  regard  for  life,  all  rioters  and  assailants. 

The  following  further  proclamation  by  the  mayor 
also  pointed  in  the  same  direction: 

*  "  San  Francisco,  July  26,  1877. 

"  To  the  People  of  San  Francisco:  The  lawless  and  atrocious  acts  of  the 
vicious  and  criminal  class  in  this  community,  committed  last  night,  compel 
me  a^^ain,  and  for  the  last  time,  to  warn  all  good  citizens  against  appearing 
on  the  streets  in  large  numbers  or  groups.  The  object  of  this  caution  is, 
that  the  innocent  may  not  suffer,  and  that  the  streets  and  public  places  may 
1)0  left  free  and  unobstructed  for  the  operations  of  the  police,  the  military, 
and  the  committee  of  safety,  who,  I  am  assured,  will  see  that  order  is  main- 
tained at  all  hazards.  A.  J.  Bryant,  mayor." 

Likewise  a  warning  of  similar  import  was  issued  by 
Mr  Coleman. 

"July  26,  1877. 
"The  people  of  San  Francisco  are  earnestly  cautioned  against  being  on  the 
streets  after  nightfall,  unless  it  be  in  connection  with  some  of  the  organized 
companies  under  the  direction  of  the  committee  of  safety  and  the  regularly 
constituted  authorities.  Parents  are  especially  requested  to  keep  at  home 
their  boys  under  age.    This  ia  deemed  necessary,  because  more  vigorous  means 


: 

■  Ft'    \     •  ■■ 

( .     i 

f-  I 


it:  :!  I'il: 


360 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CAUFORNIA. 


I  ; 


4      1 


li^ 


n 


i 


than  have  heretofore  been  used  will  be  employed  to  Buppresa  riotons  pro* 
ceedings,  and  innocent  persons  may  suffer  serious  consequences  if  they  do 
not  heed  this  warning. 

"William  T.  Colkuan,  president  com.  safety." 

The  number  of  organized  citizens  was  now  5,000. 
The  day  passed  quietly.  The  safety  men  rendez- 
voused as  usual  this  evening  at  horticultural  hall, 
and  the  enrolment  reached  6,500.  Every  ward,  and 
almost  every  block,  was  under  special  protection.  The 
safety  men  patrolled  the  streets,  and  guarded  every 
dangerous  place.  There  were  not  less  than  4,000 
men  under  arms  during  the  night.  Attached  to  the 
forces  of  the  safety  committee  was  a  regiment  cf  vet- 
erans of  the  war  of  the  Union,  placed  under  the  com- 
mand of  Colonels  Withington,  Hawes,  and  Goodman, 
and  held  ready  for  severe  service. 

Money  for  the  support  of  the  movement  came  in 
freely,  $48,000  being  subscribed  during  the  first  two 
days.  Several  manufacturers,  frightened  at  the  dem- 
onstrations of  the  last  few  days,  now  discharged  their 
Chinese,  and  placed  white  operatives  in  their  place. 
An  attempt  was  made  to  fire  certain  Chinese  houses, 
and  to  demolish  others. 

Saturday  afternoon  the  Pacific  Mail  steamship  City 
of  Tokio  arrived  from  China,  and  landed  138  Asiatics, 
under  guard  of  the  committee  and  the  police. 

Night  came  on  gloomy  with  mists  portentous  of 
dark  deeds;  Three  thousand  citizens  were  enrolled. 
The  committee  were  to  meet  in  the  evening  at  Horti- 
cultural hall,  as  usual.  Rumors  were  current  through- 
out the  day  that  the  committee  would  be  attacked 
at  that  point.  At  half-past  seven  all  approaches  to 
the  building  were  strongly  guarded,  and  at  eight 
o'clock  the  room  was  thronged  by  a  determined 
assemblage.  It  was  evident  that  the  army  of  volun- 
teers were  impatient  for  something  to  do.  This  im- 
patience was  manifested  at  first  by  pounding  the  floor 
with  their  pick-handles.  Presently  Mr  Coleman 
came  forward  and  said  that  a  hundred  men  were 
wanted  for  immediate  duty.  Instantly  to  their  feet 
sprang  a  thousand  volunteers. 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


361 


The  hundred  were  selected,  and  the  rest  were 
directed  to  separate  according  to  wards,  and  under 
their  own  officers.  Calls  from  the  City  Hall  for  men 
were  now  more  frequent.  About  nine  o'clock  the 
dock  of  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  company,  whose 
vessels  brought  the  hated  Chinese  to  our  shores,  was 
reported  on  fire.  This  was  a  mistake,  but  the  fire, 
the  work  of  incendiaries,  was  raging  at  that  time  in 
the  lumber-yards  near  the  point  named. 

The  first  active  work  of  the  safety  men  was  the 
clearing  of  the  bluff  overlooking  the  Pacific  Mail 
docks.  A  bridge  connected  this  hill  with  First  street. 
The  contents  of  the  lumber-yards  had  been  fired,  and 
the  bluff  was  occupied  by  about  1,500  rioters,  who 
showered  stones  upon  the  firemen,  police,  and  com- 
mitteemen, who  were  trying  to  extinguish  the  flames. 
In  an  alley  opening  into  First  street  a  crowd  was 
collected  by  the  firing  of  a  pistol,  and  there  actual 
fighting  began.  One  charge  of  the  police,  and  the 
alley  was  cleared. 

While  four  or  five  companies  from  Horticultural 
hall  were  taking  their  station  round  the  fire  to  pre- 
vent its  spreading,  the  rioters  again  collected  on  the 
brow  of  the  hill,  and  began  to  hurl  stones  upon  the 
citizens.  Again  'the  hill  was  cleared,  and  again  the 
enemy  rallied.  Suddenly  at  half-past  ten  the  cry 
arose,  "Charge  the  cops!"  and  down  the  bridge  to 
First  street  rushed  the  yelling  throng  upon  the  citi- 
zens below.  They  were  met  by  the  safety  men,  who 
in  return  for  the  pistol-shots  fired  at  them  laid  about 
them  lustily  with  their  clubs,  dropping  the  rioters  on 
every  side.  For  a  few  moments  the  battle  raged 
fiercely,  but  the  safety  men  being  timely  reenforced, 
tlie  rioters  were  at  length  scattered.  One  of  the 
incendiaries,  caught  cutting  the  fire-hos3,  was  instantly 
shot. 

During  the  evening  there  were  several  killed  and 
many  wounded;  among  the  former  A.  H.  Gudewell, 
bank  clerk,  and  Samuel  Scrouse,  teamster.     Many  on 


: 


'}  r 


': 


ill 


1^ 


51 


362 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


both  sides  received  pistol  and  club  wounds  of  a  serious 
nature.  It  was  not  the  purpose  of  the  police  to  kill 
these  deluded  men,  although  many  of  them  richly 
deserved  it.  There  were  two  encounters  on  Market 
street,  with  about  100  on  either  side,  after  both  of 
which  engagements  the  street  was  strewn  with  the 
broken-headed.  The  Chinese  were  fully  aware  of  the 
danger  which  threatened  them.  Few  of  them  were 
seen  abroad;  their  houses  remained  closed,  and  new 
stores  of  arms  and  ammunition  were  added  by  them 
to  those  purchased  the  day  previous.  Their  pecuniary 
losses  up  to  this  time  amounted  to  about  $50,000, 
while  that  of  the  citizens  aggregated  half  a  million. 

The  plan  of  the  rioters  was  to  fire  the  city,  and 
make  their  raids  and  assaults  in  different  places  simul- 
taneously. To  circumvent  these  their  intentions, 
flying  squads  of  police  were  improvised  by  Chief  Ellis 
and  Captain  Lees,  consisting  of  large  express  wagons 
holding  twenty  men  each,  drawn  by  strong,  fleet 
horses,  with  outriders  and  messengers  to  scour  the 
streets,  each  in  a  given  direction.  Thus  they  could 
search  thoroughly,  more  quickly,  and  in  such  numbers 
as  to  do  thorough  execution  wherever  they  encoun- 
tered the  enemy.  In  the  vicinity  of  Tenth  and  Bran- 
nan  streets,  such  a  company  had  an  encounter ;  also 
one  near  Folsora  and  Eleventh  streets. 

Meanwhile  companies  organized  at  Horticultural 
hall  were  doing  excellent  work  in  other  parts  of  the 
city.  It  was  a  night  of  terror.  Alarms  of  fire  were 
sounded  in  various  quarters,  and  stray  bullets  were 
flying  in  every  direction. 

Many  arrests  were  made ;  among  others  two  men 
caught  distributing  a  circular,  enclosed  in  an  envelope, 
and  addressed,  A  Warning.     It  read  as  follows: 

"  Pro  Bono  Publico.  The  attention  of  the  1001  will  be  drawn  to  any  and 
all  premises  where  Chinese  are  employed  or  allowed.  Property  owners,  insur* 
ance  companies,  and  employers  may  make  a  note  of  this  while  there  is  time, 
and  before  the  avengers  of  oppressed  labor  thunder  at  your  door.     1001." 

The  workingmen,  through  their  officers,  issued  the 
following  circular; 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


868 


"Sa5  Francisco,  July  27,  1877. 
"  To  the  membera  of  the  Executive  Board  of  tlie  W.  P.  U.  S. :  1  hereby 
notify  you  that  there  will  be  no  neetin^  of  the  boa;d  during  the  intense 
excitement  in  the  city.  The  committees  of  correspondence  and  safety  will 
meet  according;  to  programme.  The  members  of  our  party  are  requested  to 
abstain  from  all  gatherings  on  the  street,  and  observe  strictly  the  require- 
ments of  the  mayor's  proclamation.  James  F.  D'Aboy, 

••Organizer  W.  P.  U.  S.,  670  Howard  street. 

"Pat.  J.  Healy, 
"  Ez-organicer  and  chairman  committee  of  aafety,  303^  Fifth  atreet." 

On  Monday  the  30th  of  July,  the  committee  of 
safety,  like  the  vigilance  committee,  determined  to 
adjourn,  but  not  to  disband.  The  executive  head-quar- 
ters were  retained,  and  telegraphic  communication 
with  all  parts  of  the  city  continued.  The  following 
order  was  issued : 

•'Executive  Headqitarters,  Committee  of  Safety,  San  Francisco, 
July  30,  1877.  To  ward  commandera,  captaiiui,  and  commanders  of  indepen- 
dent ori/anizatiom  .'  The  time  having  arrived  when,  in  the  judgment  of  the 
executive  commander,  the  forces  of  the  committee  should  be  concentrated, 
reduced,  and  relieved  as  far  as  possible,  therefore,  for  the  public  quiet  and 
for  the  prote(!tion  of  tiie  public  property  issued  to  the  members  of  our  organ- 
ization, the  following  general  orders  will  be  complied  with  at  once: 

1.  Forces,  cavalry  and  infantry,  are  hereby  relieved  from  active  duty, 
save  as  hereinafter  excepted. 

2.  All  halls,  rendezvous  as  at  present  hired,  will  be  at  once  given  up, 
save  Horticultural  hall. 

3.  All  arms  and  ammunition  issued  to  members  will  be  at  once  turned 
in  through  the  company  commanders,  who  will  turn  in  all  arms  as  fast  as' 
received  to  the  chief  of  police,  taking  receipts. 

4.  All  clubs  and  badges  now  issued  will  be  retained  by  the  members  who 
have  them.     All  police  stars  to  be  at  once  turned  into  Chief  Ellis. 

5.  No  rations  will  be  contracted  for  or  issued  by  commanders  after 
eleven  p.  m.,  July  30th. 

6.  All  bills  contracted  for  by  commanders  will  be  made  out  in  duplicate, 
verified,  and  sent  in  to  General  Coey. 

7-  Books,  papers,  and  records  of  any  kind  to  be  turned  in  to  General  Coey 
at  chamber  of  commerce,  save  one  verified  roll  of  each  company  to  be  held 
by  its  captain. 

8.  Captains  will  send  in  a  full  written  report  to  General  Coey  of  all 
duties  performed,  and  a  general  statement  of  all  their  official  actions,  and 
any  information  valuable  to  the  public  safety,  or  concerning  the  committee. 
Company  commanders  will  arrange  their  rolls  for  convenient  summoning  of 
their  force.  On  sudden  call  by  messenger,  or  tap  of  the  bell,  the  companies 
will  hasten  anJ  form  in  front  of  their  old  headquarters,  there  to  await 
orders.  The  organization  of  patrols  in  blocks,  and  the  employment  of  watch- 
men by  the  neighbors  in  each  square,  is  an  admirable  safe-guard.  Members 
are  requested  to  assist  all  such  movements,  but  in  case  of  general  alarm  to 
form  at  the  designated  headquarters.  Wm  T.  Coleman." 

Two  hundred  citizens  of  San  Diego  enrolled  them- 
selves a  committee  of  safety  after  the  San  Francisco 
pattern,  in  view  of  a  threatened  attack  on  the  Chinese 
by  the  bad  element  of  that  place. 

An  offer  was  made  to  the  board  of  supervisors  by 


■|  i  i.i  1 


lli: 


i!.!  :■ 


w  ' 


364 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


the  bankers  of  San  Francisco  to  advance  a  sum  not  to 
exceed  $100,000  for  the  purpose  of  paying  the  salaries 
of  150  now  policemen  at  $100  a  month,  to  be  selected 
by  the  committee  of  safety,  the  supervisors  to  pledge 
the  faith  of  the  city,  laying  the  matter  properly  before 
the  coming  legislature,  for  its  return.  The  otfer  was 
accepted. 

On  the  afternoon  of  Thursday,  the  31st,  there  was 
a  joint  meeting  of  the  executive  committee  of  the 
committee  of  safety  and  the  board  of  supervisors  at 
the  chamber  of  commerce,  at  which  it  was  suggested 
that  150  men  be  added  to  the  police  force  of  the  city. 
The  finance  committee  had  collected  $75,000,  and 
reported  that  any  further  sum  necessary  could  be  im- 
mediately obtained.  But  more  than  was  needed  was 
already  collected,  and  a  large  portion  of  it  was  returned 
to  the  original  subscribers,  twenty  per  cent  being  the 
first  dividend  returned.  The  question  of  appointing 
the  extra  police,  and  keeping  up  the  ward  infiuence  of 
the  association,  was  not  without  significance  in  polit- 
ical circles. 

The  following  address  was  prepared  in  August  1877, 
by  Mr  William  T.  Coleman,  to  be  presented  to  tl 
citizens  of  San  Francisco: 


le 


"Headquarters  ok  the  Committee  ok  Safetv, 
San  Fhanoisc'o,  August  11,  1877. 

"  To  (he  Citizens  of  San  Francisco:  Tlie  past  niMutli  has  been  fraught  with 
excitenieatsi  on  tlie  labor  question,  particularly  those  of  a  socialistic  character. 
There  was  much  heated  discussion  in  New  York  and  other  Atlantic  cities, 
serious  strikes  among  laborers,  riots  on  tlie  railways,  wiiicli  became  serious. 

"On  the  20th  of  July,  there  was  a  very  serious  riot  in  Pennsylvania;  on 
the  21st,  another  in  Baltimore.  July  23d,  an  alarming  riot  in  Pittsburgh, 
when  the  railroads  were  torn  up  and  partially  destroyed,  a  pc,,' tion  of  the  city 
burned;  the  nnlitary  was  called  out  and  repelled  by  the  iiio!  ,  the  railways 
taken  possession  of  by  tiic  mob,  and  destructions  of  a  very  »  Kiri  iing  nature  were 
developed.  The  United  States  troops  were  called  upon,  unii  .here  were  several 
contiicts  between  the  combined  state  and  government  Uoops  on  the  one  side, 
and  the  mobs  on  tite  otiier.  On  the  24tii,  there  was  an  alarming  riot  in 
Buffalo,  and  tlie  same  day  a  renewal  of  tiiu  riots  in  Pennsylvania,  and  tliirty- 
SLven  men  killeil.  The  same  disturbing  developments  continued  in  Pitts- 
Jmrgh,  and  tlie  whole  city  was  threatened.  These  exciteinaiits  extended  all 
over  the  United  States,  reached  San  Francisco  as  (juickly  as  elsewhere,  but  were 
not  considered  so  alarming  here,  especially  as  the  railway  forces  in  this  state 
were  in  a  satisfactory  position,  and  though  the  Chinese  question  was  trouble- 
some, fears  of  outbreaks  were  not  at  first  as  much  felt  as  in  the  Atlantic  and 
western  states.  Yet  alarmiu'^  reports  increased;  the  papers  were  full  of  them; 
the  thought  of  the  country  was  alisorbed  in  them,  and  the  labor  organizations, 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


305 


and  particularly  tlioso  of  a  com:nunistio  character,  were  actively  in  motion. 
Tlio  mayor  of  San  Francisco  and  tlie  i>olice  depurtinent  saw  destructive  dem> 
unittrations  that  causu'd  much  uiieasinvsa.  On  Monday,  July  '23(1,  the  mayor 
and  the  chief  of  police,  viewing  wild  excitement  and  appreciating  the  Btrons 
tuulingof  distrust  and  uneasineaa  prevailing  throughout  the  community,  called 
oil  (rcneral  John  McComb,  coniinaiider  of  the  state  forces,  and  requested  him 
to  hold  in  readiness  his  entire  force,  to  support  the  peace  officers.  After 
earnest  consultation  with  the  mayor  and  chief,  the  general  felt  it  his  duty  to 
call  together  our  leading  citizens,  and  ask  their  organized  aid  in  case  of  need 
to  support  the  peace  and  public  intere.-.ts.  Their  apprehensions  were  of  the 
gravest  character;  in  case  of  serious  ontbreak,  their  small  police  force  of  150 
men,  supplemented  by  a  single  brigade  of  the  national  guard  of  1,200  men, 
could  not  have  maintained  order,  and  strong  additional  aid  would  be  needed. 
Tliere  were  two  great  wants,  men  and  money.  The  mass  meeting  of  Tues* 
day,  24th,  resolved  unanimously  to  offer  to  our  civil  officers  most  vigorous 
Hupport,  with  otie  actuating  motive,  the  public  safety.  Having  been  called 
to  tiie  chair  and  by  that  meeting  appointed  president,  i  was  charged  with  the 
grave  duty  of  directing  the  entire  movement,  with  absolute  control,  and 
asked  to  appoint  a  finance  and  executive  committee  to  aid  me  in  details. 

"To  the  unexceptional  character  of  the  members  of  both  of  these  com- 
mittees, the  self-sacrificing  spirit,  zeal,  and  diligence  displayed  by  them  at 
all  times  in  serving  under  the  authority  so  given  me,  and  by  me  extended  to 
them,  I  am  able  to  congratulate  the  community  upon  the  complete  success  of 
the  movement  thus  inaugurated. 

"I  quickly  selected  committees  on  tinance,  arms,  and  enrolment,  and 
asked  Mr  C.  Ailolphe  Lowe  to  take  the  chairmanship  of  the  first  committee, 
and  proceed  with  Messrs  8pr  tckels  and  Bee,  to  gather  the  sinews  of  service. 
"The  collection  of  funds  was  speedily  inaugurated,  and  in  a  few  hours  I 
was  able  to  announce  that  the  liberal  response  of  the  public  justified  me  in 
commencing  the  organization  of  a  strong  force.  The  gross  amount  finally 
collected,  as  per  report  of  finance  committee,  was  $75,000.  As  a  committee 
on  arms,  federal  and  stato  troops,  I  appointed  General  Cocy  and  Colonels 
Preston  and  Sedgwick;  on  enrolment,  Messrs  Torrey  and  Scott. 

"I  immediately  ordered  a  canvass  of  the  various  gun-shops,  as  to  the num< 
bcr  and  kinds  of  arms  that  could  be  obtained  in  the  city.  The  answer  was. 
that  there  had  been  a  large  demand  for  arms  by  different  parties  during  the 
past  week,  many  of  the  best  absorbed,  and  there  was  only  a  small  quantity 
remaining,  and  they  were  of  different  construction  and  gauge,  and  not  very 
desirable.  I  despatched  Colonel  Preston  to  wait  on  General  McDowell,  com- 
manding the  United  States  forces  on  the  Pacific,  with  a  request  to  advise  me 
what  support  he  could  give  if  we  should  have  a  violent  outbreak.  He  said 
that  in  view  of  the  absence  at  the  front  of  most  of  liis  small  regular  garrison, 
be  could  at  best  only  furnisli  a  few  hundred  men,  under  any  circumstances. 
Colonel  Preston  was  instructed  to  ask  if  he  could  furnish  us,  in  case  of  need, 
say  3,000  stand  of  arms,  with  equipments  and  munitions.  The  general's  re- 
ply was  that  he  could  not  issue  even  a  cartridge  without  orders  from  the 
secretary  of  war,  and  as  his  recommendation  anil  request  for  arms  for  citi- 
zens during  tlie  Modoc  war  had  been  ignored  and  refused  by  the  department, 
he  begged  to  decline  telegraphing  or  asking  for  arms  for  us,  yet  was  willing 
to  assist  us  in  any  manner  possible  within  his  power.  This  answer  caused 
iiie  great  anxiety,  I  wired  Governor  Irwin  at  Sacramento  the  conditions  of 
affairs  here,  and  urgerl  his  immediate  presence,  and  before  leaving  for  San 
Rafael  that  evening  to  prepare  my  wife  and  family  for  my  continued  and  un- 
certain absence,  I  gave  a  few  general  orders  on  different  matters,  and  urged 
upon  General  Coey  a  renewal  of  our  efforts  to  secure  arms  direct  from  the 
government.  If  General  McDowell  could  not  give  them  we  must  appeal  to 
the  secretary  of  war  direct,  and  through  friends  of  California.  This  gentle- 
man, learning  from  (General  McDowell  that  he  would  not  consider  it  dis- 
courteous if  an  api)eal  were  made  direct  to  the  department,  immediately 
communicated  with  Hon.  A.  A.  Sargent,  United  States  senator,  and  explained 


366 


DOMINATING   INFLUENCES  IN   CALIFORNIA. 


!•  ^'1 


to  him  the  necessities  of  the  sitnation,  and  the  vital  question  of  arms  and  sup* 
plies  of  all  kinds,  pistols,  carbines,  rides;  and  at  my  request  also  several  of 
our  prominent  citizens  wired  representatives  and  senators,  asking  an  appeal 
to  the  sficretary  of  wai  for  immediate  action  in  our  behalf.  On  my  way  to 
San  K:  I'ael  that  evening,  I  reviewed  the  rapid  work  of  the  past  few  hours, 
considered  the  outlook  and  tlie  prospects  before  us,  and  brietly  laid  out  the 
campaign  as  I  thought  it  should  be  inaugurated  and  conducted.  I  believed 
we  would  get  the  arms  from  the  government;  but  without  them,  I  felt  that 
we  would  yet  make  a  success  by  throwing  a  large  force  of  citizens  into  the 
ranks  of  the  police  department,  with  clubs  and  small  arms.  The  character  of 
the  men,  and  tiie  numbers  that  they  could  rally  and  put  in  motion,  would  have 
a  grand  moral  effect,  and  with  a  known  courage  and  discipline  that  was  dis- 
played on  previous  occasions,  I  felt  that  we  could  overpower  any  force  that 
would  be  brought  against  us;  and  supplemented  as  we  would  be  by  the 
state  troops  in  reserve,  and  the  forces  of  the  government  being  near  also,  that 
we  could  make  a  brief  and  successful  campaign.  On  my  return  to  the  city,  I 
found  that  the  answers  to  and  result  of  the  telegrams  to  VVasliington  the  even- 
ing before  showed  the  keen  appreciation  of  the  government  of  our  situation, 
and  the  confidence  reposed  in  our  representations,  and  that  a  despatch  was 
received  during  the  night  by  General  McDowell  from  the  war  department, 
instructing  him  to  cause  to  be  issued  by  the  proper  officer  at  Benicia  sup- 

Elies  of  whatever  kind  the  committee  of  safety  might  require.  General  Mc- 
•owell  had  wired  Colonel  McAllister,  and  McAllister  wired  me  that  a  requi- 
sition for  arms  and  supplies  had  been  made,  and  that  1,700  rifles  and  500  car- 
bines, with  ammunitiou  and  accoutrements,  had  been  shipped  direct  to  me, 
and  would  that  nisht  be  in  the  harbor  of  San  Francisco,  off  Market  street, 
and  be  issued  on  the  receipt  of  the  proper  authorities.  With  this  gratifying 
assurance,  I  felt  strong,  but  the  next  question  was,  who  was  to  receive  and 
how  to  take  care  of  these  arms. 

"The  despatch  of  Colonel  McAllister  said  the  arms  would  be  delivered 
•on  the  receipt  of  the  proper  authorities,' and  as  Governor  Irwin  bad  just 
then  arrived  at  San  Francisco,  in  response  to  my  telegram  of  the  day  before, 
I  waited  upon  him,  reported  the  position,  and  my  proposed  plans  of  action, 
and  requested  him  to  receive  the  arms  as  the  governor  of  the  state,  the  proper 
and  only  competent  party  to  do  so,  and  hold  them  subject  to  our  requisitions, 
as  necessities  arose. 

'*I  then  BUgi^ested  to  the  governor  the  advantage  it  would  be  to  us  of 
having  the  naval  forces  cooperate  with  us,  or  at  least  make  a  demonstration 
which  would  be  valuable,  and  after  a  few  moment's  consideration  and  discus- 
sion, he  wired  President  Hayes,  requesting  him  to  direct  the  United  States 
vessels  at  Mare  island  to  take  position  in  the  harbor  in  front  of  the  city,  and 
place  the  forces  thereon  subject  to  his  call,  to  be  used  in  quelling  disturb- 
ances iu  case  of  necessity.     In  answer  he  received  this  dispatch: 

"'Washington,  D.  C,  July  25,  1877. 
"  '  To  (ioixrnor  Iiivin:  1  have  ordered  C'ommodoro  Calhoun  to  place  all  the 
vessels  at  Mare  island,  with  all  the  forces  he  has,  in  the  harbor  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  to  report  to  you.  R.  W.  Thompson,  Sec.  Navy.' 

"  And  also  this  to  Governor  Irwin: 

"'I  telegraphed   Admiral 
effect. 

"As  a  result,  the  Penmcohi,  with  Admiral  Murray  aboard,  immediately 
got  under  way,  the  Lackawanna  followed  under  command  of  Commodore  Cal< 
houn,  and  the  tus  MoiUereif  followed  with  Gatling  guns  and  other  arms. 

"  It  will  thus  I)e  seen  that  within  twenty-four  hours  of  the  meeting  of  the 
committee  the  secretary  of  war  had  amply  supplied  us  with  arma  and  muni- 
tions, and  within  the  next  day  tlic  secretary  of  the  navy  had  given  us  three 
ships  of  war,  fully  manned,  ready  for  active  coiiperation. 

"The  object  and  intent  of  our  asHembly  being  to  reinforce  the  civil  autho- 
rities, and  in  no  way  to  asjtumo  auy  other  power  than  that  of  a  citizen  posso 


ilurray   and  Commodore  Calhoun  to   same 
R.  W.  Thompson.' 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


367 


under  their  formal  control,  it  was  my  duty  to  at  once  provide  men,  and  fit 
tliem  for  the  service.  Rolls  of  membership  were  prepared  and  opened  for 
signature,  a  pass-word  was  given,  badges  marked  '  committee  of  safety '  were 
ordered  distributed  to  the  men,  and  under  a  general  authority,  given  by  the 
mayor  and  chief  of  police,  our  members  sent  on  duty  were  sworn  in  as  special 
police.  It  v/as  my  specific  aim,  and  I  made  it  my  duty  to  confine  the  powers 
of  each  member  to  aiding  the  police,  and  in  the  whole  action  of  the  force  and 
patrol  I  allowed  no  step  to  be  taken  except  as  by  the  directions  and  request 
of  the  peace  officers,  conveyed  througli  me.  The  membership  rapidly  in- 
creased. 

-  "Tlie  governor  instructed  his  adjutant.  General  P.  F.  Walsh,  to  receive 
and  give  vouchers  for  the  arms  then  in  charge  of  Captain  Rexford,  ordinance 
officer  U.  S.  A.,  and  to  deliver  to  the  proper  forces,  as  I  should  request  and 
«lirect:  First,  600  rifles  and  ammunition  therefor  under  escort  to  General 
McConib,  for  use  of  such  volunteers  as  might  now  enroll  in  the  national 
guaid;  Second,  1,000  rifles,  300  carbines,  30  pistols,  and  ammunition  for  the 
respective  arms,  wore  received  at  ship's  side  by  Captain  Lees,  and  conveyed 
under  strong  guard  to  the  city  hall,  for  our  forces  stad  for  the  special  police- 
men of  the  city.  The  balance  to  remain  aboard  the  government  vessel,  and 
until  we  would  require  them.  The  adjutant-general  had  already,  on  the  23d 
iust,  responded  in  behalf  of  the  state  to  requisitions  made  by  General  Mc- 
Comb  for  10,000  rounds  of  ammunition,  and  by  Captain  Ranlitt  of  Oakland 
guard  for  2,000  rounds.  Captain  Leheof  Stockton  guard  for  1,000  rounds,  and 
Captain  Turner  of  Chico  guard  for  500  rounds.  Thus  at  all  of  those  points, 
as  well  as  our  own,  provision  was  made  for  impending  contingencies. 

"On  the  morning  of  the  25th,  I  established  my  general  headquarters  at 
the  large  horticultural  halt,  Stockton  street,  arranged  complete  telegraphic 
communications,  ordered  all  forces  to  rendezvous  there,  and  begin  the  work  of 
military  and  semi-military  organization  and  discipline.  Although  it  had  been 
my  object  to  first  provide  arms  to  cover  every  necessity,  I  at  the  same  tim6 
determined  to  dispense  with  their  use  as  far  as  possible.  I  appreciated  the 
difficulties  often  arising  by  havincr  military  forces  in  the  presence  of  mobs,  ex- 
cepting only  as  a  dernier  resort,  wiici;  ihey  are  needed  for  actual  and  effective 
service.  This  was  in  harmony,  too,  with  the  nature  of  our  call  and  organisa- 
tion, to  be  and  act  in  support  of  of  the  police,  and  not  of  the  military.  I  ac- 
cordingly gave  orders  for  the  purchase  of  0,000  hickory  pick-handles,  to  be 
shortened  and  converted  at  once  into  large,  first-class  police-clubs,  and  to  arm 
every  man  as  a  special  policeman  with  clubs  and  side-arms.  I  then  ordered 
the  entire  force  into  company  organizations  of  100,  to  select  their  own  officers 
and  report  to  me  for  confirmation,  intending  their  service  to  be  in  companies 
or  in  detachments,  and  as  soon  as  these  were  approved,  were  ordered  under 
drill  and  instructions  aud  general  discipline,  and  kept  busily  at  work  within 
the  hall,  when  there  was  sufficient  room,  and  in  the  streets  adjoining  if  room 
were  needed.  Before  night  we  'tad  a  large  an<l  eSective  force,  and  rationed 
by  the  commissary  committee,  Dempster  is,ad  Gutte,  appointed  that  morning, 
aud  sent  out  details  for  active  duty,  under  direct  orders  of  the  chief  of  police, 
all  of  which  were  performei^  in  a  creditable  and  efficient  manner.  Tin  a  the 
committee  continued  increasing  its  number,  and  with  the  rounds  of  uuties, 
showing  that  the  general  plan  was  correct  and  efTectivc,  An  intense  feeling 
existed  throughout  the  city  on  tlio  night  of  the  25tii,  and  as  the  criminal  and 
lawless  element  were  gathereil  in  crowds  and  stiuads  in  every  part  of  tlio  city, 
causing  much  annoyance  and  >"ear  to  citizens,  I  consulted  with  the  chiif  of 
jiolioe  as  to  the  propriety  of  gathering  the  crowds  and  keep  them  in  confine- 
ment during  tlie  course  of  the  trouble,  but  found  that  the  prisons  and  jails 
wonb'  ",  coniniodato  but  few,  and  there  was  danger  to  those  already  confined 
tliei  '  I  .  various  ofl'ences.  I  consulted  with  tiie  commanders  of  the  vessels 
of  war  lying  oflF  the  city  front,  and  tliey  ofl'ered  to  care  for  and  conllno  on 

Ui-*!  d  their  vessels  such  as  wouM  be  sent  to  them,  to  tlio  number  of  1,500, 
and  if  more,  to  place  them  on  (ioat  island,  and  patrol  I'le  is1'>n<l  witli  their 

.small  boats.     Tiie  idle  anil  lawless  clement,  hearing  of  thi^i  tu,  vement,  and 


"S 


'•^^•1f^il':Hlt 


"    f  i 

1 

■    s' 

i 
i 

h 

j '  i  i  i 

L:j    11 

lir  i 

. 

368 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


'' 


'i    i 


fearing  to  be  gathered  in  by  the  police  and  naval  forces,  left  the  city  in  large 
nuinliers,  and  for  days  the  authorities  were  in  receipt  of  telegrams  calling 
their  attention  to  the  great  numbers  of  strangers,  evidently  rough  and  Lawless 
men,  that  were  reaching  the  villages  and  suburbs  near  San  Francisco.  Mean- 
time 1  learned  that  if  these  arrests  were  mads  immediate  legal  action  would 
be  taken  in  behalf  of  the  arrested  parties,  the  hnheifs  corpiin  would  be  brought 
into  play,  complications  would  arise  that  would  give  ua  grea^  c  trouble  than 
to  meet  these  forces  in  the  face,  treat  tlieui  effectually  on  the  spot,  and  thus 
greatly  simplify  and  shorten  the  work,  and  render  it  much  more  eflfective 
tlian  to  have  this  class  thus  pose  as  martyrs  of  deportation. 

"  Hearing  there  were  more  arms  in  the  city  than  had  been  reported  to  me, 
I  caused  a  careful  and  reliable  survey  to  be  made  of  the  gun-sbops,  so  as  to 
secure  control  of  the  arms  and  munitions  from  the  access  of  tlic  mob,  and 
shipped  load  after  load  of  material  to  the  men-of-war  in  the  harbor,  also  tho 
guns  that  were  lying  in  various  foundries  and  chandler-shops  along  the  city 
front.  In  the  establishment  of  Little  &  Readings  I  found  such  a  large  quan- 
tity on  storage  that  I  deemed  it  best  not  to  attempt  to  move  this  supply, 
and  therefore,  with  theiV  consent  and  approval,  I  left  heavy  guards  in  and 
around  the  building,  with  careful  and  considerate  officers  in  charge,  and  im- 
perative instructions,  as  a  last  resort  in  a  case  of  need,  to  blow  the  building  up. 

"  Tuesday  night  passed  in  these  general  labors  of  organization  and  sup- 
ply, and  on  Wednesday,  the  news  from  the  east  still  continuing  alarming,  in 
our  plan  of  action  it  was  decided  to  etfect  ward  organizations,  to  divide  the 
forces  now  enrolling  into  companies,  to  officer  them,  give  them  orders  to 
patrol  the  city,  and  to  furnish  such  assistance  as  the  chief  of  police  might 
from  time  to  time  require.  Following  a  general  plan  of  ward  organization, 
adopted  at  a  meeting  of  the  executive  committee,  the  city  was  divided 
into  twelve  ward  <liscricts,  company  organizations  were  effected,  halls  and 
rendezvous  were  selected  and  opened,  clubs  and  arms  were  supplied  under 
proper  requisitions,  and  telegraphic  communication  was  established  and 
maintained  with  the  ward  headquarters  and  the  chief's  office;  wagons, 
couriers,  and  rations  were  supplied,  and  on  Wednesday  night,  as  shown 
by  our  records  and  despatches,  an  average  active  force  of  1,500  members 
were  on  duty  in  outside  patrol,  or  waiting  as  reserve  the  call  of  the  chief 
of  police  at  the  headquarters,  while  tho  total  a\  ailable  force  of  5,438  members 
could,  under  this  effective  organization,  have  been  rallied  in  an  hour  by  the 
general  alarm.  It  was  my  plan  to  keep  the  bulk  of  the  committee  within  the 
ward  limits,  so  as  to  render  local  aid,  and  to  act  under  the  telegraphic  com- 
nmnications  as  established  and  shown  by  a  map. 

"Reference  to  the  files  of  despatches  herewith  presented  will  show  tho 
feeling  of  alarm,  which  was  general  in  the  city  on  Thursday,  Friday,  and 
Saturday  nights.  Much  of  the  informatior  was  received  through  the  chief  of 
police,  and  as  such  information  of  disorder  or  reports  was  communicated  to 
me  or  my  adjutant,  I  either  sent  telegraphic  onlers  to  ward  commander 
to  act,  or  despatched  strong  bodies  of  men  from  the  hall  to  the  su))posed 
scene  of  action. 

"Tho  lirst  danger  feared  was  fire,  and  the  second,  the  gathering  of  ex» 
cited  crowds  which  might  be  arrayed  against  the  police  at  any  moment. 

"It  was  clear  that  a  very  general  excitement  i»Tvaded  all  classes,  and  tho 
most  careful  officials  and  ])rominent  citizens  made  freipient  reports  to  me  of 
alarming  occurrences  or  suspicious  matters  during  the  tiiree  days  referred 
to.  From  the  fact  that  the  criminal  classes  were  in  motion,  that  secret 
meetings  were  held,  that  political  agitation  was  attempted,  and  the  many 
alarms  of  lire,  together  with  the  continual  calls  of  tho  chief  of  police  for  de- 
tachments, I  am  assured  that  the  public  use  of  the  committee  on  these  occa- 
hiona  cliecked  the  violent  clasi<es,  and  showed  them  a  large  force  ready  to 
({uell  any  positive  disorder.  In  our  prohibitive  capacity,  the  patrols  of  the 
committee  undonbtedly  prevented  lawless  gatherings  and  possible  fire  and 
tumult,  esijecially  in  the  more  lonely  portions  of  the  town.  'I  he  cavalry 
forces  of  the  committee,  numbering  nearly  .'100  men,  patrolled  on  Thursday 


tiio 
of 
red 
■ret 
any 
(lo- 

to 
tho 
and 
ilry 
day 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


369 


and  Friday  nights,  26th  and  27th,  the  manufacturing  portion  of  the  city  and 
the  outskirts.  The  immense  value  of  exposed  shipping  and  property  along 
the  city  front  naturally  suggested  precautions  against  tire,  especially  aa 
many  threats  had  been  made  to  burn  the  Pacific  mail  wharves.  Captain 
Stewart  Menzies  generously  offered  to  cruise  along  the  city  front  witli  the 
steam  yacht  Elaine  and  two  smaller  craft.  Crews  of  special  police  and  com> 
mitteemen  on  board  these  vessels  rendered  most  valuable  services. 

"  It  will  be  thus  seen  that  our  precautions  against  lire  were  complete.  I  will 
make  no  special  reference  to  the  many  disorders  quelled  by  our  detachments, 
and  where  arrests  were  made  and  reported  at  the  city  hall.  The  reports  of 
the  ward  commanders  will  give  these  particulars,  reference  to  reports  of  the 
chief  of  police  and  tire  marshal  Scannell  for  details  of  the  many  arrests  and 
fires,  especially  those  at  Beale  and  Brannan  streets  and  Pacific  mail  wharves 
on  tlie  night  of  the  27th,  where  companies  and  detachments  of  our  committee 
supported  the  police  in  the  largest  and  severest  engagement  of  the  campaign. 
We  were  informed  of  the  enemy's  movements,  including  a  proposed  attack  on 
our  headquarters  aad  barracks.  The  main  attack  was  designed  against  the 
Pacific  mail  steamship  company's  properties,  because  of  its  connection  with 
the  Chinese  immigration,  and  began  by  tiring  the  large  lumber-yards  and 
surrounding  combustible  material.  Their  attacking  force  was  large.  The 
firemen  and  fire  brigade  were  soon  in  action  with  all  the  available  police, 
our  forces  soon  after,  numbering  seven  hundred  men,  arriving  on  a  double 
quick  in  good  order,  a  detachment  under  General  Cobb  in  the  van.  Tlie  en- 
giigement  became  general,  and  was  stubbornly  contested  for  about  two  hours, 
^t  th(  end  of  which  time  the  united  forces  had  cleared  the  field,  routed  the 
rioteri'  in  every  quarter.  Our  men  displayed  coolness,  discipline,  and  cour- 
age thi  oughout.  Our  succohs  was  complete,  and  by  midnight  the  city  was 
quici  r,nd  safe.  The  next  day  showed  general  demoralization  and  discour- 
agement of  the  lawless  element;  they  were  subdued,  and  the  backbone  of 
their  movement  was  broken. 

"Beside  my  duties  and  labors  at  our  headquarters,  and  with  our  own 
forces,  I  had  nearly  every  night,  at  a  late  liour,  a  private  conference  with  the 
governor,  chiefs  of  police,  and  General  McComb,  and  sometimes  tlie  mayor. 
We  rev  lowed  what  had  been  done,  and  discussed  the  future.  Our  views  were 
generally  harmonious.  The  governor,  always  courageous,  cool,  and  clear,  en- 
couraged me  with  his  full  approval  and  support  in  all  my  views  and  plans;  the 
chiefs  of  police  accor  led  the  support  of  theirs.  v>eneral  McComb,  a  good  soldier, 
was  impatient  of  his  position  in  having  lis  forces  held  nightly  in  the  barracks, 
withok^  t  participation  in  the  work  being  done;  but  I  insisted  upon  our  right  and 
duty  t'»»"  ove  beyond  question  tliat  the  citizen  volunteer  with  the  police  forces 
could  an.i  would  successfully  protect  the  city  and  suppress  any  outbreak  with- 
out Mil  ot  t'!B  i  iilitary,  ami  if  so  proven  might  hereafter  serve  as  a  useful  prece- 
dent ■!(  t\\e  economic  systems  of  American  administration.  The  condition  of 
afi'pii  N  a^  t'l  y  existed  on  the  28th  had  fully  confirmed  this,  and  justified  us  then 
in-  cbtxvfu'  compliance  with  the  wishes  of  tho  national  guard.  Beyond  this 
alsc,  th'  jjuve  frtrces  of  our  committee  were  entitled  to  respite  after  the 
PiUc'^us  u  u  COT  tinned  labors  since  our  organization,  and  I  suggested  to  the 
chief  oi  ^i:'-:  -  that  we  both  withdraw  our  forces  as  far  as  practicable,  and 
ask  Genera'  McComb  to  bring  his  men  into  the  field,  and  take  care  of  the 
city  for  thai,  .light,  which  would  indeed  from  all  appearances  be  the  practical 
end  of  the  active  duties  of  the  campaign.  I  then  caused  the  most  careful 
orders  to  be  issued  to  all  ward  commanders  to  guard  their  headquarters, 
secure  the  arms  and  property,  and  to  leave  the  duty  of  the  night  to  the 
militia.  I  arranged  that  the  patrol  duties  of  our  cavalry  and  infantry  be  dis- 
continued, but  that  the  whole  force  should  be  considered  as  held  ready  at  a 
fifererw  alarm  to  rally  at  their  headquarters  and  to  report  to  me  by  telegraph. 
i  xt  onlered  that  complete  rolls  of  each  company  be  turned  in  to  General 
■  ')•  ,  that  the  surplus  arms  and  ammunition  be  put  in  order  and  turned  into 
trtt  \ri*M  hall,  and  afterwards  that  all  arms  be  so  turned  in  and  receipts  of 
Chi(;t  \'au3  to  be  taken  for  the  same.  This  was  done  successfully,  and  it  was 
C  B.  -  I     24 


f7« 


DOMINA'"ING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


m 


I'  i 


iti' 


moet  gratifying  to  find  on  the  hnal  accounting  for  all  of  these  arma  by  the 
returning  otficers  that  every  piece  receive<l  from  the  government  waa  faith- 
fully accounted  for  and  returned,  excepting  only  one  pistol,  M'hich  could  not 
be  traced. 

"The  night  passed  quietly.  Early  Sunday  morning,  the  29th,  General 
McComb  sent  following  despatch  to  Cliicf  Ellis: 

*"I  have  reported  for  duty  in  accordance  with  your  order,  have  sent 
cavalry  men  to  all  the  telegraph  and  ward  stations,  who  have  reported  to 
me  constantly  during  the  night,  and  report  no  disturbance.  Have  sunt  in- 
fantry details  to  all  the  headquarters,  and  they  have  been  relieved  at  differ- 
ent times  during  the  night.  I  have  three  companies  on  guard  here,  and 
strong  guards  in  all  the  armories.  The  men  in  the  central  hall  are  sent  out  to 
relieve  those  other  stations,  thus  making  a  co?>'r>lete  patrol  of  the  city.  I 
have  received  a  message  from  your  olHcc  signed  b>  Mr  Coleman  saying  that 
services  would  not  be  required  after  live,  A.  m.' 

"The  day  proved  peaceful  and  restful,  a  great  boon  to  our  citizens.  The 
storm  had  passed,  and  the  calm  was  reassuring.  \Vitliin  five  dnys  from  the 
tirst  call,  we  had  organized,  armed,  gone  through  successful  action,  completed 
our  undertaking,  established  pea<:e,  order,  and  security,  and  as  tlio  signs  of 
danger  which  had  called  us  out  "u-e  now  passed,  we  resolved  that  the  re- 
turning quiet  should  see  us  relii.  r'  ^-r  extraordinary  powers  and  public 
position.     The  chief  of  police  advib.  <  it  he  had  made  a  tour  of  thorough 

inspection  of  the  different  wards,  anc  satisfied  he  could  then  take  care 

of  the  city.  We  therefore  ordered  all  jrd  headquarters  broken  up,  and 
clubs  and  material  belonging  to  the  committee  turned  in  at  Horticultural  hall 
barracks,  which  alone  we  retained,  closed  all  outer  telegraph  offices  and  the 
whole  commissary  department,  relieved  our  men  from  active  duty,  authorizing 
members  to  retain  tlieir  committee  badges  and  clubs,  and  return  to  the  chief 
all  police  stars,  but  notified  our  entire  membership  to  be  watchful,  and  on 
call  by  messenger  or  tap  of  our  bell  to  hasten  and  form  in  front  of  their 
headquarters,  and  there  to  await  orders,  and  thus  our  general  activity  ended 
and  ceased  in  quiet. 

"The  committee  is  yet  alive  and  in  full  organization,  but  the  great  body 
is  resting;  and  in  event  of  need,  is  ready  to  respond  to-day  at  public  alarm, 
and  appear  as  strong  as  the  occasion  may  demand.  The  executive  committee 
continues  its  labors,  in  classifying  records  ami  gathering  tlie  many  detailed 
items  connected  with  the  service,  closing  up  its  accounts  in  the  various  de- 
partments, maturing  plans  for  the  future  safety  and  good  order  of  the  city. 

"On  the  28th,  the  governor,  after  a  conference,  telegraphed  the  secretary 
of  navy,  tendering  thanks,  on  behalf  of  the  state  and  the  city,  for  having 
the  naval  vessels  anchored  in  the  h.irbor,  and  announcing  tiiat  the  danger 
being  practically  passed,  the  vessels  would  no  longer  be  neuded.  Tlie  secre- 
tary then  ordered  them  to  Mare  island.  Before  sailing,  however,  we  received 
an  intimation  that  the  marines  and  sailors  would,  if  adinissii))e,  like  the 
privilege  of  a  landing  and  a  parade  through  the  city.  Tiiis  was  promptly 
and  ciieerfully  acceded  to,  and  an  invitation  extended.  They  landecl  in  force, 
fully  officered,  paraded  through  the  principal  streets,  made  a  fine  display, 
attracted  much  attention  and  hearty  applause,  and  received  the  civilities  and 
hosjiitalities  of  the  hour.  This  was  the  only  parade  of  troops  through  tiie 
streets  during  the  week,  excepting  the  forces  of  the  committee  and  of  the 
city  police.  Even  our  veteran  guard,  an  organization  which  is  here  entitled 
to  special  notice,  had  not  appeared  on  the  streets.  This  was  the  formation 
of  a  strong  body  of  veterans  of  the  late  war;  tried  soldiers  from  all  sections 
of  the  country,  north  and  south,  numbering  about  eight  huudred  men,  now 
iningling  harmoniously  and  fraternallv,  and  forming  a  strong  rc<{imcnt,  fully 
armed  and  equipped,  with  headijuarters  at  Dashaway  hall,  held  as  a  grand 
ri'serve,  under  tiie  command  of  Colonel  Withington  and  other  distinguished 
officers,  and  in  their  personnel  b(|ual  to  any  regiment  on  the  continent  to. 
day. 

"This  blending  of  the  gray  and  the  blue,  in  full  harmony  in  a  common 


■TIP 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


371 


lay, 
ami 
the 
the 
tie.  I 
ition 
ioiis 
now 
fully 
rami 
sliud 
to- 


cause,  without  one  thought  of  former  differences,  presents  to  us  one  of  the 
most  charmiDg  aspects  of  the  day.  A  field  full  for  fruitful  coutemplation. 
I  believe  that  this  is  the  first  instance  wliere  such  cordial  rel^.tious  have  so 
existed,  and  where  former  lines  of  divergence  have  been  so  completely  oblit- 
erated, and  esteem  it  as  a  matter  of  earnest  congratulation,  and  eminently 
Californian. 

"  From  experience  and  mature  study,  we  are  all  impressed  with  the  con- 
viction tliat  the  future  interests  of  this  city  demand  largely  increased  police 
force,  equalling  at  least  two  men  to  each  thousand  of  the  population,  and 
to  this  end  our  committee  have  devoted  most  earnest  and  assiduous  attention. 
We  have  had  much  discussion  and  active  correspondence  with  the  authorities, 
who  agreed  with  us  in  the  main  question,  but  difficulties  have  arisen  in  the 
want  of  funds  or  ])nwer  of  the  city  government  to  raise  funds  for  extra  police, 
and  for  this  purpose  our  finance  committee  have  cheerfully  contributed 
$6,500  in  cash.  The  bankers  of  the  city,  who  with  the  insurance  companies 
and  the  members  of  our  own  committee,  were  our  chief  subscribers,  generously 
offered  to  further  advance  funds  needed  for  additional  police,  provided  the 
officers  of  the  safety  committee  could  and  would  examine  and  approve  ap- 
plicants as  fitting  and  qualified.  This  work  has  progressed  chiefly  under 
the  immediate  charge  of  McDonald,  Menzies,  and  Halliday,  who  have,  at  a 
continued  sacrifice  of  their  private  interests,  given  their  entire  time  to  this 
arduous  duty,  while  others  have  rested,  and  for  which  they  are  doubly  en- 
titled to  the  thanks  of  the  community. 

"  A  pleasing  feature  of  our  work  is  the  good  condition  of  our  finances, 
which  have  been  admirably  administered.  The  committee,  without  moneyed 
aid,  directly  or  indirectly,  from  the  state  or  city  funds,  have  collected  from 
our  own  people  volunteer  subscriptions  sufficient  to  defray  all  our  own  ex- 
penses, and  contribute  liberally  to  tlie  needs  of  the  police  department,  as  well 
as  the  militia,  and  to  have  now  remaining  a  considerable  share  of  the  moneys 
collected.  The  committee,  at  my  suggestion,  returns  this  balance  to  the 
several  subscribers,  ratably.  My  interpretation,  which  they  have  been  gootl 
enough  to  accept,  being  that  the  subscriptions  were  for  a  definite  object;  and 
that  object  being  accomplished,  the  remainder  of  the  funds  belong  to  the 
subscribers,  and  rightly  revert  to  them. 

"And  now  for  our  membership.  The  results  prove  that  your  executive 
committee,  their  officers,  and  the  great  mass  of  men  enrolled  in  our  ranks, 
wore  generally  alike  moved  by  an  unselfish  devotion  to  public  duty,  and 
faitlifully,  diligently,  and  intelligently  wrought  out  the  problem  we  had  to 
solve,  and  now  merit  your  highest  commendation.  Some,  of  course,  with 
more  aptness  than  otherfi,  have  been  of  more  relative  \  alue  to  the  cause,  and 
of  these  I  desire  to  make  special  mention  of  General  Coey,  whose  scn-ices 
throughout  have  been  invaluable.  His  sound  judgment,  quick  decision, 
and  untiring  activity  have  proven  of  immeasurable  importance  in  the 
position  whicli  lie  held  as  my  adjutant-general  and  chief  aid,  and  after 
him,  scores  and  hundreds  of  others,  in  their  resoective  positions,  have 
competed  closely  and  worthily,  and  merit  similar  approbation,  for  nppro- 
liation  and  a  sweet  consciousness  of  having  done  their  whole  duty  aie  their 
chief  rewards.  Their  services  have  been  entirely  volunteer,  yes,  purely 
a  generous  offering,  without  a  penny's  pay  or  other  moneyed  compensa- 
tion. They  have  deemed  it  their  liigli  privilege  and  tlieir  imperative  duty  as 
Americans  to  promptly  give  their  physical,  moral,  and  financial  aid  as  trib- 
utes for  maintenance  of  peace  and  good  order,  and  all  this  being  secured, 
returning  quietly  to  tiieir  families  and  their  business  affairs,  their  normal 
avocations  and  pursuits.  W.u  T.  Coi.emax." 

This  is  what  the  Now  York  Times  says  about  it: 

"It  will  not  be  charged  to  the  discredit  of  San  Francisco  that  as  soon  as 
there  are  Hyinptoins  of  riot  and  lawlessness  tlie  old  vigilance  committee  is 
revived.  It  wis  tliis  voluntary  organization  wliicli  twice  saved  the  golden 
city  froMi   anarchy  and  ruin.     The  police  of  San   Francisco  showed  their 


■■'i'i 


I   •< 


t;!M! 


!'i 


' 


I 


]'■: 


I':!- 


If  M 


372 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


efficiency  in  checking  the  riotons  demonstrations  on  Monday  and  Tuesday. 
It  was  perfectly  well  understood,  however,  that  behind  the  municipal 
authorities  was  a  determined,  solid  element,  which  would,  at  the  right  time, 
reorganize  the  old  committee  of  vigilance,  and  hang  the  ruffians  with  whom 
it  might  prove  powerless  to  cope.  The  hoodluirj,  unemployed  vagabonds, 
and  bummers  who  infest  society  thought  this  a  good  time  to  exterminate  the 
Chinese,  and  burn  the  docks  of  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  company,  which 
as  common  carrier  brings  Chinamen  there.  The  prompt  action  of  the  vigi- 
lance committee  prevented  a  great  outrage.  The  city  ought  to  have  done 
this.  It  did  not;  but  there  is  no  young  ruffian  so  young  that  he  does  not 
know  that  the  vigilance  committee,  by  whatever  name  called,  would  hang 
him  in  1877  as  it  hanged  other  brigands  in  1856." 

Says  Mr  Coleman  :  "  Among  the  phenomena  nota- 
ble in  California  annals,  from  pastoral  days  up  to  the 
present  industrial  epoch,  none  possesses  greater  socio- 
logical interest  than  the  vigilance  committees  of  1856, 
and  the  committee  of  safety  of  1877. 

"The  full  significance  of  the  movement  of  1877 
has  not  been  appreciated.  The  causes  were  very 
much  broader,  deeper,  and  more  potent  in  their  influ- 
ences than  has  been  generally  understood. 

"  It  was  an  agitation  among  the  workingmen,  and 
of  a  socialistic  nature,  aggravated  by  disagreements 
between  the  railways  and  their  employes,  manufac- 
turers and  operators  ;  aggravated  further  by  financial 
disturbances  and  hard  times,  culminating  in  various 
serious  outbreaks  in  New  York,  in  Buffalo,  Baltimore, 
Pittsburg,  Cincinnati,  and  other  places  in  the  east. 
These  all  occurred  within  the  space  of  a  week. 

"  The  vigilance  committee  was  a  new  departure  in 
the  jurisprudence  of  the  world.  It  may  be  called  a 
compromise  between  the  regular  course  of  law,  and 
the  action  of  the  people  without  regard  to  it.  It  was 
seizing  upon  the  forces  of  a  mob,  arresting  them  in  their 
mad  course,  harnessing  them  quietly,  and  utilizing  the 
powers  in  the  regular  form,  systematically,  coolly,  and 
deliberately.  While  the  law  was  lying  dormant  on 
the  one  hand,  and  trampled  down  and  disgraced  on 
the  other,  the  people — the  power  of  all  government 
in  our  system — -determined  to  execute  in  form  what 
their  servants  had  neglected  to  do  and  had  disregarded. 
It  was  reserved  for  California  to  effectuate  a  system 
of  imperium  in  imperio  altogether  unique  and  untried. 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


873 


The  history  of  that  is  written.  In  1877  the  same 
people,  in  the  same  place,  under  different  conditions, 
and  yet  in  some  regards  similar,  finding  danger  from 
the  same  elements,  but  on  a  grander  scale  in  some 
respects,  determined  to  act  in  the  spirit  of  the  law, 
but  in  a  different  mode.  The  state  government  was 
in  bettor  hands  than  in  1856;  the  city  government 
was  in  better  hands.  The  country  generally  was  in  . 
better  condition.  The  effects  of  the  vigilance  com- 
mittee of  1856  had  continued  and  prevailed  all  the 
time.  The  ethics  of  the  state  were  of  a  higher  order 
than  at  the  earlier  date.  The  experiences  were  valu- 
able to  individuals  as  well  as  to  the  masses,  and  when 
called  up  for  self-government,  they  demonstrated  a 
capacity  again  that  has  few  parallels.  The  men  act- 
ing in  1877  believed,  and  still  believe,  and  acted  with 
confidence  in  the  proposition,  that  of  all  the  peoples 
in  the  world  the  Americans  are  best  fitted  for  self- 
government,  that  of  all  the  port'ciis  of  the  United 
States,  California  was  the  best  fitted. 

**  First,  because  of  the  general  character  of  the  peo- 
ple that  constituted  the  state  from  1848  down.  Next, 
because  of  the  value  of  the  experiences  of  those  peo- 
ple, coming  from  every  state  of  the  union,  and  from 
the  old  world,  developing  independence  of  action  and 
thought.  Moved  always,  as  much  as  people  ".an  in 
ordinary  conditions  of  life,  by  the  spirit  of  patriotism, 
expediency,  and  general  intelligence,  they  harmonized, 
and  formed  a  character  of  composite  citizenship  re- 
markable for  breadth  and  strength.  Unhampered  by 
old  local  influences,  and  cosmopolitan  in  their  judg- 
ment, they  had  the  courage  to  carry  out  whatever 
they  conceived  to  be  right.  This  spirit  has  been  ap- 
preciated not  only  in  California,  but  has  gradually 
overcome  conventional  doubt  and  dislike  in  other  parts 
of  the  world.  The  agitation  and  disturbances  of  1 877, 
beginning  outside  of  the  state  and  afterward  reaching 
San  Francisco,  begot  the  safety  committee,  the  younger 
sister  of  the  vigilance  committee,  in  whose  name  and 


1 


i   I  .  -;7 


I 


374 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


li^i 


„i  I 


mi 


II  fi  i' , 


under  whose  banner  the  people  of  California  sprang 
at  once  to  the  support  of  the  government,  and  by  the 
prevention  and  punishment  of  crime  with  a  prompt- 
ness, decision,  and  forbearance  rarely  equalled,  if  ever 
excelled,  maintained  and  established  quiet  and  good 
order. 

**  Citizens  enrolled  themselves  with  alacrity,  in  the 
regular  way,  as  state  troops  or  city  guards,  much 
preferring  to  be  volunteers  for  a  brief  campaign,  as 
sub-militia  or  special  police,  under  the  constituted  au- 
thorities than  to  be  compelled,  as  in  the  former  emer- 
gency, to  assume  independent  functions. 

"The  people  of  the  world  know  little  of  this  move- 
ment, and  there  are  many  persons,  even  in  California, 
who  do  not  regard  it  in  the  light  in  which  it  ought  to 
be  considered.  The  recent  troubles  at  New  Orleans 
exemplified  and  illustrated  the  value  of  this  work, 
and  the  estimation  in  which  the  vigilance  committee 
of  1856  and  the  safety  committee  of  1877  should  be 
held  by  the  country  at  large.  Those  organizations 
held  the  power  of  peace  in  their  hands,  the  first  without 
the  continuous  appri-val  and,  at  times,  in  opposition  to 
the  state  and  city  governments, the  second  entirely  in 
harmony  with  the  state  and  city  governments.  Men  of 
the  same  city  accomplished,  by  different  methods,  re- 
sults essentially  alike;  first,  righting  wrongs  and  estab- 
lishing law,  by  unstatutory  means;  and,  second,  by 
working  hand  in  hand  with  the  executive  departments 
of  city  and  state;  and  then  retiring,  desiring  only  that 
the  effect  of  their  work  might  be  permanent.  It  was 
seen  that  these  efforts  left  no  political  shock,  no 
moral  damage,  and  practically  no  legal  difficulties; 
that  they  did  not  demoralize  the  comnmnity;  that  so 
far  from  making  or  being  a  spirit  of  mobocracy,  they 
have  in  this  comnmnity  obliterated  or  effaced  moboc- 
racy or  mobocratic  feeling.  The  mob  in  San  Fran- 
cisco has  not  been  known  in  thirty  years,  except  that 
in  1877,  which  was  stifled  in  the  beginning.  The 
better  class  of  people  in  California  do  not  look  to  the 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


375 


contingency  of  the  mob,  and  are  determined  against  it. 
They  are  ready  and  prepared  to  organize  and  form  mili- 
tary forces,  if  necessary,  to  deal  summarily  with  a  mob, 
and  if  the  civil  and  judicial  authorities  are  not  suffi- 
ciently active,  they  will  furnish  the  power  required. 

"Referring  to  the  affair  at  New  Orleans  in  1891, 
there  surely  was  cause  enough  for  prompt  and  severe 
action,  but  the  mode  adopted  was  frightfully  at  fault. 
Californians  may  and  must  forgive  it,  and  tacitly  pass 
it  by,  not  with  approval,  but  with  regret.  Under 
the  same  circumstances  the  people  of  San  Francisco 
would  have  met  as  the  people  of  New  Orleans  did. 
Under  stress  of  similar  outrages  they  would  have  or- 
ganized in  full  force,  and  in  military  form  if  necessary ; 
would  have  taken  quarters ;  formed  a  court ;  ap- 
pointed a  judge  and  selected  a  jury,  all  of  good  men  ; 
called  for  evidence  in  the  cases  that  had  been  before 
the  recreant  tribunals ;  analyzed  it  carefully ;  put  on 
trial  the  people  who  had  been  discharged  by  the  per- 
jured jury,  taking  additional  testimony  if  practicable  ; 
given  the  accused  good  counsel,  the  benefit  of  all 
doubt  that  occurred,  weighing  it  carefully,  and  finally 
executing  those  whon  they  found  guilty,  deliberately 
and  in  regular  form.  Those  found  entitled  to  the 
least  reasonable  doubt  would  have  been  discharged. 
If  it  required  5,000  men  in  this  organization,  or  20,000, 
they  would  have  been  found  ready.  California 
forms  would  have  been  scrupulously  observed  in  the 
execution  of  sentence.  The  criminals  would  have 
been  allowed  time  to  arrange  their  worldly  afl^airs,  and 
have  had  the  benefit  of  the  clergy  to  make  peace  with 
their  God,  if  they  were  disposed  to  do  so.  Certainly, 
this  opportunity  would  not  have  been  denied  them, 
and  the  execution  would  have  been  carried  out  with 
such  gravity,  deliberation,  and  firmness  as  to  secure 
therefrom  the  advantage  of  a  moral  as  well  as  a  legal 
triumph,  which  is  ail  lost  by  the  wild,  stormy,  heed- 
less action  of  a  mob.  The  rule  of  the  leading  persons 
comprising    the  vigilance  committee  was^  that  it  is 


Hi' 


876 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


hv 


>i 


' 


better  that  a  thousand  guilty  men  should  escape  than 
that  one  innocent  man  should  perish. 

"  It  is  to  be  feared  that  although  the  world  is  for 
the  moment  condoning  this  affair,  and  it  is  meeting 
with  the  approval  of  a  great  many  people,  largely  on 
account  of  the  character  of  the  victims,  and  because 
of  the  surroundings,  that  very  approval,  given  under 
these  peculiar  circumstances,  lending  so  much  of  as- 
sent to  the  proceedings  in  general,  is  likely  to  engen- 
der precipitancy  and  violence,  by  encouraging  people 
in   other  quarters  and  in  other  cases  to  adopt  the 
mode  of  procedure  in  the   New  Orleans   lynching, 
whereas  the  California  fashion,  independent  of  all  that 
has  been  said  and  discussed  heretofore,  has  the  great 
advantage  of  securing  time  for  reflection  and  thorough 
investigation.     A   man  in  the  heat  of  passion  does 
many  things  that  in  the  cooler  moments  of  the  next 
day  he  would  be  glad  to  modify  or  undo.     None  of 
the  California  executions  took  place  within  four  days 
after  arraignment,  except  that  of  Jenkins,  in   1851. 
Every  one  who  had  a  right  to  say  anything  was  given 
an  opportunity  to  do  so;  time  was  allowed  for  a  close 
inspection  of  testimony,  as  to  all  pleas  of  innocence, 
justification,  or  equity,  all  the  moral  as  well  as  of  the 
general  legal   bearings.     The  New  Orleans  episode 
was  a  demonstration  that  could  be  made  by  any  rude 
party,  but  the  acts  of  California's  committee  could  only 
have  been  matured  by  men  who  could  govern  them- 
selves as  well  as  others — men  determined  to  do  right, 
and  to  admit  of  nothing  but  right.     I  think  that  the 
behavior  of  the  committees  of  1856  and  of  1877,  if 
thoroughly  comprehended  and  fairly  chronicled,  will 
form  a  record  of  permanent  value,  because  of  its  inhe- 
rent character  as  well  as  its  unlikeness  to  other  action 
under  similar  provocation.     If  we  are  to  have  a  refor- 
mation in  our  criminal  codes,  if  we  are  to  have  the 
continuation  of  the  wholesome   condition  of  affairs 
that  has  prevailed  in  California  since  those  episodes 
in  popular  administration  and  self-control,  let  these 


WILUAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


877 


5-      K 


facts  be  fully  comprehended.  They  suggest,  at  once, 
a  check  and  a  guide  to  people  excited  and  in  doubt, 
a  stimulus  to  communities  that  are  oppressed  with 
maladministration  to  dare  the  right  and  forbear  the 
wrong — that  is,  do  as  California  has  done.  We  will 
not  be  hasty,  but  we  will  not  be  turned  aside  from 
our  purpose.  If  the  administration  by  the  judicial 
authorities  fails  us,  we,  the  people,  the  inheritors 
of  the  right,  the  power,  the  sovereigns,  will  gather 
together,  brush  aside  the  men  who  are  pretending  to 
be  public  servants,  and  organize  and  do  their  work  for 
them.  We  hold  that  we  have  as  much  intelligence 
as  our  representatives.  We  have  placed  them  in 
office  to  administer  aifairs  for  us,  not  for  themselves  : 
performing  their  duty,  they  continue  where  they  are ; 
failing  in  their  duty,  they  have  but  a  fixed  term  at 
,  I  the  most,  and  if  their  failure  is  too  gross,  too  complete, 
we  will  displace  them  in  a  day,  in  a  moment,  if  neces- 
sary. The  rights  of  persons  must  be  respected  and 
the  community  protected  ;  the  law  must  be  executed  ; 
and  the  people  themselves  will  do  it  if  their  servants 
will  not.  In  the  brisk  progress  of  the  world  under 
present  tendencies,  the  servants  of  the  people  mani- 
fest a  deplorable  lack  of  honesty  or  comprehension  in 
allowing  crimes  and  fraud  to  continue  unchecked  un- 
til private  citizens,  impatient  of  the  evils  existing, 
take  the  control  in  their  own  hands,  seize  and  execute 
criminals  without  form,  appeal  to  the  world  for  justi- 
fication, and  are  vindicated.  The  uprising  at  New 
Orleans  really  illustrated  this,  because,  as  wild,  hasty, 
impatient  as  that  demonstration  was,  involving  im- 
mense liabilities  in  different  forms,  it  met  with  the 
quiet,  silent  approval  of  a  large  portion  of  the  people. 
"God  forbid  we  should  ever  again  need  vigilance  or 
safety  committees.  The  people  of  California  do  not 
want  them.  Those  who  organized  and  controlled 
these  movements  appreciate  the  undesirability  of  all 
such  proceedings  as  fully  as  any  one  can,  and  would 
never   have    recourse  to    them   except  in  extreme 


,!  il; 


878 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


necessity.  If  the  officers  of  law  but  do  their  duty, 
there  will  be  no  occasion  for  them,  and  mobs  will  bo 
told  in  history  only.  But  so  long  as  our  system  con- 
tinues cursed  with  the  legerdemain  of  the  courts,  and 
the  law  is  delayed  in  the  most  harassing  manner  in 
rehearings,  new  trials,  technical  appeals,  and  other 
schemes  in  vogue  to  thwart  justice,  hope  is  liable 
to  lapse  into  despair,  and  serious  danger  follow. 
The  extent  of  these  dangers  no  one  can  foretell. 
The  wrongs  endured,  the  forces  brought  into  action, 
the  circumstances  surrounding  them,  may  produce 
results  much  less  satisfactory  than  those  that  fell  to 
the  lot  of  the  people  of  California. 

"In  this  state,  which  is  young,  and  covers  such  an 
enormous   and   thinly  settled  territory,  persons  and 
property  were,  as  a  general  rule,  secure  to  a  degree 
unsurpassed   anywhere    else    under   like    conditions. 
The  citizen  was  safe  wherever  he  went;  women  and 
children   could  walk  the   streets  of  the  city  at  any 
hour  without  molestation.     One  might  roam  over  the 
state  with  confidence,  undisturbed  except   by  some 
wild  mustang  of  a  Mexican,  or  some  convict  who  had 
crept  away  into  a  corner.     From  1856  to  1877,  Cali- 
fornia was  exempt  from  popular  disturbance  or  fear. 
From  the  time  that  the  committee  of  safety  gave  up 
their  organization  up  to  the  present,  we  have  liad  no 
general  or  local  disorder  necessitating  immediate  and 
heroic  remedy.     And  much  the  same  may  be  said  of 
the  Pacific  coast  at  large,  the  sentiment  and  influ- 
ences affecting  which  are   apt  to  take  form  in  San 
Francisco.     But  while  Californians,  by  asserting  the 
popular  supremacy,  accomplished  all  that   could  be 
hoped  for  in  the  restoration  of  law  and  order,  the  , 
manner  in  which  they  proceeded  was  their  ciiief  grat- 
ification.    The   fact  that   the   committee   of   safety 
acted  in  complete  harmony  with  and  were  the  ally  of 
the  government  renders  it  absurd  to  stigmatize  their 
organization  as  mobocratic.     If  the  state  authorities 
had  lived  up  to  their  promises,  the  committee  of  1856 


V;iLLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


379 


would  also  have  performed  their  functions  in  concert 
with  the  representatives  of  the  government.  It  was 
the  pride  of  the  safety  committee  that  they  were 
able  to  bring  into  action,  in  consonance  with  existing 
law,  practically  the  same  powers  that  had  crowned 
the  vigilance  committee  with  success.  An  incident 
not  now  often  recalled  affords  additional  evidence  of 
the  California  spirit  in  dealing  with  disturbers  of  the 
peace.  In  October  1851,  a  large  crowd  of  sailors 
and  sailors'  friends  got  together  in  a  rage,  and  would 
have  wreaked  their  vengeance  on  Captain  Waterman, 
of  the  ship  Challenge,  for  alleged  cruelty  to  his  crew. 
The  mayor  of  San  Francisco,  finding  the  municipal 
forces  inadequate  to  cope  with  the  mob,  asked  the  ser- 
vices of  the  vigilance  committee,  as  a  posse  comitatus, 
and  in  a  few  minutes  the  mob  was  dispersed.  Other 
"  communities  can  be  relied  upon  to  maintain  peace  and 
good  order  if  the  state  authorities  have  the  discretion 
and  good  judgment  and  the  breadth  to  incorporate  the 
people  as  active  aids  in  crises;  the  grand  result  being 
that  every  good  citizen  can  \:liereafter  consider  him- 
self a  part  of  the  practical  working  of  the  machinery 
of  the  state,  and  however  occupied,  at  his  bench,  his 
plough,  or  desk,  be  ready  to  stop  and  enter  the  service 
of  the  commonwealth,  if  only  for  a  day.  I  look  upon 
this  feature  of  adaptability  as  a  source  of  infinite 
strength  in  Americans." 

With  our  cosmopolitan  population,  holding  strata  of 
heterogeneous  and  unassimilated  elements,  we  may 
expect  occasional  disturbances.  Efforts  at  agitation 
under  different  pleas  and  pretences  may  be  put  forth. 
The  disaffected  may  assemble  and  proclaim  their  varied 
grievances,  but  all  such  are  historically  warned  to  pause 
and  reflect ;  to  be  sure  that  their  course  is  just,  and 
that  their  action  will  not  be  a  trespass  upon  the  rights 
of  others. 

During  Mr  Coleman's  later  business  experiences, 
the  character  of  trade  in  California  became  greatly 
changed.     From  grass  to  grain,  and  from  grain   to 


880 


DOiMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


L*- 


i 


fruit  was  the  general  course  of  traffic,  with  precious 
ores  intermingling ;  and  Mr  Coleman's  being  the 
leading  business,  naturally  took  the  lead  in  handling 
whatever  the  country  produced. 

From  the  very  first  he  had  great  faith  in  the  agri- 
cultural resources  of  the  state.  As  he  came  from  the 
sandy  plains,  over  the  Sierra,  and  down  into  the 
valley  of  California,  and  saw  the  great  oaks  and 
thick  underbrush,  although  the  grass  was  dry,  and 
unfit  as  he  supposed  for  fodder,  he  said,  "Wheat  will 
grow  here."  Venturing  a  similar  remark  later,  in  the 
mines,  his  listeners  laughed  at  him.  **  How  do  you 
expect  grain  to  grow  where  there  is  no  rain  in  the 
summer  ?"  they  asked.  **  Where  wild  oats  grow  six 
feet  high,  and  ripen,  you  may  be  sure  wheat  will 
grow,"  Coleman  replied.  "  Besides,  did  not  the 
missionaries  grow  grain,  and  Sutter,  and  the  Russians 
at  Bodega  ? "  Likewise  when  he  went  down  to  the 
bay,  and  saw  only  Chile  flour  and  Sandwich  island 
potatoes,  he  said,  '*  Some  day  I  will  handle  products 
of  California,  and  load  ships  with  them."  Few,  how- 
ever, had  the  inclination  or  ability  to  see  or  reason 
on  the  subject,  having  come  to  the  country  to  dig  a 
season  or  two  and  then  go  away ;  so  that  it  made 
little  difference  to  them  if  flour  fluctuated  between 
$25  and  $300  a  barrel,  between  San  Francisco  and 
the  mines,  or  if  cured  meats  were  25  cents  or  a 
dollar  a  pound,  and  vegetables  from  50  cents  to  two 
dollars  a  pound,  while  at  their  very  door  was  soil 
which  would  produce  the  best  wheat  in  the  world. 

"  I  had  the  pleasure,"  says  Mr  Coleman,  •'  of  pre- 
senting at  the  grain  exchange  in  New  York  the  first 
samples  of  California  wheat  ever  seen  there.  I  was 
a  member  of  the  exchange.  This  was  in  the  early 
fifties.  It  attracted  much  attention  and  commenda- 
tion. Mr  David  Dows  asked  me  how  much  we  could 
raise,  and  I  told  him  that  our  product  would  be  more 
than  that  of  any  state  in  the  union  in  a  comparatively 
short  time." 


•^ 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


m 


"  What  will  you  do  with  it  ?" 

"We  will  send  it  to  Liverpool  in  competition  with 
New  York. " 

"  How  can  you  do  that  ?"  they  asked,  while  ridicul- 
ing the  idea. 

"  First,  we  can  deliver  grain  in  San  Francisco  as 
easily  as  it  can  be  delivered  at  Chicago  or  St  Louis. 
The  freight  from  Chicago  to  New  York  ranges  from 
25  to  45  cents  per  bushel.  We  can  lay  it  down  in 
Liverpool  at  about  what  it  costs  to  get  your  grain  to 
New  York." 

"That  is  impossible." 

**No,  it  is  not,  for  the  reason  that  California  is  now 
an  importing  state,  and  nearly  all  the  vessels  trading 
with  us  take  nothing  from  San  Francisco  but  ballast, 
or  a  cheap  return  cargo.  Grain  freights  thence  be- 
come very  cheap." 

The  proposition  was  plain  and  true  to  a  point.  The 
best  vessels  in  the  world  were  sent  to  California  ;  the 
Pacific  trade  evolved  the  fast-sailing  clipper,  with  her 
sharp  prow  and  trim  sai)3.  Crops,  for  the  most  part, 
could  be  brought  by  water  from  the  San  Joaquin  and 
Sacramento  rivers,  and  from  the  country  around. 
These  facilities  of  course  were  confined  to  points  near 
water  navigation.  The  Coleman  line  began  in  the 
fifties,  and  did  a  very  large  business  during  the  sixties. 
It  was  not  a  wheat  line.  The  vessels  of  this  com- 
pany took  from  California  return  cargoes,  for  the 
most  part,  of  ores,  manganese,  wool,  and  hides.  Ores 
came  from  Nevada,  some  fr'om  California,  and  went  to 
the  smelting-works  in  New  Jersey,  Baltimore,  and 
other  points  east,  and  to  Swansea.  At  the  beginning, 
not  only  in  their  business,  but  in  all  business,  ships 
coming  to  San  Francisco  depended  on  their  inward 
cargo  to  repay  them  for  the  round  voyage.  Sonie 
received  sailing  orders  in  San  Francisco  to  go  to 
Manila  for  sugar,  to  China,  India,  and  divers  ports  of 
the  Pacific.  Some  of  the  ships  returned  via  the  gulf  of 
Mexico,  taking  woods.     Long  lines  of  vessels  went 


i 

i 

1 

i 

■ 

1. 

* 

: 

1          ^   '  ' 

j 

1    ■  ■  'ii 

i        -■    .       5 

1 

Mli''              l 

1 

i 

■ll^  i 

■PP"^ 

■  '  "■■  i 

ill 

*_j 

i  i 

382 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


! 


(      1 


'» 


I     i 


direct  to  the  Chinclia  islands,  off  Peru,  and  other 
islands  and  cities,  for  the  Atlantic  ports  and  other 
places. 

In  due  time  small  shipment,  of  wheat  were  sent 
with  the  ores,  until  enough  was  raised  to  make  full 
cargoes  of  grain  alone.  Soon  wheat  had  reached  the 
forsraost  position  in  exports.  Yet  every  vessel  leaving 
obtained  if  possible  other  goods  to  make  a  mixed  cargo, 
especially  minerals,  which  they  used  as  ballast  or  floor- 
ing, so  as  to  raise  the  cargoes  above  damage  from  tb 
water  in  the  lower  part  of  the  vessel,  but  then,  as 
now,  while  there  are  many  wheat  cargoes  that  go 
without  any  other  merchandise,  many  ships  take  as 
a  portion  of  the  cargo  the  productions  of  the  coast 
which  are  not  prejudiced  by  nor  prejudice  wheat  in 
turn.  Prominent  among  these :«  salmon  in  cans,  and 
preserved  fruits  in  cases,  which  are  stored  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  vessel. 

Meanwhile  the  business  of  William  T.  Coleman 
and  company  assumed  gigantic  proportions.  They 
had  houses  at  Astoria,  Los  Anarelcs,  Riverside,  and 
in  New  York  and  London.  They  acted  chiefly  as 
factors,  making  advances  in  money  on  bills  and  ship- 
ments to  New  York  and  otlicr  Atlantic  ports,  and  to 
Europe.  They  occasionally  made  ventures  on  their 
own  account,  but  not  to  a  largo  extent,  excepting  on 
cargoes  ol  wheat,  which  they  often  owned  entirely. 

Mr  Coleman  jiractieally  inaugurated  the  foreign 
trade  in  Pacific-coast  salmon,  and  held  the  leadincr 
place  in  it  for  a  long  series  of  years. 

Wool,  as  a  product  of  California,  at  one  time  held  a 
very  consj)icuous  position  in  our  traffic,  but  now  tlie 
lands  have  become  not  only  too  valuable  for  sheop- 
raising,  but  for  most  kinds  of  agriculture;  fruit  now 
is  king.  Hides  were  also  prominent  and  profitable 
before  tanneries  were  established  on  the  coast.  In 
early  times  the  country  about  Hollister  and  Santa 
Barbara  had  large  sheep  ranges,  and  indeed  all  along 
the  coast  range.     So  in  regard  to  wool,  the  woollen 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


388 


mills  in  due  time  established  on  the  coast  absorbed  a 
portion  of  the  product.  Of  many  articles  Cole- 
man and  company  assumed  control,  not  as  manufac- 
turers, but  chiefly  as  agents  for  others.  But  it  was 
with  a  view  more  especially  to  the  proper  distribution 
of  canned,  dried,  and  preserved  fruits,  that  their  sev- 
eral agencies  were  established,  in  which  products  as 
the  yield  continued  to  increase,  more  and  more,  they 
dealt  in  very  largely,  handling  the  entire  crop  of 
large  areas,  and  the  output  of  many  of  the  canneries. 

The  line  of  sailing  ships  between  New  York  and 
San  Francisco,  known  as  the  California  line,  which 
Mr  Coleman  established  in  1856,  was  well  supported 
by  his  California  friends ;  within  twelve  months  from 
the  sailing  of  the  first  ship  his  house  was  at  the  head 
of  the  shipping  business  between  the  two  coasts,  do- 
ing more  than  any  other,  and  in  fact  the  majority  of 
the  business.  Ho  also  included  in  this  enterprise  a 
line  of  vessels  from  Boston,  not  as  strong  as  that  from 
New  York,  and  had  vessels  also  from  Philadelphia 
and  Baltimore.  These  lines  were  continued  for  sev- 
eral years,  as  long  as  it  was  profitable.  He  did  the 
largest  share  of  the  export  business  from  San  Fran- 
cisco by  sail  during  the  latter  part  of  their  activity  on 
this  line. 

In  1858  there  was  a  great  outcry  on  the  part  of 
Ca'ifornia  against  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  com- 
pany. The  charges  for  passengers  and  freight,  and 
the  imperious  manner  in  which  the  business  was  con- 
ducted, made  it  extremely  unsatisfactory.  Indeed  the 
company  declined  to  receive  any  freight  whatever 
from  New  York,  unless  it  went  through  the  hands 
of  the  express  companies,  and  at  a  cost  of  from  five 
to  fifty  cents  per  pound.  Mr  Coleman  was  then 
very  active  and  prominent  in  New  York.  His  office 
at  88  Wall  street  was  the  headquarters  of  Califor- 
nians.  He  kept  a  register,  and  most  Californianu 
called  and  loft  their  address.  He  was  a  general  lef- 
erence  on  ull  matters  Californian.     The  people  of  San 


•  {   \'  ^A 


h,: 


I':    I 


384 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


1 


mt 


Francisco  discussed  frequently  the  project  of  a  line  of 
independent  vessels,  say  screws,  between  New  York 
and  San  Francisco,  via  Panama.     These  discussions 
crystallized  one  day  in  the  meeting  at  his  office  of  a 
number  of  leading  Californians  who  were  present  in 
New  York,  and  he  was  asked  if  he  could  not  get  up 
a  line.     He  answered  that  he  could  do  so  with  proper 
support;  this  was  pledged,  and  he  was  requested  to 
go  forward.     He  laid  out  a  plan  for  a  line  to  consist 
of  eight  screw  steamers,  each  of  3,000  tons  capacity, 
five  of  them  to  be  on  the  Pacific,  and  three  on  the 
Atlantic  side.     They  should  be  run  for  freight  exclu- 
sively.    Then,  instead  of  carrying  from  San  Francisco 
and  from  New  York,  in  each  ship,  the  coals  for  the 
outward  as  well   as  return  cargo,   he  determined  tx> 
retain  that  space  for  freight,  so    far  as  possible,  by 
having  coal-hulks  in  reserve  at  Aspinwall  and  Pan- 
amd,  so  that  the    steamers    could  coal  there  afresh. 
This  was  a  new  idea  to  the  P.  M.  S.  S.  Co.,  as  far 
as  related  to  Aspinwall.     Coleman  gave  considerable 
time  to  arranging  an  elaborate  pamphlet,  which  he  is- 
sued, introducing  a  number  of  economies,  and  differ- 
ing from  the  methods  of  the  old  line.     All   large 
shippers  were  met  on  even  terms,  with  rates  reduced 
to  one  fourth,  and  in  some  instances  to  one  tenth,  of 
the  rates  charged  by  the  old  express  company.     The 
l)olicy  was  approved  without  qualification.     The  plan 
was  sent  to  San  Francisco,  and  there  met  with  com- 
mendation.    Then  came  the  question  of   raising  the 
money ;  and  another  one  :  "  Who  is  to  be  the  agent  of 
this  line?"     Answer,  "Coleman."     *' Oh,  well,  he  is 
getting  it  up  for  himself.  "     He  then  said  "  Gentlemen, 
I  do  not  want  the  agency  ;  give  it  to  some  one  else; 
I  have  enough  to  do;  I  will  subscribe  what  I  can, 
but    carry   this   through    like    men,    and    don't    be 
children    over   it."     Soon   after   Captain   Comstock, 
the  captain  of  the  port  for  the  Pacific  Mail  com- 
pany, called  on  Coleman,  and  asked  for  a  pamphlet 
of  the  new   line.     He   gjave  him  one.     Then  Mr 


» 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


889 


Hoadley  of  the  Panamd.  railroad  "wanted  one.  Pro- 
visional rates  of  freight  over  the  railway  had  been 
arranged ;  it  was  the  chief  difficulty  and  expense. 
Then  Mr  McLane,  president  of  the  Pacific  Mail 
vanted  a  pamphlet.  The  result  was  that  they  held 
a  oonference ;  were  alarmed  at  the  outlook ;  were 
awakened  to  the  reforms  that  were  possible  in  their 
mode  of  business.  The  next  trip  of  the  Pacific  Mail 
steamer  saw  the  adoption  of  some  of  these  reforms  ; 
they  despatched  vessels  with  coals  to  Aspinwall,  and 
kept  them  there.  They  reduced  the  rates  of  freight. 
The  result  of  the  movement  was  that  within  a  year 
the  administration  of  the  Pacific  Mail  company  was 
entirely  changed,  and  its  steamers  were  taking  freight 
from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  at  reduced  rates, 
which  have  since  then  fallen  at  times  to  ten  dollars 
per  ton. 

Mr  Coleman  has  done  much  in  different  ways 
toward  the  material  improvement  of  the  state.  As 
early  as  1851-2,  he  bought,  filled  in  at  a  great  ex- 
pense, and  reclaimed  the  tide-lots  at  the  corner  of 
California  and  Front  streets,  and  built  the  large,  fire- 

Eroof  warehouse  which  he  long  occupied.  He  was 
is  own  architect,  selected  the  best  material  obtain- 
able, and  finished  what  was  at  the  time  the  largest 
and  confessedly  the  best  warehouse  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  at  which  he  could,  at  moderate  rates  then,  ob- 
tain full  fire  insurance,  which  at  the  time  was  difficult 
to  do  on  any  building  within  the  city.  He  did  much 
other  similar  improvement,  but  his  grander  works  were 
probably  his  enterprises  in  Marin  county,  when  in 
1871-2  he  bought  for  cash  some  eight  thousand  acres 
of  land,  four  thousand  of  which  lay  in  a  solid  body, 
reaching  from  the  heart  of  San  Kafael  to  the  bay  on 
the  eastward.  He  there  projected  an  extension  and 
addition  to  the  town,  employed  the  best  landscape  en- 
gineers in  the  state,  laid  out  Magnolia  and  other 
parks,  with  broad  avenues  and  streets  and  roads, 
about  thirty-four  miles  in  extent,  and  planted  about 

0.  B.-I.    25 


!    ■     'l' 

1 

386 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


m  : 


i) 


•ill 


I 


i 


275,000  trees,  75,000  wine  grapes,  and  built  on  the 
north  side  of  Tamalpais  mountain  the  Marin  county 
water- works,  which  suppHes  the  entire  country  around. 
He  took  the  leading  part  in  building  the  Sonoma  and 
Marin  railroad  from  San  Rafael  to  Petaluma,  after- 
wards in  building  the  Hotel  Rafael,  and  in  other  gen- 
eral improvements,  thus  creating  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  desirable  suburbs  on  the  coast. 

Numberless  incidents  might  be  cited  where  Mr 
Coleman  has  given  his  time,  money,  and  energetic 
efforts  for  the  promotion  of  the  interests  of  California 
and  Californians,  some  of  which  efforts  were  appreci- 
ated and  remembered  with  gratitude — it  were  hardly 
to  be  expected  that  all  of  them  should  be.  No  one 
man  ever  did  more  than  he  in  this  direction,  and  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  no  one  in  the  community  has  more 
friends  than  he;  no  one  who  has  lived  through  his 
times  and  experiences,  and  who  has  undergone  trials 
by  which  men's  integrity,  character,  and  manhood  are 
crucially  tested,  such  as  he  has  passed  through,  has  sur- 
vived the  ordeal  with  brighter  record  or  better  name. 
It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  in  none  of  Mr  Cole- 
man's public  efforts  did  he  ever  gain  a  penny,  directly 
or  indirectly ;  under  no  consideration  would  he  accept 
pecuniary  reward.  His  efforts  were  all  for  the  good 
of  the  community,  though  they  cost  him  much  money, 
time,  and  labor.  He  would  not,  in  any  of  his  public 
enterprises,  handle  money  at  all.  He  always  selected 
a  good  man  for  treasurer,  and  paid  his  full  share  of 
all  expenses,  frequently  the  larger  share. 

During  the  times  of  the  vigilance  committees  Mr 
Coleman  had  been  called  a  law-brcakcr,  mobocrat, 
and  strangler;  but  ho  was  no  more  deserving  of  such 
epithets  then  than  now,  when  assuming  the  leader- 
ship of  law  and  order  against  open  violence.  He  was 
as  much  in  accord  with  the  law  and  the  existint;  form 
of  government  in  the  one  instance  as  in  the  other. 

A  friend  has  written  of  him :  "  From  early  youth 
Cincinnatus  was  his  model,  a  preference  for  home  life. 


WnJJAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


387 


with  a  sense  of  duty,  and  fitness  to  take  the  field,  fill 
the  forum,  or  lead  in  council.  Prompt  to  offer  life 
and  fortune  for  needs  of  the  state,  he  was  ready  to 
retire  as  soon  as  duty  would  permit.  Once  having 
entered  on  a  work,  he  would  see  it  finished,  but  when 
accomplished  no  temptation  could  induce  him  to  re- 
main, except  absolute  public  necessities,  the  duties  of 
which  no  one  else  present  could  satisfactorily  perform. 
In  great  emergencies  he  thinks  quickly,  acts  promptly, 
all  his  powers  of  body  and  mind  rush  to  the  front  with 
force,  the  perceptions  are  acute,  the  will  strong,  tem- 
per calmly  cool,  -and  heart  without  fear." 

Fifteen  years  ago  I  wrote  in  Popular  Tribunals  the 
following  words,  which  I  find  no  occasion  at  the  pres- 
ent time  to  modify  in  any  degree:  "His  early  life 
was  the  school  of  business  experience,  a  hand-to-hand 
conflict  with  fortune,  where  lusty  strength  was  guided 
by  wits  newly  whetted  each  morning  for  the  day's 
encounter.  During  this  part  of  his  career  I  find  no 
trace  of  questionable  transactions,  of  business  aberra- 
tions, or  of  those  double  dealings,  not  to  say  fraudu- 
lent failures  and  downright  swindles,  which  stain  the 
early  record  of  so  many  who  have  since  achieved 
pecuniary  success. 

"  On  the  contrary,  Mr  Coleman's  life  ha  .  been  one 
of  honorable  example  from  the  beginning.  Brought 
into  prominence  by  superior  skill  and  api^ication,  both 
at  home  and  abroad  his  good  name  has  ever  been  a 
shining  mark  for  calunmy,  yet  always  one  from  which 
the  fiery  darts  of  evil-minded  men  fell  harmless.  No 
man  has  done  more  to  elevate  the  standard  of  com- 
mercial morals  in  California,  or  to  strengthen  the 
commercial  credit  of  San  Francisco.  During  the 
eastern  financial  panic  of  1857,  when  confidence  was 
shaken  and  California's  reputation  particularly  low, 
Mr  Coleman  with  a  few  others  wrought  in  New 
York  an  entire  revulsion  of  feeling  concerning  Pacific 
coast  credits.     If  there  be  one  whom  it  were  safe  to 


-It 


r  1 

»*1I 


j  I 

4   J' 


868 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


hold  up  as  a  moael  Californian,  this  is  the  man. 
Throwing  hinivself  into  the  vortex  of  adventure  with 
all  the  ardor  of  high  ambition,  and  with  a  mind  of 
that  highly  tempered  metal  susceptible  of  the  keenest 
edge,  carefully  avoiding  meanwhile  the  shoals  upon 
which  so  many  noble  characters  are  wrecked,  who  was 
a  fitter  chief  than  he  ?  In  honesty,  practical  sense, 
and  presence  of  mind,  he  was  not  surpassed  by  any 
of  his  associates. 

"Combining  in  a  remarkable  degree  moral  and 
physical  courage,  he  was  capable  of  extraordinary 
success.  Without  the  slightest  approach  toward 
rowdyism,  without  pugilistic  proneness  in  heart  or  in 
manner,  preferring  to  the  last  moment  the  logic  of 
mrind  to  the  logic  of  muscle,  keeping  his  fine  physique 
under  the  coolest  control  of  intellect,  he  could,  never- 
theless, upon  the  failure  of  argument,  employ  the 
ultimate  appeal  with  consummate  force.  In  the 
Burdue- Stuart  affair,  as  we  have  seen,  his  prepara- 
tion for  the  combat  which  he  saw  brewincj  on  that 
Sunday  morning  was  to  go  home  and  change  his 
Sunday  clothes  for  his  every-day  apparel;  yet  in  the 
hot  exercises  of  that  day  none  were  cooler,  none 
mingled  more  earnestly  in  the  exciting  duties,  and 
none  did  more  to  quiet  the  troubled  sea. 

"  If  there  be  one  quality  more  detestable  than 
another  to  the  average  Californian  mind,  it  is  the 
quality  of  meanness.  A  man  may  be  lax  in  his  pay- 
ments, having  a  dull  sense  of  honor,  of  integrity  ; 
he  may  be  immoral,  dishonest  in  a  dashing  way,  or 
even  a  fire-eater  with  human  blood  upon  his  hands ; 
if  he  be  not  niggardly,  abject,  or  socially  sordid,  all 
else  may  be  forgiven  him.  On  the  other  hand,  no 
matter  how  intelligent,  how  learned,  or  pious  or 
wealthy  or  temperate,  no  matter  how  exact  in  the 
fulfilment  of  all  monetary  and  other  obligations,  if 
he  be  what  is  currently  called  mean,  reptile-blooded, 
selfish,  soulless,  let  him  be  anathema.  California  is 
not   his   country;    unless,   indeed,  as   some   seem  to 


lis 


WILUAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


880 


do,  he  covets  contemptible  distinction,  and  revels  in 
an  atmosphere  of  odium.  I  do  not  say  that  this  is 
as  it  should  be ;  I  say  that  it  is  as  it  is. 

"  Mr  Coleman  is  a  man  of  intellect,  of  sound  prac- 
tical understanding,  of  genius  if  you  like,  and  if  his 
path  had  led  through  the  more  abstract  realms  of 
mind  he  would  have  made  his  mark  in  any  one  of 
the  various  fields  of  intellectual  ambition,  of  science, 
statesmanship,  or  jurisprudence.  To  a  thorough  edu- 
cation early  acquired  he  added  general  information ;  he 
was  eminently  intelligent  and  skilled  in  all  the  ways 
of  commerce. 

"When  work  was  to  be  done  he  was  one  with  the 
workers;  saying  not  'Go  thou,'  but  'Let  us  go.'  In 
non-essentials  he  was  in  all  respects  yielding,  but  on 
vital  points  of  policy  or  principle  he  was  as  the  rock 
of  Gibraltar.  He  liked  to  have  his  own  way,  as  we 
all  do,  but  his  way  was  usually  the  best  way.  When 
he  could  not  have  it,  however;  when  his  associates 
ruled  against  him,  as  was  frequently  the  case,  he 
yielded  with  as  good  a  grace  as  any  man  I  ever 
knew.  Though  conciliatory  toward  inferiors,  and 
toward  those  who  follow  well,  should  any  attempt 
coercion  he  could  be  as  haughty  as  a  prince  of  Per- 
sia  

"In  physique  he  presented  a  figure  which  would 
be  remarked  in  a  senate  chamber,  or  in  any  gather- 
ing of  cultivated  men  anywhere  on  earth.  Of  good 
stature,  large,  symmetrical  in  form,  with  a  high  intel- 
lectual forehead,  and  eyes  of  illimitable  depth  and 
clearness,  his  presence  was  always  imposing,  and 
would  indeed  be  felt  as  awe-inspiring  were  it  not  for 
the  visible  good-humor  that  radiates  from  every 
feature.  He  is  a  man;  place  him  anywhere  you 
will,  and  ho  fills  the  position.  Yet  with  all  his  com- 
manding presence  he  drops  to  the  level  of  his  asso- 
ciates, whoever  or  whatever  they  may  be,  with 
instinctive  grace  and  dexterity.  In  him  unite,  more 
than  in  any  other  man  I  ever  met,  the  dignity  of 


■'^-i 

\k 

'W 

id 

■ 

■'  'i 

it- 

■  1- 

{ 

ippjl 

4 

' 

'  1  ^          .1 

iji 

'i 

i^-  .:1  !■ 

m 

M^^Li  -  i  ' ''  1 1 

1 

.^•i 


I : 


890 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


sincerity  with  genial  affability.  He  is  essentially  the 
most  natural  of  men ;  there  is  nothing  artificial  about 
him,  nor  is  there  the  slightest  trace  of  affectation." 

Among  the  many  positions  of  honor  conferred  upon 
him  vvere  the  presidency  of  the  California  Pioneers, 
the  presidency  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  and 
the  presiding  ofKcer  of  numerous  temporary  organiza- 
tions. He  was  three  times  nominated  as  regent  of 
the  state  university,  was  requested  to  accept  the 
major-generalship  of  the  state,  and  often  urged  to 
serve  as  mayor,  governor,  and  United  States  senator, 
but  declined  them  all. 

William  T.  Coleman  married  Carrie  M.  Page 
in  Boston  on  the  11th  of  August,  1852,  and  was 
blessed  with  seven  children — four  boys  and  three  girls 
— only  two  of  whom,  however,  attained  maturity, 
namely,  Carlton  Chinn,  now  associated  with  his  father 
in  the  management  of  his  affairs,  and  Robert  Lewis, 
graduated  with  honors  in  the  class  of  1891  at  Sheffield, 
Yale. 

Mrs  Coleman  came  from  an  old  and  honorable 
ancestry  both  in  England  aad  in  the  United  States ; 
her  father,  Daniel  Dearborn  Page,  was  born  in 
1790  at  Parsonville  in  the  state  of  Maine.  When 
still  in  his  youth,  Mr  Page  sought  the  advantages 
afforded  by  Boston,  then  as  now  the  principal  city  of 
New  England.  Here  he  married,  on  the  11th  of 
April,  1  j  IS,  Deborah  Nash  Young,  born  in  Scituate, 
Massach  isetts,  in  1792,  and  a  lineal  descendent  from 
Peregrin  White,  who  was  born  in  1620  on  board  the 
Mayjiowe  .  Peregrin's  father,  William  White,  was 
a  son  of  John  White,  a  bishop  of  the  church  of 
England. 

Mrs  Coleman's  parents,  after  their  marriage, 
crossed  the  Alleghany  mountains  and  settled  them- 
selves at  Louisville,  Kentucky,  where  they  remained 
about  two  years,  then  went  to  St  Louis,  and  after  a 
short   visit  to  New  Orleans,  they  returned    to    Sfc 


WILLIAM  T.  COLEMAN. 


801 


Louis,  and  there  established  their  permanent  residence, 
Mr  Page  displayed  great  business  qualifications, 
building  the  first  water-works  of  the  town,  and  be- 
coming largely  interested  in  a  number  of  manufactur- 
ing enterprises,  and  in  the  improvement  of  landed 
property.  He  was  elected  the  first  mayor,  holding 
two  terms.  In  1845  he  founded  at  St  Louis  the 
historical  banking  firm  of  Page  and  Bacon. 

Little  remains  to  be  said.  The  history  of  this  life 
carries  its  own  moral.  Dull,  indeed,  must  be  the 
mind  that  cannot  draw  lessons  from  it.  A  noble 
youth,  developing  into  noble  manhood,  bearing  along 
and  being  borne  by  trains  of  events  in  which  were 
involved  the  most  important  issues  of  mankind — the 
biography  of  such  a  man  is  a  gospel  from  which  all 
who  study  it  may  find  food  for  the  better  part  of 
their  nature,  and  draw  therefrom  the  essence  of 
inspiration. 


m-^ 


\^ 


I 
1 


CHAPTEK  VI 

ADVENT  AND  AGENCY  OP  LAW 

Evolution  or  Self-sitbordination — Popular  Tribunals  and  MiLiTARr 
Bdle— Lira  or  Stephen  J.  Field^  the  Great  Apostle  or  the  Law 
—  Early  Experiences — Founding  or  Marysville  —  Election  as 
Alcalde— Controversies  with  Turner  and  Barbour  —  Course  as  a 
Legislator— On  the  Supreme  Bench  or  Calitornia — Associate-Jus- 
tice OK  THE  Supreme  Court  or  the  United  States — Code  Bevision 
Cohmittek— Electoral  Commission — Sharon-Hill-Terry  Litigation 
— Neagle-Terry  Tragedy— iNncBNAL  Machines— Personal  Appear- 
ance AND  Traits. 


In  our  investigations  concerning  the  origin  and 
under-currents  of  progress,  we  have  frequently  fo  nd 
ourselves  in  the  wilderness  alone  with  the  products 
of  civilization,  the  adjuncts  thereof,  being  absent.  A 
community  whose  members,  like  the  members  of 
other  communities,  were  born  under  the  dominion  of 
law,  suddenly  awakes  to  the  fact  that  it  is  living 
without  law ;  that  individuals  thus  thrown  unex- 
pectedly together,  in  a  country  where  no  law  exists, 
must  as  best  they  may,  become  a  law  unto  themselves. 
Thus  arose  popular  tribunals,  being,  in  many  instances 
the  outcome  of  attempts  to  administer  non-existent 
laws. 

Prior  to  the  ownership  of  the  United  States,  the 
strip  of  southern  seaboard  which  constituted  all  that 
was  occupied  by  civilization  in  Alta  California,  was 
ruled  by  priests  and  soldiers,  with  a  small  sprinkling 
of  legal  lights,  whose  official  status  was  seldom  above 
that  of  the  ordinary  alcalde.  Subsequently,  and  to 
the  time  when  gold  was  discoveredi  the  country  was 


(802) 


I'i 


•f 


Ij-i 


i 


-i        il 


:i:    ' 


l!i 


l!'^ 


|!" 


11 


M    \}i 


I  ^nii 


\\ 


\  I 


%''i^J«Sim4,vo*/«.15f« 


.-^T) 


STEPHEN  J.    FIELD. 


3tt3 


iu)nnrially  under  uiilitarv  rule,  though  the  hifluence 
<>t' Stockton  at  Los  Aiij^'ylcs,  Masou  at  ISlontcrey,  or 
J*orsifur  Sniitli  or  Kilty  at  San  Francis*. u,  w^as  not 
fflt  far  away  from  salt  \vai«;r  Tue  jireat  mtv^it^r,  thu 
valley  of  Califurnia,  and  tli"  Siernt  fxtthilli;"',  w«»'e 
nractically  witliout  law  or  the  aduiinirtt,ratiou-«l 
justice. 

Amonoj  the  builders  of  our  wostem  oonimonwealtlis, 
there  are  none  whose  names  arc  nK>re  wortliy  of 
licmg  placed  on  lecord  than  tho«^'  by  wlioni  were 
formulated  the  constitution  and  laws  of  California. 
It  was  not  until  two  or  three  years  after  the  sfold 
discovery  that  law  ai»d  justice  existed  in  their  proper 
sense.  For  the  former  we  depended  largely  on  the 
regulations  framed  by  raining  camps,  and  for  the 
latter  on  the  adnrmi^tration  ^f  Judge  Lynch.  For 
forih.-.  a  few  l^)me  precedents  suflic*.'],  aitd  for  the 
settlement  of  differences  courts  wer\  iuiprovJ8iHi.  iii 
which  judge  and  jury,  selected  frou)  the  miiu-rs  by 
the  miners  themselves,  rendered  tin  ir  deci.sions  with 
prom[>tnes.s,  if  not  always  with  equity  ]n  l>^51, 
however,  there  was  eii;,,cted  by  tlie  first  legislature 
elected  after  the  admission  of  California  t^-  statehood, 
a  complete  cod(>  of  civil  and  criminal  procednre,  the 
provisions  of  which  have,  with  slight  modincations, 
remahied  in  force  until  this  day.  To  the  author  of 
thai  code,  Stephen  Johnson  Field,  not  only  as  its 
author,  but  as  the  fovmder  of  oui  judicial  systen»,  and 
for  the  third  of  a  century  himself  a  nu'mber  of  the 
judii  iary,  it  is  bur  due  that  more  than  passing  nieutio?) 
Fliouid  be  mtide  of  his  career. 

Mr  Field  was  l)orn  on  the  4th  of  N»>.^HnlM'-r  i*<ifi. 
a(  Haddam,  Connecticut,  whero  hi.-*  t»lJi*yr,  U»''. 
Hi'verend  David  Dudley  Field,  was  an  *  uiitK'nv 
,<■  ..regational  minister.  His  grandfeithera,  Tini<»tiiy 
If'jeld  and  Noah  Dickinson,  w'".r»''  t^piaui*  in  the  war 
<!>'  Mie  revolution,  the  latter  rop«ivaH^  h'J-  baptis^n^  of 
I  antler  Creneral  Putnam  i?)  the  Fitr.ch  and  Indi.m 
%A*,     It  was  playfully  reiuarked  uiuong  ihc  UiCiid^ers 


'  8' 


U  f  I 


. 


'i-  - 


vs 


V'! 


■^ 


STEPHEN  J.   FIELD. 


393 


nominally  under  military  rule,  though  the  influence 
of  Stockton  at  Los  Angeles,  Mason  at  Monterey,  or 
Persifer  Smith  or  Riley  at  San  Francisco,  was  not 
felt  far  away  from  salt  water.  The  great  interior,  the 
valley  of  California,  and  the  Sierra  foothills,  were 
practically  without  law  or  the  administration  of 
justice. 

Aniong  the  builders  of  our  western  commonwealths, 
there  are  none  whose  names  are  more  worthy  of 
being  placed  on  record  than  those  by  whom  were 
formulated  the  constitution  and  laws  of  California. 
It  was  not  until  two  or  three  years  after  the  gold 
discovery  that  law  and  justice  existed  in  their  proper 
sense.  For  the  former  we  depended  largely  on  the 
regulations  framed  by  mining  camps,  and  for  the 
latter  on  the  administration  of  Judge  Lynch.  For 
forms  a  few  home  precedents  sufficed,  and  for  the 
settlement  of  differences  courts  were  improvised,  in 
which  judge  and  jury,  selected  from  the  miners  by 
the  miners  themselves,  rendered  their  decisions  with 
promptness,  if  not  always  with  equity.  In  1851, 
however,  there  was  enacted  by  the  first  legislature 
elected  after  the  admission  of  California  to  statehood, 
a  complete  code  of  civil  and  criminal  procedure,  the 
provisions  of  which  have,  with  slight  modifications, 
remained  in  force  until  this  day.  To  the  author  of 
that  code,  Stephen  Johnson  Field,  not  only  as  its 
author,  but  as  the  founder  of  our  judicial  system,  and 
for  the  third  of  a  century  himself  a  member  of  the 
judiciary,  it  is  but  due  that  more  than  passing  mention 
should  be  made  of  his  career. 

Mr  Field  was  born  on  the  4th  of  November  1816, 
at  Haddam,  Connecticut,  where  his  father,  the 
Reverend  David  Dudley  Field,  was  an  eminent 
congregational  minister.  His  grandfathers,  Timothy 
Field  and  Noah  Dickinson,  were  captains  in  the  war 
of  the  revolution,  the  latter  receiving  his  baptism  of 
fire  under  General  Putnam  in  the  French  and  Indian 
war.     It  was  playfully  remarked  among  the  members 


I  ; 


394 


ADVENT  AND   AGENCY   OF  LAW. 


of  the  family,  that  Stephen's  mother,  Submit 
Dickinson  Field,  had  been  wrongly  named,  since  she 
was  a  woman  of  great  energy  and  determination  of 
character.  She  is  described  by  those  who  knew  her 
as  a  singularly  beautiful  woman,  possessing  a  graceful 
figure,  an  expressive  countenance,  and  a  happy, 
buoyant  temperament,  so  that  Grace  or  Hope  would 
have  been  a  more  appropriate  appellation  than 
Submit.  Her  children  regarded  her  with  the  greatest 
affection,  and  felt  that  they  inherited  from  her  their 
ability  to  work  hopefully  in  the  midst  of  adverse 
circumstances.  Doubtless,  too,  they  owe  much  of 
their  success  in  life  to  her  training  and  example. 

"  Happy  he 
With  such  a  mother !  faith  in  womankind 
Beats  with  his  blood,  and  trust  in  all  things  high 
Comes  easy  to  him.'' 

In  the  early  .half  of  the  present  century  the 
minister's  family  was  in  m'^st  New  England  villages 
the  centre  of  intellectual  and  social  life.  If  he  were 
the  graduate  of  a  college,  he  expected  to  entertain 
the  alumni  at  his  simple  board  when  they  visited  the 
parish,  and  scarcely  a  month  passed  without  some 
distinguished  guest  being  admitted  to  the  inner  circle 
of  the  parsonage.  When  he  travelled  from  town  to 
town  the  abode  of  his  brother  cler^vman  was  alwavs 
open  to  him,  as  indeed  was  that  of  anyone  with  whom 
he  chose  to  sojourn,  for  in  every  country  house 
was  one  spare  room  at  least,  and  in  most  of  them 
were  several.  Thus,  while  his  income  was  small,  and 
the  external  conditions  of  life  were  rude,  neither  he 
nor  his  family  were  denied  the  advantages  of  social 
intercourse. 

Perhaps  a  less  thoughtful  couple  than  Dudley 
Field  and  his  wife  might  have  allowed  their  children 
to  sink  below  their  own  level  in  the  little  town  of 
Haddam,  where  thev  lived  during  the  first  fourteen 
years  of  their  married  life,  since  it  was  neither  a 
wealthy  nor  a  cultivated  place,  its  inhabitants  being 
mainly  composed  of  farmers,   sailors,  stone-cutters, 


STEPHEN  J.    FIELD. 


395 


and  ship-builders.  But  in  this  modest  household, 
amid  the  stone-quarries  of  the  Connecticut  valley  was 
always  maintained  as  high  a  standard  of  culture  and 
refinement  as  in  the  homes  of  the  wealthy  and  long 
descended.  A  graduate  of  Yale,  the  minister  not 
only  maintained  his  connection  with  his  alma  mater, 
but  extended  them  to  other  associations,  becoming 
vice-president  of  the  historical  society  of  Connecticut, 
and  corresponding  member  of  the  historical  societies 
of  Massachusetts  and  Pennsylvania. 

Stephen,  his  seventh  child,  was  frail  and  delicate, 
and  that  he  survived  the  period  of  infancy  was  due  to 
his  mother's  tender  and  constant  care.  When  he 
was  three  years  old  the  family  removed  to  a  larger 
parish  at  Stockbridge,  Massachusetts,  and  it  was 
probably  due  to  this  change  to  the  bracing  air  of  the 
Berkshire  hills  that  he  grew  to  be  a  sturdy,  active 
boy.  His  life  varied  little  from  that  of  other 
minister's  sons  until  he  was  thirteen  years  of  age, 
when  an  event  occurred  by  which  his  early  career  was 
largely  determined. 

At  that  time  the  Greeks  had  but  recently  thrown  off 
the  Turkish  yoke,  and  Byron's  death  at  Missolonghi, 
and  Marco  Bozzaris'  struggle  for  freedom  on  the  classic 
field  of  Ilatoea  were  events  still  fresh  in  the  minds  of 
men.  It  was  then  that  his  brother-in-law,  the  Rever- 
end Josiah  Brewer,  for  years  a  missionary  to  eastern 
countries,  and  one  deeply  interested  in  the  education 
of  Greek  women,  was  about  to  set  forth  for  Greece, 
the  ^gean  islands,  and  the  coast  cities  of  Asia  Minor. 
At  the  suggestion  of  David  Dudley,  his  elder  brother, 
who  had  ever  at  heart  the  interests  of  the  younger 
members  of  the  family,  it  was  arranged  that  Stephen 
should  accompany  him,  with  a  view  to  prepare  him- 
self for  a  professorship  of  Oriental  languages.  Gladly 
did  Mr  Brewer  and  his  wife  consent,  for  with  both  of 
them  the  boy  was  a  favorite,  ai>d  with  him  at  their 
side  they  would  feel  less  acutely  the  bitterness  of  their 
voluntary  exile. 


1 '? 


396 


ADVENT  AND  AGENCY  OF  LAW. 


i 


i 


J 


Ever  afterward  Stephen  retained  the  most  vivid 
impressions  of  this  trip  to  Greece,  regarding  it  as  one 
of  the  most  interesting  events  of  his  life.  Here  he 
learned  to  speak  modem  Greek  fluently,  keeping  a 
journal  in  that  language,  and  also  acquired  the  ele- 
ments of  the  Turkish,  French,  and  Italian  languages. 
One  of  the  eflects  of  his  visit  to  Athens  and  its  vicin- 
ity were  to  make  him  tolerant  of  the  religious  opin- 
ions and  customs  of  foreign  nations,  and  to  give  him 
a  breadth  of  mental  vision  which  enabled  him  to  com- 
prehend and  sympathize  with  the  feelings  and  preju- 
dices of  alien  races. 

Young  Stej^hen  was  also  an  eye-witness  of  the 
devastations  of  the  cholera  which  raged  in  Smyrna 
about  this  date,  visiting  the  sick  and  dying  in  com- 
pany with  Mr  Brewer,  and  carrying  medicines  for 
their  relief.  His  brother,  Henry  Marty n,  in  his 
Record  of  the  Family,  thus  describes  in  a  single  para- 
graph the  horrors  of  the  dread  epidemic.  "  In  the 
terrible  plague  of  1831,"  he  writes,  "  every  one  avoided 
his  neiyflibor,  as  if  the  slio:htest  touch  carried  conta- 
gion.  If  two  men  met  on  the  street,  each  drew  away 
from  the  other,  as  if  contact  were  death.  Sometimes 
they  hugged  the  walls  of  the  houses,  with  canes  in 
their  hands,  ready  to  strike  down  any  one  who  should 
approach.  All  papers  and  letters  coming  through  the 
mails  were  smoked  and  dipped  in  vinegar  before  they 
were  delivered,  lest  they  might  communicate  infection. 
Even  vegetables  were  passed  through  water  before 
they  were  taken  from  the  hands  of  the  seller." 

After  residing  for  more  than  two  years  in  the  east, 
Stephen,  by  the  advice  of  Mr  Brewer,  returned  home 
to  enter  an  American  college  and  fit  himself  for  life 
in  an  American  community  ;  for  a  longer  residence 
abroad,  while  liis  character  w  .s  forming,  might  not 
be  of  nmch  advantage.  Entering  William's  college, 
Massachusetts,  in  1833,  he  was  selected  to  deliver  the 
Greek  oration  in  hia  junior  year  and  the  valedictory 
in  the  senior  year,  thus  winning  some  of  the  highest 


STEPHEN  J.   FIELD. 


397 


'  honors  in  the  gift  of  his  ahna  mater.  Doubtless  his 
acquaintance  with  modern  Greek  materially  assisted 
hiin  in  the  acquisition  of  the  ancient  tongue,  for  as 
Schliemann,  the  archaeologist,  remarks,  the  study  of 
that  language  is  the  master-key  with  which  most 
readily  to  unlock  the  treasures  of  Homer,  Sophocles, 
and  Plato. 

Fortunately  the  plan  of  the  professorship  of  Ori- 
ental languages  seems  to  have  been  abandoned  soon 
after  his  graduation,  for,  in  the  following  spring,  he 
began  the  study  of  law  in  the  office  of  his  brother 
David  Dudley.  His  legal  training  was  interrupted 
by  a  severe  illness,  and  for  a  time  thereafter  he  was 
a  teacher  in  the  Albany  female  academy.  But  even 
while  teaching  he  devoted  his  spare  hours  to  prepar- 
ing for  his  chosen  profession  in  the  office  of  John  Van 
Buren,  then  attorney- general  of  the  state  of  New 
York. 

After  Mr  Field  was  admitted  to  the  New  York 
bar,  his  brother  admitted  him  into  partnership,  and  for 
seven  years  they  were  associated  in  pleasant  business 
relations.  Doubtless  this  partnership  would  have 
continued  for  some  years  longer,  but  that  Stephen  was 
infected  with  the  restlessness  of  youth,  feeling  that  he 
had  not  yet  found  his  life-work,  longing  to  revisit 
Europe,  and  lay  aside  for  a  time  at  least  the  cares  of 
his  profession. 

It  happened  that  in  June  and  November,  1845, 
the  elder  brother  had  written  two  articles,  entitled 
"The  Oregon  Question,"  and  the  "Edinburgh  and 
Foreign  Quarterly  on  the  Oregon  Question,"  both 
of  which  were  publislied  in  the  Democratic  Review,  a 
noted  political  and  literary  magazine  of  that  day. 
While  preparing  these  articles  he  had  become  familiar 
with  the  geography  of  the  Pacific  coast,  and  foresaw, 
in  the  event  of  the  United  States  obtaining  possession 
of  California,  the  rapid  development  of  the  region 
around  San  Francisco  bay,  although  the  wildest  imag- 
ination could  hardly  have  foreshadowed  the  reality  of 


I!  1  I  -f 


ff;' 


lis    '. 


'■''■''■  i 


i 


\) .. 


'     Ki 


398 


ADVENT  AND  AGENCY  OP  LAW, 


its  marvellous  growth.  "If  I  were  a  young  man  I  would 
go  to  San  Francisco,"  he  observed,  otiering  to  pay 
his  brother's  expenses  and  invest  in  property  for  his 
benefit.  But  Stephen  was  intent  on  going  to  Europe. 
Some  time  thereafter,  while  the  New  York  regiment 
was  preparing  for  its  westward  journey,  the  elder 
brotlier  again  referred  to  the  matter,  and  proposed  that 
Stephen  should  accompany  it;  but  again  he  declined, 
for  though  strongly  tempted  by  the  offer,  he  was  not 
yet  ready  to  cast  himself  adrift  in  that  direction. 
Strange  as  it  may  seem  in  one  so  young  and  with  his 
way  still  to  make  in  the  world,  Europe,  with  her 
wealth  of  historic  scenes  aud  associations,  with  her 
works  of  ancient  and  modern  art,  was  more  attractive 
than  the  native  wilds  of  California,  with  all  her  golden 
possibilities.  Thus,  in  June  1848,  he  again  embarked 
for  the  old   world. 

But  the  fates  had  already  spun  the  web  of  his  life 
with  invisible  thread,  and  he  could  not  escape  his 
destiny.  At  Galignani's  news-room,  in  Paris,  he  read 
in  the  New  York  Herald  President  Polk's  message, 
officially  announcing  the  discovery  of  gold  in  the 
newly  acquired  territory  of  California.  Over  and 
over  agahi,  he  read  it,  regretting  that  he  had  not 
accepted  his  brother's  offer;  but  even  as  Lord  Howard 
of  Effingham,  when  news  arrived  that  the  Spaniards 
were  in  tlie  English  channel,  directed  his  officers  to 
finish  their  game  of  bowls  before  proceeding  to  attack 
the  armada,  so  did  our  young  traveller  quietly  com- 
plete his  projected  tour,  visiting  all  the  principal  cap- 
itals of  Europe,  and  returning  to  New  York  in  October 
1849. 

On  November  13th  of  this  year  we  find  him  on 
board  the  Crescent  City,  bound  for  Chagres,  and  cross- 
in;^   the    Isthmus    he  continued   his   vovajje   on  the 

c?  I/O 

steamer  California,  one  of  the  patriarchs  of  the  Pacific 
Mail  conqjany.  Although  the  ship  was  only  of  1,000 
tons  burden,  slie  carried  1,200  passengers,  and  such 
was  the  demand  for  berths  that  some  of  the  steerajjje 


"%, 


STEPHEN  J.   FIELD. 


399 


passengers  sold  their  tickets  for  $750.  To  make 
matters  worse,  the  Panamd.  fever  in  its  worst  form 
broke  out  on  board  the  crowded  vessel,  and  now, 
recalling  his  experiences  in  Smyrna,  Mr  Field  went 
fearlessly  among  the  passengers,  ministering  to  their 
wants.  By  one  of  them,  who  later  became  a  promi- 
nent San  Francisco  lawyer,  it  was  never  afterward 
forgotten  that  to  his  care  and  skill  he  owed  his  life. 

It  was  on  the  28th  of  December,  1849,  when  the 
future  chief-justice  landed  in  San  Francisco,  his  worldly 
effects  consisting  of  the  contents  of  his  trunk,  and 
for  capital,  the  sum  of  $10,  of  which  $7  were  paid  for 
the  transportation  of  his  baggage  to  the  single  room, 
some  ten  feet  by  eight,  which  he  shared  with  two  of 
his  fellow-passengers.  For  breakfast,  and  that  the 
cheapest  that  could  be  had,  he  expended  two  of  his 
remaining  dollars,  and  then  with  a  single  dollar  in  his 
pocket  set  forth  to  make  his  fortune,  a  stranger  in  a 
strange  land.  But  he  was  not  in  the  least  dismayed; 
in  fact,  he  had  seldom  been  in  higher  spirits,  and  soon 
caught  up  the  refrain  that  was  upon  every  one's  lips, 
**Is  it  not  a  magnificent  country?" 

Certain  of  his  fellow-passengers  had  barely  stepped 
on  shore  when  they  were  impaneled  upon  a  jury,  and 
received  eight  dollars  each  for  their  services.  Thinking 
of  his  solitary  dollar.  Field  lingered  in  the  court-room, 
and  placed  himself  near  the  sheriff,  in  the  hope  of 
being  called  upon  to  do  the  state  some  service  as  a 
juror;  but  in  vain;  his  time  had  not  yet  come.  So 
that  day  he  spent  in  strolling  through  the  town,  by 
no  means  in  disconsolate  mood,  but  on  the  contrary, 
enjoying  everything  he  saw.  As  he  passed  down 
Clay  street  and  had  nearly  readied  the  corner  of 
Kearny,  his  attention  was  attracted  by  the  sign 
"Jonathan  D.  Stevenson,  Gold  Dust  Bought  and 
Sold  Here."  Then  for  the  first  time  he  remembered 
that  his  brother  had  given  him  a  note  against  Steven- 
son for  $400.  He  had  been  well  acquainted  with 
this  man  in  New  York,  and  at  once  entering  his  office, 


,■■•: 


i: 


■\\ 

\ 

' 

;    ' ,  . 

m 


400 


ADVENT  AND  AOENCY  OF  LAW. 


they  had  a  pleasant  chat  together,  in  the  course  of 
which  Stevenson  remarked:  "Ah,  it's  a  glorious 
country!  I  have  made  over  two  hundred  thousand 
dollars  here."  When  Field  heard  this,  he  again  shook 
hands  with  his  friend,  and  felt  the  note  burning  in  his 
pocket  at  the  glad  news.  A  moment  later  he  pre- 
sented it.  But  the  face  of  him  who  dealt  in  jjold- 
dust  lengthened  when  hp  read  the  document  which 
bore  his  signature,  and  his  appearance  was  by  no 
means  that  of  a  man  who  could  meet  with  unconcern 
so  trifling  an  obligation.  It  is  impossible  to  say  what 
were  the  feelings  of  the  other  at  that  moment;  but  at 
last  Stevenson  exclaimed  in  a  sharp  voice:  "  that's  my 
signature,"  and  began  to  calculate  the  interest.  Finally 
he  paid  Mr  Field  the  principal  and  interest,  $440  in 
Spanish  doubloons. 

Out  of  these  funds  Field  paid  $300  as  one  month's 
rent  for  a  law  office  on  the  corner  of  Montjjomerv 
and  Clay  streets,  but  during  that  time  his  only  client 
was  a  fellow  passenger  who  requested  him  to  draw 
up  a  deed.  He  was  fortunate  enough,  however,  to 
sell,  through  an  agent,  some  New  York  papers  at  a 
dollar  a  piece,  from  which  he  realized  $34. 

Amonor  his  letters  of  introduction  to  various  San 
Francisco  firms,  was  one  to  the  mercantile  house  of 
Simmons,  Hutchinson,  and  company,  who  owned  some 
property  in  the  embryo  town  of  Vernon,  on  the  Sacra- 
mento river,  and  oflfered  to  sell  him  a  number  of  lots 
on  credit,  giving  him  a  ticket  with  which  to  proceed 
on  their  steamer  McKim  to  Sacramento  city.  Reaching 
that  point,  on  the  following  day  he  embarked  for 
Vernon  on  the  steamboat  Lawrence,  a  craft  so  small  and 
crowded  that  she  sank  to  within  eighteen  inches  of 
the  level  of  her  deck,  while  the  passengers  were 
requested  to  remain  quietly  in  their  seats. 

It  was  the  year  of  the  great  flood,  and  Vernon  was 
under  water ;  so  the  boat  continued  up  the  river  to 
Nye's  rancho  near  the  junction  of  the  Feather  and 
Yuba  rivers.     At  this  point  forty  or  fifty  of  the  pas- 


STEPHEN  J.   FEELD. 


401 


Bengers  left  the  boat,  and  among  them    Mr  Field. 
Here  he  found  some  five  hundred  people,  most  of  them 
living  in  tents.     The  travellers  made  their  way  to  an 
old  adobe  building,  in  which  was  an  office  where  a 
real-estate  speculator  had  spread  out  on  the  counter  a 
map  of  a  proposed  town   which  he  called  Yubaville. 
Addressing  Field,  he  urged  him  to  buy  some  of  the 
lots.     "Suppose  a  man  puts  his  name  down  and  then 
does  not  want  to  take  the  lots?"  inquired  Field.    "Oh, 
you  need  not  take  them  if  you  don't  want  them,"  was 
the  answer.     Thereupon  he  put  down  his  name  for 
sixty-five   lots,  the   aggregate   value   of  which   was 
$16,250.     At  the  moment  he  had  exactly  $20  in  his 
pocket.    Immediately  the  report  spread  around  Yuba- 
ville that  Stephen  J.  Field,  a  great  capitalist  from 
San  Francisco,  was  investing  heavily.    Two  of  the  pro- 
prietors of  the  place,  Frenchmen,  named  Covillaud  and 
Sicard,  when  they  found  that  the  San  Francisco  capi- 
talist could  speak  French  fluently,  expressed  for  him 
the  warmest  admiration,  and  insisted  on  showing  him 
the  town.      Mr  Field  was  not  slow  to  observe  that 
here  was  a  promising  site,  at  the  head  of  steamboat 
navigation,  easy  of  access  to  the  mining  camps,  and 
destined  soon  to  become  a  point  of  distribution  for 
mining  supplies.     In  exchange  for  the  courtesy  ex- 
tended to  him,  he  lianded  the  Frenchmen  some  copies 
of  the  New  York  Evening  Post,  in  one  of  which  was 
the  following  notice : 

"  Among  the  passengers  leaving  in  the  Crescent  City 
to-day  is  Stephen  J.  Field,  Esq.,  of  this  city,  brother 
and  law  partner  of  D.  D.  Field,  Esq.,  one  of  the  com- 
missioners of  the  code  of  practice.  Mr  Field  is  on 
his  way  to  San  Francisco,  where  he  proposes  to  prac- 
tise his  profession  and  take  up  his  future  residence. 
If  he  should  realize  either  the  hopes  or  the  expectations 
of  the  numerous  friends  he  leaves  behind,  he  will 
achieve  an  early  and  desirable  distinction  in  the 
promising  land  of  his  adoption." 

The  next  morning  M.  Covillaud  came  to  Mr  Field  ia 


c.  B.— 1.  ai 


jl'i 
I 


il 


i 


■  Iflf '  J.U 


'if 
i 

■  ; 
■i 

1 

ism 

^I^H 

■1 

'^■^H 

^1 


ADVENT  AND  AGENCY  OP   LAW. 


an  excited  manner,  with  the  paper  containing  this 
notice  in  his  hand.  "Ah,  Monsieur  I"  he  exclaimed, 
"are  you  indeed  the  Monsieur  Field,  the  lawyer  from 
New  York,  mentioned  in  this  paper  ?"  It  seemed  that 
the  two  Frenchuiea  had  purchased  several  leagues  of 
land  from  Captain  Sutter,  but  were  obliged  to  wait 
for  a  lawyer  before  they  could  obtain  a  conveyance  of 
tlieir  property.  Thus  they  were  delighted  to  find  in 
the  new-comer  what  they  so  greatly  desired,  and  at 
once  engaged  him  to  prepare  the  necessary  documents, 
meanwhile  despatching  messengers  to  Sutter.  But, 
the  deed  being  drawn,  it  was  found  there  was  no 
official  before  whom  it  could  be  formally  executed, 
and  no  place  or  functionary  where  or  by  whom  a  record 
of  real  estate  transactions  might  be  preserved.  With 
his  promptitude  and  ierulity  of  resource.  Field  at  once 
pointed  out  to  the  members  of  the  new  community 
the  necessity  of  electing  an  officer  for  such  purposes, 
and  also  to  maintain  order  and  settle  disputes. 

His  suggestions  were  made  known,  and  immediately 
accepted  with  enthusiasm.  It  happened  that  the  frame 
of  a  house  had  been  brought  upon  the  steamer  Lawrence, 
and  on  the  next  day  was  erected.  Here  in  the  evening 
all  the  tent  and  cabin  dwellers  were  assembled  and 
Mr  Field  made  them  a  stirring  speech,  in  which  he 
set  forth  the  natural  advantages  of  the  place,  and 
showed  the  importance  of  organizing  and  establishing  a 
government.  If  one  has  ever  watched  the  rise  of  a  city 
in  California  and  noted  with  what  eagerness  the  inhab- 
itants regard  the  increase  of  population,  he  will 
understand  with  wjiat  enthusiasm  the  project  was 
received.     It  was  agreed  to  call  a  meeting  bcifore  the 


adobe  house  the  following  morning,  and  Mexican  forms 
still  being  prevalent  in  California  law  masters,  two 
candidates  were  nominated  for  the  office  of  alcalde-  - 
C.  B.  Dodson  and  Stephen  J.  Field.  Each  of  them 
had  his  supporters,  and,  while  Field  was  th«  favorite, 
there  was  one  objection  which,  for  a  moment,  threat- 
ened to  prove  fatal.     He  was  a  new  comer,  having 


li 


>ng 


STEPHEN  J.  FIELD. 


4Ct 


been  in  the  town  but  three  days,  while  Dodson  had 
been  there  six  days  1  At  this  juncture,  one  William 
H.  Parks,  who  was  engaged  in  transporting  miners' 
supplies,  made  a  bet  of  a  ditmer  with  a  friend  that 
Field  would  be  elected,  and  directed  his  eleven  team- 
sters to  work  and  vote  for  his  man.  The  election 
was  hotly  contested,  but  Field  was  finally  chosen  by 
a  majority  of  nine. 

The  next  important  question  was  as  to  the  name 
which  should  be  given  the  town.  Yubafield, 
Yubaville,  and  Circumdoro  were  the  most  popular 
ones  proposed ;  but  the  matter  was  decided  by  a 
plain,  old-fashioned  argonaut,  who  arose  and  gravely 
informed  the  meeting  that  there  was  an  American 
woman  in  the  camp,  and  that  her  first  name  was  Mary ; 
therefore  he  proposed  the  town  should  be  called 
Marysville  in  her  honor.  It  w  luld  not  have  been 
the  California  of  olden  times,  hac.  not  this  proposition 
been  unanimously  adopted.  A  certificate  of  election 
was  made  out  in  due  form,  and  forwarded  to  E.  O. 
Crosby,  the  prefect  of  the  district,  who  advised  Mr 
Field  to  procure  his  appointment  as  justice  of  the 
peace,  and  so  Americanize  his  office,  which  was  done. 
How  far  was  the  step  from  a  Marysville  justice  of  the 
peace  to  a  Washington  justice  of  the  United  States 
supreme  court,  the  sequel  will  presently  explain. 
Here  it  need  only  be  stated  that  after  his  election  Mr 
Field  went  to  Sacramento,  and  was  sworn  into  office 
as  first  alcalde  by  the  judge  of  the  court  of  first 
instance,  on  the  22d  of  January,  1850,  just  twenty- 
five  days  after  his  arrival  in  California. 

Property  in  Marysville  rose  rapidly  in  price,  and 
within  ninety  days  Mr  Field  sold  more  than  $25,000 
worth  of  land,  while  still  retaining  the  greater  portion 
of  his  lots.  Purchasing  in  San  Francisco  some  frame 
and  zinc  houses,  he  shipped  them  to  Marysville  and 
soon  derived  therefrom  a  rental  of  $1000  a  month. 
His  income  as  alcalde  was  considerable,  for  though 
when  acting  as  judge  in  criminal  cases  he  received 


1 

■i^- 

^* 

M 


h\ 


^\ 


^1 


ADVENT  AND  AGENCY  OP  LAW. 


nothing,  and  in  civil  cases  but  little,  his  fees  for 
affidavits,  acknowledgments,  and  recording  of  deeds 
amounted  to  a  very  good  revenue.  In  the  then 
disorganized  condition  of  affairs,  all  sorts  of  questions 
were  brought,  to  him  for  settlement.  Controversies 
over  the  rates  of  wages,  the  expulsion  of  squatters, 
trials  of  criminals,  even  disputes  between  man  and 
wife  were  brought  under  bis  jurisdiction.  Substantial 
justice  was  administered  without  strict  regard  to 
forms  and  precedents,  which  sometimes  obstruct 
rather  than  promote  the  ends  in  view.  In  the  peace 
and  good  order  maintained,  and  the  respect  shown  for 
law  Marysville  was  the  model  town  of  California 
during  the  entire  period  that  Mr  Field  was  chief 
magistrate.  He  continued  to  perform  the  multiform 
duties  of  his  office  until  superseded  by  the  new  officers 
of  the  state  government. 

And  now,  as  tv)  the  administration  of  justice,  the 
quiet  town  of  Marysville  was  destined  to  witness 
a  new  and  somewhat  lively  dispensation.  Upon 
resuming  his  practice  at  the  bar,  Mr  Field  paid  a 
visit  of  courtesy  to  the  newly  appointed  judge  of  the 
eighth  judicial  district,  William  R.  Turner,  who  liad 
lived  in  Texas  in  the  rough  pioneer  stages  of  its 
history,  and  was  a  violent  pro-.slavery  man,  arrogant, 
ignorant,  of  bad  niariners  and  worse  morals.  Mr 
Field  presented  liim  witli  copies  of  the  latest  issues 
of  tlio  New  York  Kvoi'mij  Pod,  and  from  this  fact 
Turner  infiTred  that  he  was  an  uboUtionist,  tlieii 
deemed  bv  tlie  southerners  the  vilest  of  creat(d 
beings.  Hence  he  deUborately  determined  to  insult 
him  whenever  the  opportunity  should  offer,  and  the 
occasion  was  not  far  to  seek.  It  clianced  that  the 
ex-alcalde  was  employed  by  Sutter,  as  counsel  in  the 
suit  of  Cameron  vs.  Sutter,  then  j)ejiding  bef(jr(! 
Judge  Turner,  and  a  preiiminary  motion  in  the  ease 
was  mad(^  by  Field's  associate,  which  was  dcjniod. 
Surmising  that  a  j)rovision  of  th<3  practice  act  appli- 
cable  to   the   question  had   been  overlooked    by   the 


•» 


STEPHEN  J.  FIELD. 


405 


court,  Field  arose  and  asked  permission  to  read  it.  But 
instead  of  according  permission  as  a  matter  of  course, 
Turner,  in  insulting  tone  and  language,  ordered  the 
attorney  to  sit  down ;  whereupon  the  advocate,  in  a 
respectful  manner,  excepted  to  the  ruling  of  the  court, 
and  stated  that  he  would  appeal.  This  added  fuel  to 
the  flames  of  Turner's  wrath,  and  in  a  loud  and  angry 
voice  he  shouted:  "Fine  that  man  $200."  "Very 
well,"  quietly  remarked  the  other,  and  for  this  he  was 
sentenced  to  an  additional  fine  of  $300,  and 
imprisonment  for  eight  hours.  A  rimilar  response  by 
the  lawyer  elicited  another  outbreak  from  the  judge, 
this  time  with  a  fine  of  $400  and  imprisonment  for 
twelve  hours.  A  protest  from  the  victim,  that  it 
was  his  right  to  appeal  from  tlie  order  of  the  judge, 
and  that  to  take  exception  to  a  decision  and  give 
notice  of  appeal  could  not  constitute  contempt  of 
court,  was  construed  into  an  aggravation  of  the 
previous  offending,  and  the  judge  cried  out :  "I  fine 
him  $500  and  commit  him  twenty-four  hours — forty- 
eight  hours, — turn  Jiim  out  of  court — sub[)oena  a 
posse, — subpoena  mcl"  Field  thereupon  left  the 
court-room,  accoini)anied  by  liis  associate  in  the  case, 
and  was  followed  by  the  deputy-sheriff,  who,  at  the 
express  order  of  Turner,  put  him  under  lock  and  key, 
—that  is,  he  locked  up  the  ex-alcalde  in  his  own  office. 
Being  thus  tecbinc  illy  imprisoned,  a  writ  of  Imheas 
corjriifi  was  sued  (  ut,  and  Field  was  brought  before 
the  county  judge.  Henry  P.  llaun,  by  wliom  he  was 
discharged,  the  officer  havino:  no  warrant  for  liis  arrest 
This  proceeding  coming  to  Turner's  ears,  he  hurled 
vengeani-e  u[)on  all  concerned,  and  particularly  on 
Judge  Haun,  to  whom  he  ap[)lied  the  vilest  epithets, 
declariiig  he  would  teach  tliat  fellow  his  position  as 
an  inferior  judg<\ 

When  the  district  court  next  opened,  Turner  made 
an  order  that  Field  be  disbarred,  for  suing  out  a 
writ  of  hahraH  corpus  to  secure  his  own  release  from 
imprisonment,  and  that  two  other  attorneys  be  also 


M 


i 


406 


ADVENT  AND  AGENCY  OF  LAW. 


I  if. 


.1  1 


.'5  I 


\  I 


disbarred  for  testifying  upon  the  return  of  the  writ 
before  the  county  judge,  whom  he  fined  $50,  and 
ordered  imprisoned  for  forty-eight  hours.  Haun 
paid  his  fine,  and  left  the  court-room,  while  Field  was 
taken  into  custody  by  the  sheriff.  Another  writ  of 
habeas  corpus  was  issued,  and  Field  a  second  time 
brought  before  the  county  judge.  On  this  occasion 
the  sheriff,  by  the  direction  of  Turner,  proceeded  to 
the  court-room,  and  while  the  judge  was  presiding 
over  his  own  court,  attempted  to  arrest  him  and  drag 
him  from  the  bench.  But  the  judge  rose  to  the 
occasion,  and  stepping  to  a  closet  drew  therefrom  a 
navy  revolver,  pointed  it  at  the  sheriff,  and  declared 
lie  would  shoot  him  dead  if  he  persisted  in  enforcing 
the  orders  of  Turner.  He  also  imposed  a  fine  of  $200 
for  contempt  of  court,  and  appointed  a  temporary 
bailiff,  who  promptly  ejected  tlie  sheriff  and  his 
party.  In  due  time  the  matter  of  disbarment  was 
brought  before  tlie  supreme  court,  and  Turner's  orders 
were  annulled.  During  tlie  interval,  however,  the 
effect  of  these  disgraceful  proceedings  of  Turner  was 
to  ruin  the  practice  of  Mr  Field.  Such  was  justice 
in  the  early  days  of  Marysville  and  in  the  metropolis, 
and  elsewliere  in  the  state  scenes  equally  outrageous 
were  of  no  unfrequent  occurrence. 

Upon  tlie  reorganization  of  the  judicial  districts, 
Turner  was  transfc^rred  from  Yuba  county,  and  Field 
was  no  longer  brouijht  in  contact  with  him.  A  few 
years  later,  wlicji  Mr  Field  had  become  a  member  of 
the  supreme  ctiurt  and  the  validity  of  Turner's  elec- 
tion to  his  new  dLstrirt  came  before  tlie  appellate 
tribunal  for  decision,  the  former  refused  to  sit  at  the 
hearing  of  the  case,  but  left  the  decision  to  his  asso- 
ciates. Soon  afterward  Turner,  who  was  surprised 
and  overcome  by  the  forbearance  of  one  to  whom, 
of  malice  aforethought,  he  liad  ijivcn  serious  and 
unprovoked  oH'cnce,  endeavored  to  effect  a  reconcilia- 
tion; but  tlie  latter  felt  tliat  tlic  injuries  and  indigni- 
ties he  had  suffered  could  not  be  lightly  excused,  and 


STEPHEN  J.  FIELD. 


407 


repelling  the  advances  of  his  old  enemy,  simply- 
remarked  to  him  who  acted  as  mediator  that  the  world 
was  wide  enough  for  both,  and  that  each  one  would 
go  his  own  way.  In  1867,  resolutions  with  a  view  to 
Turner's  impeachment  for  gross  judicial  misconduct 
were  introduced  in  the  legislature,  but  action  thereon 
was  forestalled  by  his  resignation,  and  soon  afterward 
he  ended  his  days  an  inmate  of  an  inebriate  asylum. 

It  might  have  been  supposed  that  after  such  a  con- 
troversy, the  result  of  which  so  thoroughly  vindicated 
Mr  Field,  there  would  be  no  similar  experience  in 
store  for  him.  But  law,  like  all  things  human,  is 
founded  on  antagonisms,  and  there  was  much  feeling 
in  California  in  those  days  between  men  from  the 
north  and  those  from  the  south.  In  accordance  with 
the  provisions  of  the  law  of  1851,  reorganizing  the 
judicial  districts  of  the  state,  the  counties  of  Yuba, 
>fevada,  and  Sutter  constituted  the  tenth  judicial 
listrict,  of  which,  through  the  influence  of  Judge 
Field,  Gordon  M.  Mott  was  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernor the  first  judge.  In  the  autumn  of  that  year, 
an  election  was  held,  at  which  William  T.  Barbour,  a 
lawyer  of  Nevada  county,  was  elected  to  succeed 
Mott,  who  refused  to  surrender  his  seat,  on  the  ground 
that  his  successor  could  not  be  k^gally  chosen  until 
the  election  of  1852.  The  views  of  the  latter  were 
upheld  by  Field,  who  appeared  as  his  counsel  when 
the  question  was  brought  before  the  supreme  court. 
Hence  was  aroused  the  most  bitter  hostility  on  the 
part  of  Mr  Barbour,  one  that  was  entirely  un- 
warranted, was  without  fair  ground  of  provoca- 
tion, was  without  just  cause  or  reason,  for,  as  it 
will  be  remarked,  Judjjfe  Field  was  actiny-  onlv 
in  his  professional  career,  and  as  is  the  case  witli 
all  reputable  members  of  that  profession,  doing  for 
the  cause  of  his  client  everything  that  lay  in  his 
power. 

In  the  following  year  Barbour  was  again  elected, 
when  he  b(3«ran  to  use  the  most  violent  and  abusive 


M 


'  ii 


•r>     ' 


III 


, 


if-^  ^? 


illi' 


408 


ADVENT  AND  AGENCY  OF  LAW. 


language  against  Mr  Field,  who  had  labored  zealously 
for  his  opponent.  The  quarrel  ran  high,  and  finally 
the  conduct  of  the  judge  became  so  utterly  intolerable 
that  there  remained  no  alternative  but  to  send  him  a 
challenge.  An  hour  or  two  later  Charles  S.  Fairfax 
waited  on  Mr  Mott — the  two  being  chosen  as  seconds 
— stating  that,  after  consultation  with  his  principal, 
the  conditions  proposed  were  a  meeting  that  very 
evening  in  a  room  twenty  feet  square,  the  participants 
to  be  armed  with  Colt's  revolvers  and  bowie  knives. 
Both  seconds  agreed  that  these  terms  were  barbarous 
and  unprecedented,  but  Barbour  would  listen  to  no 
others.  Judge  Field,  however,  knew  his  man,  and 
convinced  that  his  bloodthirsty  proposition  was  merely 
the  subterfuge  of  a  coward,  instructed  Mott  to  accept. 
This  being  reported  to  Barbour,  Fairfax  presently 
returned  with  certain  modifications  of  the  terms. 
First  of  all,  his  principal  would  agree  to  dispense  with 
bowie  knives;  then  for  the  first  time  it  occurred  to 
liim  that  to  fight  in  a  room  would  be  improper, 
because  the  firing  might  attract  a  crowd.  Would  the 
challenger  consent  to  other  arrangements,  solely,  of 
course,  with  a  view  to  avoid  a  disturbance  of  the 
public  peace  ?  Finally  it  was  arranged  that  the 
meeting  slic^uld  take  place  the  next  morning  in  Sutter 
county,  Barbour  taking  one  of  the  Sacramento  stages, 
and  his  opponent  [)rorooding  by  private  conveyance 
to  the  appointed  rendezvous.  At  the  time  and  place 
agreed  on.  Field  appeared  on  tlie  ground,  accompanied 
by  his  second,  and  soon  afterward  Barbour  and  Fair- 
fax alighted  from  the  stage,  which  then  passed  on  some 
distance  down  the  road.  But  now  occurred  another 
cliangc  in  the  programme.  Instead  of  proceed- 
ing to  business,  Barbour  dcclartMl  tliat  his  judicial 
office  forbade  liim  to  ongaue  in  a  duel,  but  that  in 
d(!fense  of  liis  j)errton  li(«  would  kill  his  assailant  I  with 
whicli  valiant  proclamation,  lie  walked  down  the 
road  to  the  stag(!  and  proceeded  on  his  way  to 
Sacramento.    Ifavinj    liis    srcond,    Fairfax,   standing 


STEPHEN  J.   FIELD. 


alone  on  the  ground,  in  sore  amaze  at  this  unexpected 
but  fitting  conclusion  to  the  drama. 

But  the  end  was  not  yet.  Taking  Fairfax  into  his 
carriage,  Mr  Field  returned  to  Marysville,  where  the 
incidents  just  narrated  soon  became  known,  and  the 
conduct  of  Barbour  was  the  occasion  of  much 
humorous  and  sarcastic  comment.  A  few  squibs 
appeared  in  the  Marysville  Herald,  at  which  Barbour 
was  greatly  enraged,  and  demanded  the  name  of  their 
author.  To  oblige  him,  Field  instructed  the  publisher 
to  credit  the  authorship  of  the  obnoxious  paragraphs 
to  himself,  although  in  fact  he  knew  nothing  of  them 
until  they  appeared  in  print.  A  day  or  two  after- 
wards, when  in  front  of  his  office,  he  was  suddenly 
accosted  by  Barbour,  who  placed  a  revolver  near  his 
head,  exclaiming,  "Draw  and  defend  yourself." 
Nothing  daunted  Field  calmly  informed  him  that  he 
carried  no  weapon,  and  that  he  could  do  as  he  pleased. 
But  again,  as  in  the  case  of  his  prototype,  Bob  Acres, 
the  judge's  courage  failed,  and  like  the  Arab  in 
Longfellow's  poem,  he  "silently  stole  away." 

There  was  a  number  of  witnesses  to  tliis  affair,  one 
of  whom,  a  friend  of  Barbour's,  Mr  L.  Martin,  wrote 
to  Judge  Field  in  March  1854,  a  letter,  in  which, 
among  other  things,  he  said:  "Judge  Barbour  told 
me  the  night  before  that  he  expected  to  have  a  street 
fight  with  you,  and  wanted  me  to  accompany  him.  I 
had  heard  of  his  conduct  in  the  affair  of  his  intended 
duel  in  Sutter  county,  and  knew  that  there  was  lad 
blood  between  you;  but  I  was  astonished  at  his  saying 
there  was  going  to  be  a  difficulty  Ijctweeu  you  in  the 
street.  I  consented  to  accompany  him,  but  I  sup- 
posed of  course  you  had  receivetl  notice  of  his  purpose, 
and  that  there  wouM  be  no  unfair  advantage  tak(>n  by 
liim.  I  was  therefore  surprised  when  I  ^aw  you  in  front 
of  your  office  with  your  arms  partly  filled  with  sihaII 
pieces  of  wood,  apparently  to  kindle  a  fire.  Barlujur" * 
drawing  a  pistol  upon  you  under  these  circuiTistances, 
and   calling  u})on  you  to   draw  and  defend   \    ^^jcself. 


I' 


m 


IM 


i 


410 


ADVENT  AND  AGENCY  OF  LAW. 


i  ':n 


u 


was  not  what  we  call  in  the  south  very  chivalric.  It 
was  not  justified  by  me  then,  and  never  has  been  in 
any  way  or  manner,  and  I  told  him  he  had  acted 
badly.  I  was  glad  to  hear  you  defy  him  as  you  did, 
and  dare  him  to  shoot." 

About  a  year  afterward  Barbour  attempted  to 
explain,  and  as  far  as  possible  to  excuse  his  conduct, 
and  at  a  subsequent  meeting  between  them  expressed 
great  regret  at  what  had  occurred.  Although,  of 
course,  no  real  esteem  could  be  felt  for  such  a  man, 
Field  was  perfectly  willing  that  here  the  matter 
should  end.  When  they  met  for  the  first  time  after 
an  apology  was  made,  he  said,  as  they  drank  a  glass 
of  wine  togetlier:  "Here  is  to  an  act  of  oblivion,  but 
no  explanations."  Ever  afterward  Barbour  spoke  of 
him  in  the  highest  terms,  both  personally  and  profes- 
sionally. 

These  episodes  in  the  life  of  Mr  Field,  while  dis- 
playing some  of  the  strongest  traits  in  his  character, 
serve  also,  as  he  himself  remarks,  "to  illustrate  the 
semi-barbarous  condition  of  things  in  those  early  days, 
and  by  comparison  show  out  of  what  our  existing 
condition  has  been  evolved,  and  how  far  we  have 
advanced." 

Soon  after  the  termination  of  his  duties  as  alcalde, 
Judge  Field  received  the  nomination  for  the  assembly 
from  liis  district;  and  although  not  barked  by  any 
organized  political  party,  made  a  vigorous  and 
successful  canvas.  Immediately  after  his  election  to 
this  the  first  K  gislatun*  chosen  after  the  admission  of 
California  to  statehood,  he  began  the  preparation  of 
the  law  subsequently  to  be  enacted,  relating  to  the 
judiciary.  T'pon  the  asst-nibling  of  tluit  body,  which 
took  [»lu't(  on  the  first  Monday  of  January  1851,  at 
San  Jo>K^\  he  wasai»p«»inteda  member  of  the  jmliciary 
committee,  and  to  it  submitted  a  carofully  i)reparcd 
bill  creatlni;  the  iudi<ia.l  svstem.  The  connnittee 
reported  favorably,  and  it  oassed  into  law,  remaining 
in  force  in  all  its  essential  features  until  the  reoryjan- 


m 


(1 


STEPHEN  J.   FIELD. 


411 


ization  of  the  judiciary  by  the  new  constitution  of 
1879.  In  fact,  it  may  be  said  that  fundamentally  it 
is  in  force  to-day.  Besides  dividing  the  state  into 
eleven  judicial  districts,  in  which  the  geographical 
and  topographical  conditions  and  relations  of  localities 
were  carefully  considered,  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
various  courts,  from  that  of  justice  of  the  peace  to  the 
supreme  court,  was  specifically  defined. 

Following  this,  in  due  logical  order,  came  the  civil 
practice  act,  now  called  the  code  of  civil  procedure. 
The  magnitude  and  importance  of  this  work  can  only 
be  appreciated  by  those  who  have  studied  the  history 
of  judicial  procedure  in  England,  and  in  the  older 
states  of  the  union.  Law  reformers,  from  Jeremy 
Bentham  to  David  Dudley  Field,  have  devoted  the 
highest  ability  and  the  widest  learning,  with  unremit- 
ting labor,  to  the  accomplishment  of  those  changes 
which  they  felt  to  be  necessary  to  the  adequate  and 
speedy  adminis*Tation  of  justice.  At  this  time  David 
Dudley  Field  had  he  en  only  partially  successful  in 
securing  the  adoption  of  the  reformed  methods  of 
judicial  procedure  in  New  York,  and  the  practice  in 
civil  cases  in  that  state  is  still  governed  by  rules 
drawn  from  different  sources, — the  code,  the  revised 
statutes,  and  the  general  principles  deduced  from 
decisions  in  common  law  and  equity,  besides  the  special 
rules  promulgated  by  the  various  courts  themselves. 

To  frame  this  bill,  as  the  one  prepared  by  Stephen 
Field,  required  not  merely  a  theoretical  knowledge 
of  the  subject,  drawn  from  books,  and  a  practical 
acquaintance  gained  by  experience  and  observation  in 
court,  but  the  power  of  clear  and  concise  statement 
and  definition.  The  problem  to  be  solved  was  to  set 
forth  the  rules  in  language  scientifically  accurate, 
whicli  should  avoid  metaphysical  subtlety  on  the  one 
hand  and  loose  phraseology  on  the  other.  That  it 
was  puccossfully  solved  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  it 
stood  forty  years  after  its  compilation  substantially  a« 
it  cp.me  from  the  liand  of  its  author,  and  that  it  has 


i^  t 


u 


^iw 


412 


ADVENT  Al^D  AGENCY  OF    LAW. 


m 


formed  the  basis  of  the  codes  of  other  states  and 
territories. 

Next  came  the  criminal  practice  act,  now  in  force 
under  the  name  of  the  penal  code.  The  object  in  view 
was  to  simplify  the  procedure,  so  that  the  community 
should  be  protected  by  the  prompt  and  legal  punish- 
ment of  the  offenders,  while  at  the  same  time  every 
safeguard  was  thrown  around  the  accused,  shielding 
him  from  the  dangers  of  local  prejudice  and  sudden 
popular  fury.  Like  the  judiciary  bill  and  civil  practice 
act,  this  required  ample  knowledge  of  the  subject  and 
the  faculty  of  clothing  it  in  apt  scientific  phrase. 
After  devotinpf  to  this  work  the  necessary  labor,  there 
was  barely  time  to  introduce  the  bill  during  the  closing 
hours  of  the  legislative  session ;  there  was  not  even 
time  to  reatl  it,  but  such  was  the  confidence  reposed 
ill  its  author,  that  tlie  rules  were  suspended,  and  the 
bill  was  read  by  its  title  only  and  ])assed.  It  then 
went  to  the  tjovernor  who  said  he  had  not  time  to 
consider  it  before  the  adjournment  of  th(^  legislature, 
and  was  disinclined  to  a[)prove  it  without  examination. 
Thereupon  Mr  Field,  knowing  how  important  it  was 
that  the  bill  should  become  law,  in  order  that  the 
(efficiency  of  the  measures  already  passed  might  not 
be  impaired,  urged  tJie  governor  to  sign  it,  and  to  this 
he  finally  consented  on  the  personal  reconunendation 
of  the  author. 

Among  the  most  beneficent  provisions  of  the  civil 
j)ractice  act  were  those  relating  to  miners,  and  those 
exempting  certain  projjcrty  from  forced  sale  for  the 
payment  of  (h;hts.  The  first  re(juir(;d  the  courts  to 
recognize  and  enforce  the  customs,  rules,  and  usages 
of  miners  in  actions  respecting  mining  claims,  providing 
such  customs,  rules,  and  usages  were  not  in  contra- 
vention of  the  laws  of  the  state,  or  of  the  United 
States.  The  second  exempted  from  forced  sale  under 
execution  furniture  and  books  of  $100  value  ;  necessary 
wearing  apparel,  and  provisions  for  one  month  ;  the 
implements,  wagons,  and  teams  of  the  farmer ;  the 


STEPHEN  J.   FIELD. 


413 


to 


tools  of  the  mechanic;  the  instruments  and  chests  of 
the  surgeon,  physician,  surveyor,  or  dentist,  and  the 
articles  necessary  for  the  work  of  the  miners  and 
laborers. 

"  I  never  could  appreciate,"  said  Mr  Field,  "  the 
wisdom  of  that  legislation  which  would  allow  a  poor 
debtor  to  be  stripped  of  all  needed  articles  of  his 
household,  and  of  the  implements  by  which  alone  he 
could  earn  the  means  of  supporting  himself  and  family, 
and  of  ultimately  discharging  his  obligations.  It  has 
always  seemed  to  me  that  an  exemption  from  forced 
sale  of  a  limited  amount  of  household  and  kitchen 
furniture  of  the  debtor,  and  of  the  implements  used  in 
his  trade  or  profession,  was  not  only  the  dictate  of 
humanity  but  of  sound  policy." 

Besides   these    most    important    measures,   Field 
drafted  and  secured  the  passage  of  an  act  relating  to 
county  sheriffs,  declaring  and  defining  their   duties 
and  responsibilities  in  the  execution  of  process,  in  the 
detention  of  prisoners,  and  as  keepers  of  county  jails. 
To  him   is  due  the  enactment  of  a  law  concerning 
divorce,  in  which,  besides  adultery,  extreme   cruelty, 
habitual    intemperance,  wilful    desertion,    and   wilful 
neglect,  were  made  sufficient  causes.     He  also  drew 
up  the  charters  of  the  cities  of  Marysville,  Nevada, 
and  Monterey,  all  of  which  were  adopted.     Finally, 
ho    secured    the    passage  of    many    necessary   laws 
introduced    by   other    members   of    the    legislature, 
notably  that  concerning  attorneys  and  counsellors-at- 
law,  whereby  they  were  effectually  protected  from  the 
infliction  of  such  injuries  as  he  himself  had  suffered  at 
the  hands  of  Judge  Turner,  making  it  impossible  to 
deprive   a   lawyer  of  his   right   to    practice  without 
notice  of  the  charges  against  him,  and  full  opportunity 
to  be  heard  in  his  defense.     The  principles  embodied 
in   this  statute  lie  afterward  thoroughly  vindicated, 
when   he   had    become   a   justice   of    the    supreme 
court   of    the   United    States,    in   the   case   of    one 
Robinson,  reported  in   19   Wallace,  in  which,  while 


414 


ADVENT  AND  AGENCY  OP  LAW. 


n  '  ! 


t 


fully  upholding  the  courts  in  the  just  exercise  of  their 
powers  to  protect  themselves  by  the  summary  process 
of  contempt,  he  enforces  the  basic  principle  of  all  free 
government  that  no  man  shall  be  condemned  unheard. 

His  legislative  duties  completed,  Mr  Field  returned 
to  Marysville,  and  declining  all  offers  of  political 
preferment,  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  his  profes- 
sion. Owing  to  his  troubles  with  Turner,  which,  as 
I  have  said,  completely  destroyed  his  practice,  and  to 
the  miscarriage  of  some  of  his  business  ventures,  he 
found  himself  about  $18,000  in  debt,  upon  which  he 
was  obliged  to  pay  interest  at  the  rate  of  ten  per  cent 
per  month, — his  creditors  with  one  exception,  exacting 
from  him  their  pound  of  flesh.  Many  a  man  would 
have  become  disheartened,  and  have  abandoned  further 
efii)rt ;  but  he  never  for  a  moment  faltered,  denying 
himself  all  but  the  barest  necessaries  of  life  until  he 
could  say  that  what  he  possessed  was  his  own. 
Gradually  his  practice  increased,  so  that  it  became  in 
time  one  of  the  most  lucrative  in  the  state,  and  in  less 
than  three  years  he  had  paid  off  all  his  debts,  which, 
with  the  enormous  rate  of  interest,  aggregated  the 
sum  of  $38,000.  In  no  instance  did  he  ask  for  a 
reduction  of  that  rate  ;  nor  was  it  offered  to  him, 
except  in  tlie  case  of  a  brother  advocate,  who  holding 
his  note  for  $450,  refused  to  accept  more  than  five 
per  cent  a  month. 

At  that  time  the  Marysville  bar  included  some 
names  which  have  since  become  well-known  through- 
out the  state.  Among  them  were  Richard  S.  Mesick, 
afterward  district  judge  of  the  state  of  Nevada; 
Charles  H.  Bryan,  for  a  short  time  judge  of  the 
California  supreme  court ;  Jesse  0.  Goodwin,  author 
of  the  Goodwin  act ;  William  Walker,  filibuster,  and 
grey-eyed  man  of  destiny;  E.  D.  Wheeler,  subse- 
quently judge  of  the  19th  district  court,  and  Thomas 
B.  Reardon,  who  became  judge  of  the  14th  district 
court,  and  presided  at  the  second  trial  of  Laura  D. 
Fair,  in  place  of  Judge  Dwindle. 


STEPHEN  J.    FIELD. 


418 


Mr  Field  was  a  safe  counsellor  and  a  model  advo- 
cate, and  his  clients  soon  learned  to  repose  confidence 
in  his  judgment.  He  left  nothing  to  chance,  or  to 
what  has  been  facetiously  styled  "spontaneous  com- 
bustion." He  had  no  faith  in  the  vulgar  conception 
of  inspiration ;  to  him,  success  signified  the  legitimate 
consequence  of  logical  thought  and  untiring  industry. 
Not  that  he  believed  that  thorough  preparation  was 
incompatible  with  such  flashes  of  rhetoric  as  are 
evoked  by  the  fervent  heat  of  intellectual  controversy. 
Such  masters  of  forensic  eloquence  as  Erskine, 
Pinkney,  Choate,  and  O'Conor — not  to  speak  of  the 
living — attained  their  proud  preeminence  in  their 
profession  only  through  constant  and  well-directed 
labor.  In  a  word,  they  had  mastered  the  law,  both 
as  a  science  and  an  art. 

Such  was  Stephen  J.  Field  at  this  early  day,  when 
everything  pointed  to  his  successful  career  as  an 
advocate,  and  if  he  had  declined  all  offers  of  promotion 
to  the  bench  he  might  speedily  have  amassed  an 
ample  fortune.  But  he  had  identified  himself  with 
the  interests  of  the  new  state  of  California  to  such  an 
extent  that  he  preferred  to  take  whatever  position 
would  best  subserve  the  commonwealth.  At  that 
time  California  needed  good  advocates  less  than  she 
needed  good  judges.  Immense  grants  of  land  had 
been  bestowed  by  the  Mexican  government  upon  a 
few  favored  individuals.  Some  of  them  were  com- 
paratively well  defined,  while  others,  like  that  of  Las 
Mariposa-s,  which  included  Fremont's  claim,  were 
undetermined,  and  afterward  the  subject  of  bitter  and 
protracted  litigation. 

Settlers,  squatters,  and  miners  crowded  into  the 
state  by  thousands,  taking  whatever  land  seemed  to 
be  unoccupied,  often  evicting  the  true  owners,  whom 
the  United  States  had  promised  by  treaty  to  protect. 
In  the  words  of  Judge  J.  Black :  "  When  the  treaty 
of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  came  to  be  ratified, — at  the 
very  moment  when  Mexico   was  feeling  the  sorest 


$\ 


\     , 


!^ 


^>, 


V.^. 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


11.25 


12.8 


■2.5 

!■■ 

^  ^    12.2 

1^  1^ 


-    6" 


-^ 


^^ 


7 


PhotDgraphic 

Sdences 

Corporation 


V^  WiSi-  MAIN  STRUT 

WHSTIR.N.Y.  MStO 

(716)  •72-4503 


^ 

<^^ 


\ 


6^ 


^ 

^ 


416 


ADVENT  AND  AGENCY  OF  LAW. 


If  U; 


pressure  that  could  be  applied  to  her  by  the  force  of 
our  armies,  and  the  diplomacy  of  our  statesmen, — 
she  utterly  refused  to  cede  her  public  property  in 
California  unless  upon  express  condition  that  all 
private  titles  should  be  faithfully  protected.  We  made 
the  promise.  The  pledge  was  not  only  that  the 
government  itself  would  abstain  from  all  disturbance 
of  them,  but  that  every  blow  aimed  at  their  rights, 
come  from  what  quarter  it  might,  should  be  caught 
upon  the  broad  shield  of  our  blessed  constitution  and 
our  equal  laws." 

Statutes  had  to  be  framed  in  respect  to  miners, 
which  should  protect  their  peculiar  industry,  and  at 
the  same  time  have  due  regard  to  the  rights  of  the 
tillers  of  the  soil ;  charters  had  to  be  drawn  for  new 
cities,  and,  in  a  word,  all  that  goes  toward  the  making 
of  a  civilized  state  had  to  be  crowded  into  a  single 
decade.  The  condition  of  affairs  when  Field  accepted 
the  position  of  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Califor- 
nia is  thus  described  by  a  jurist  of  the  day: — 

"The  calendar  was  crowded  with  cases  involving 
immense  interests,  the  most  important  questions,  the 
most  various  and  peculiar  litigation.  California  was 
then,  as  now,  in  the  development  of  her  multiform 
material  resources.  The  judges  were  as  much  pioneers 
of  law  as  the  people  of  settlement.  To  be  sure, 
something  had  been  done,  but  much  had  yet  to  be 
accomplished ;  and  something,  too,  had  to  be  undone 
of  that  which  had  been  done  in  the  feverish  and 
anomalous  period  that  had  preceded.  It  is  safe  to 
say  that,  even  in  the  experience  of  new  countries 
hastily  settled  by  heterogeneous  crowds  of  strangers 
from  all  countries,  no  such  example  of  legal  or  judicial 
difficulties  was  ever  before  presented  as  has  been 
illustrated  in  the  history  of  California.  There  was 
no  general  or  common  source  of  jurisprudence.  Law 
was  to  be  administered  almost  without  a  standard. 
There  was  a  civil  law,  as  adulterated  or  modified  by 
Mexican  provincialisms,  usages,  and  habitudes,  for  a 


STEPHEN   J.   FIELD. 


417 


great  part  of  the  litigation ;  and  there  was  the  common 
mw  for  another  part,  but  what  that  was  was  to  be 
decided  from  the  conflicting  decisions  of  any  number 
of  courts  in  America  n.nd  England,  and  the  various 
and  diverse  considerations  of  policy  arising  from  local 
and  other  facts.  And  then,  contracts  made  elsewhere, 
and  some  of  them  in  semi-civilized  countries,  had  to 
be  interpreted  here.  Besides  all  which  may  be 
added,  that  large  and  important  interests  peculiar  to 
this  state  existed, — mines,  ditches,  etc. — for  which 
the  courts  were  compelled  to  frame  the  law,  and  make 
a  system  out  of  what  was  little  better  than  chaos. 

"When,  in  addition,  it  was  considered  that  an 
unprecedented  number  of  contracts,  and  an  amount 
of  business  without  parallel  had  been  made  and  done 
in  hot  haste  with  the  utmost  carelessness;  that 
legislation  was  accomplished  in  the  same  way,  and 
presented  the  crudest  and  most  incongruous  materials 
for  construction ;  that  the  whole  scheme  and  organi- 
zation of  the  government  and  the  relation  of  the 
departments  to  each  other  had  to  be  adjusted  by 
judicial  construction, — it  may  be  well  conceived  what 
task  even  the  ablest  jurist  would  take  upon  himself 
when  he  assumed  this  office." 

In  1857,  Mr  Field  was  elected  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  California  for  a  term  of  six  years,  commencing 
January  1,  1858 ;  but  a  vacancy  occurred  requiring  an 
appointment  for  an  unexpired  term  of  three  months 
next  preceding  the  commencement  of  the  term  for 
which  he  had  been  elected.  Judge  Field  was  there- 
upon pressed  to  assume  at  once  the  duties  of  his 
office,  and  to  this  he  reluctantly  consented,  receiving 
his  appointment  from  Governor  Johnson,  who  was  a 
political  opponent,  and  taking  his  seat  on  the  bench 
on  the  13th  of  October  1857.  Some  two  years  later, 
when  Judge  Terry,  who  in  the  mean  time  had  become 
chief-justice,  resigned  in  order  to  fight  the  celebrated 
duel  with  David  C.  Broderick,  which  created  almost 
as  much  of  a  sensation  throughout  the  land  as  did 


C.  B.— 1.    27 


k'. 


i*f 


i 


\m 


Hi 

It! 
til 


418 


ADVENT  AND  AGENCY  OF  LAW. 


that  of  Hamilton  and  Burr,  Mr  Field  became  chief- 
justice. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  give  an  account  of  the  many 
important  cases  decided  by  Judge  Field  during  his 
term  of  five  and  a  half  years  as  judge  of  the  state 
supreme  court.  Among  those  decisions,  however, 
may  be  mentioned  the  famous  case  of  Biddle  Boggs 
vs.  Merced  Mining  company,  in  which  was  involved 
the  title  to  a  valuable  portion  of  the  Mariposa  grant, 
claimed  by  Fremont.  A  most  elaborate,  learned,  and 
interesting  discussion,  by  counsel  and  court,  of 
English,  Mexican,  and  American  law,  is  contained  in 
the  report  of  the  case,  which  comprises  more  than  one 
hundred  closely  printed  pages  of  the  14th  volume  of 
California  Reports.  The  legal  acumen  and  close  logical 
reasoning  displayed  therein  aflfords  matter  of  the 
deepest  interest  to  the  public,  no  less  than  to  the 
professional  reader. 

Among  other  cases  worthy  of  mention  are  those  of 
ex  parte  Neuman,  9  Cal.  502,  and  ex  parte  Andrews, 
18  Cal.  680,  in  which  the  validity  of  Sunday  laws 
was  the  subject  of  judicial  consideration.  In  the  first 
case  the  court  held  that  such  laws  were  unconstitu- 
tional and  void,  as  attempting  to  interfere  with  matters 
of  religious  belief.  Judge  Field  wrote  a  dissenting 
opinion,  in  the  course  of  which  he  said  : — 

"Upon  no  subject  is  there  such  a  concurrence  of 
opinion  among  philosophers,  moralists,  and  statesmen 
of  all  nations,  as  on  the  necessity  of  periodical  cessa- 
tions from  labor.  One  day  in  seven  is  the  rule, 
founded  on  experience  and  sustained  by  science. 
There  is  no  nation,  possessing  any  degree  of 
civilization,  where  the  rule  is  not  observed,  either 
from  the  sanctions  of  law  or  the  sanctions  of  religion. 
This  fact  has  not  escaped  the  observation  of  men  of 
science,  and  distinguished  philosophers  have  not 
hesitated  to  pronounce  the  rule  founded  upon  a  law 
of  our  race. 

"  The  legislature  possesses  the  undoubted  right  to 


STEPHEN  J.    FIELD. 


41» 


pass  \9,via  for  the  preservation  of  health  and  the 
promotion  of  good  morals,  and  if  it  is  of  the  opinion 
that  periodical  cessation  from  labor  will  tend  to  both, 
and  thinks  proper  to  carry  its  opinion  into  a  statutory 
enactment  on  the  subject,  there  is  no  power,  outside 
of  itd  constitution,  which  can  sit  in  judgment  upon  its 
action.  It  is  not  for  the  judiciary  to  assume  a  wisdom 
which  it  denies  to  the  legislature,  and  exercise  a 
supervision  over  the  discretion  of  the  latter.  It  is 
not  the  province  of  the  judiciary  to  pass  upon  the 
wisdom  and  policy  of  legislation ;  and  when  it  does 
so  it  usurps  a  power  never  conferred  by  the  consti- 
tution." 

In  the  case  of  ex  parte  Andrews,  the  doctrines  of 
his  dissenting  opinions,  iust  quoted,  were  adopted  and 
promulgated  as  the  opinions  of  the  supreme  court, 
and  have  been  followed  ever  since,  despite  the 
changing  personnel  and  diverse  political  opinions  of 
that  tribunal.  The  Sunday  law,  which  was  nullified 
by  the  decision  in  the  Neuman  case,  was  passed  in 
April  1858 ;  the  second,  which  was  upheld,  was 
passed  in  May  1861,  and  remained  in  force  until 
repealed  by  the  act  of  February  8,  1883,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  administration  ofGovernorStoneman. 

As  in  the  case  of  Neuman,  Judge  Field  deprecated 
any  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  courts  to  interfere 
in  any  way  with  the  exercise  of  powers  belonging  to 
the  legislature,  so  in  that  of  Houston  vs.  Williams,  13 
Cal.  24,  he  vigorously  repelled  what  he  considered  an 
encroachment  by  the  legislature  upon  the  rights  of  the 
judiciary.  The  arguments  which  he  put  forward  iu 
support  of  his  views  have  never  been  answered,  for 
they  are  in  fact  unanswerable. 

!Perhaps  apart  from  establishing  rules  for  the 
settlement  of  disputed  land  titles,  of  rights  to  mining 
claims,  and  of  the  powers  of  municipal  corporations, 
his  influence  was  most  potent  in  the  interpretation 
rf  the  system  of  pleading  and  practice,  which  as  we 
have  seen  he  introduced  as  legislator.     Especially  in 


>  'I 


!B 


■ill 


6fl 


II 


8  !  • ' 


430 


ADVENT  AND  AGENCY  OP  LAW. 


ii!  I  i 


li.li 


the  case  of  Green  vs  Palmer,  15  Cal.>  judicial  sanction 
was  given  to  the  seminal  principles  of  the  reformed 
and  rational  system  of  pleading,  and  that  case  has 
ever  since  remained  one  of  the  prominent  guide-posts 
in  this  branch  of  the  science  of  law. 

When  a  tenth  United  States  judicial  district  was 
created,  and  an  additional  justice  of  the  supreme  court 
of  the  United  States  was  to  be  appointed,  the  entire 
Pacific  coast  delegation,  democrats  and  republicans 
alike,  urged  President  Lincoln  to  appoint  Judge  Field. 
He  was  immediately  nominated  by  the  president,  and 
his  nomination  was  unanimously  confirmed  by  the 
senate.  Though  his  commission  was  dated  March 
10,  1863,  he  declined  to  take  his  seat  until  some  two 
months  later,  for  many  important  cases  were  pending 
in  California  which  he  considered  it  his  duty  to  decide. 
The  oath  of  office  was  administered  on  the  eighty- 
second  anniversary  of  his  father's  birthday,  who,  in 
full  possession  of  all  his  faculties,  rejoiced  in  the  ad- 
vancement of  his  son. 

Of  the  many  tributes  of  respect  paid  to  him  by 
bar  and  bench  on  withdrawing  from  the  highest 
judicial  position  in  the  gift  of  the  state,  one  only,  and 
that  of  the  briefest,  will  suffice.  Said  Judge  Baldwin, 
for  several  years  his  associate  :  "He  has,  more  than 
any  other  man,  given  tone,  consistency,  and  system  to 
our  judicature,  and  laid  broad  and  deep  the  foundation 
of  our  civil  and  criminal  law.  The  land  titles  of  the 
state — the  most  important  and  permanent  of  the 
interests  of  a  great  commonwealth — have  received 
fiom  his  hand  their  permanent  protection,  and  this 
alone  should  entitle  him  to  the  lasting  gratitude  of  the 
bar  and  the  people." 

Since  Field  has  been  on  the  bench  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States,  Taney,  Chase,  Waite,  and 
Fuller  have  occupied  the  positions  of  chief  justice,  and 
among  his  associates  were  Wayne,  Catron,  Nelson, 
Grier,  Clifford,  Swayne,  Miller,  and  Davis.  It  is 
pertinent  to  give  only  a  passing  notice  to  the  long  list 
of  cases  that  have  been  decided  since  1863  by  that 


Ii 


STEPHEN  J.  FIELD. 


421 


august  tribunal.  Among  those  of  immediate  interest 
and  of  far-reaching  consequence,  growing  out  of  the 
war  between  the  north  and  south,  may  be  mentioned 
the  test  oath  cases,  in  one  of  which  a  Roman  Catholic 
priest  was  convicted  and  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of 
$500,  because  he  had  taught  the  doctrines  of  his  church 
without  taking  the  test  oath.  In  the  other,  A.  H. 
Garland  was  prohibited  from  practising  his  profession 
as  a  lawyer,  because  of  his  participation  in  the  re- 
bellion. In  both  instances  Justice  Field  delivered 
the  opinion  of  the  court,  holding  the  legislation  under 
which  these  penalties  had  been  inflicted  to  be  in  vio- 
lation of  the  constitution  of  the  United  States. 

In  the  suits  known  as  the  slaughter-house  cases, 
he  dissented  from  the  view  of  the  majority,  and  in 
the  course  of  his  opinion  made  an  unexpected  applica- 
tion of  the  14th  amendment  of  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States.  A  monopoly  had  been  granted  to  a 
corporation  composed  of  seventeen  persons,  to  exercise 
the  exclusive  privilege  of  slaughtering  cattle  for  the 
city  of  New  Orleans.  The  attempt  was  made  to 
justify  the  act  under  the  pretense  that  it  was  a  sanitary 
measure,  and  a  proper  exercise  of  the  police  powers 
of  the  state.  We  quote  the  following  from  his 
opinion,  as  it  is  one  of  the  best  examples  of  the  clear, 
concise  style  which  characterizes  all  his  decisions: 

"It  is  contended  in  justification  of  the  act  in 
question  that  it  was  adopted  in  the  interest  of  the 
city,  to  promote  its  cleanliness  and  protect  its  health, 
and  was  the  legitimate  exercise  of  what  is  termed  the 
police  power  of  the  state.  1^'hat  power  undoubtedly 
extends  to  all  regulations  affecting  the  health,  good 
order,  morals,  peace,  and  safety  of  society,  and  is 
experienced  on  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  and  in 
almost  numberless  wavs.  All  sorts  of  restrictions 
and  burdens  are  imposed  under  it,  and  when  these 
are  not  in  conflict  with  any  constitutional  prohibi- 
tions, or  fundamental  principles,  they  cannot  be  safely 


il  :i- 


iil 


m': 


ADVENT  AND  AGENCY  OF  LAW. 


«\ 


assailed  in  a  judicial  tribunal.  With  this  power  of 
the  state  and  its  legitimate  exercise,  I  shall  not  differ 
from  the  majority  of  the  court.  But  under  the 
pretense  of  prescribing  a  police  regulation,  the  state 
cannot  be  permitted  to  encroach  upon  any  of  the  just 
rights  of  the  citizen,  which  the  constitution  intended 
to  secure  against  abridgment. 

"  If  exclusive  privileges  of  this  character  can  be 
granted  to  a  corporation  of  seventeen  persons,  they 
may  in  the  discretion  of  the  legislature  be  equally 
granted  to  a  single  individual.  If  they  may  be 
granted  for  twenty -five  years,  they  may  oe  equally 
granted  for  a  century,  and  in  perpetuity.  If  they 
may  be  granted  for  the  landing  and  keeping  of  animals 
intended  for  sale  or  slaughter,  they  may  be  equally 
granted  for  the  landing  and  storing  of  grain  and 
other  products  of  the  earth,  or  for  any  article  of 
commerce.  If  they  may  be  granted  for  structures  in 
which  animal  food  is  prepared  for  market,  they  may 
be  equally  granted  for  structures  in  which  farinaceous 
or  vegetable  food  is  prepared.  They  may  be  granted 
for  any  of  the  pursuits  of  human  industry,  even  in  its 
most  simple  and  common  forms.  Indeed,  upon  the 
theory  on  which  the  exclusive  privileges  granted  by 
the  act  in  question  are  sustained,  there  is  no  mon- 
opoly in  the  most  odious  form  which  may  not  be 
upheld. 

"A  prohibition  to  him  to  pursue  certain  callings 
open  to  others  of  the  same  age,  condition,  and  sex,  or 
to  reside  in  plaees  where  others  are  permitted  to  live, 
would  so  far  deprive  him  of  the  rights  of  a  freeman, 
and  would  place  him,  as  respects  others,  in  a  condition 

of  servitude The  counsel  of  the  plaintiffs  in 

error  therefore,  contend  that  '  whenever  a  law  of  the 
state,  or  a  law  of  the  United  States,  makes  a  discrim- 
ination between  classes  of  persons,  which  deprives 
the  one  class  of  their  freedom  on  their  property,  or 
which  makes  a  caste  of  them  to  subserve  the  power, 
pride,  avarice,  vanity,  or  vengeance  of  others,    their 


STEPHEN  J.   FIELD. 


4S» 


involuntary  servitude  exists  within  the  meaning  of 
the  ISth  amendment." 

The  decision  of  the  supreme  court  in  respect  to  the 
privacy  of  mail  matter,  in  which  Field  wrote  the 
opinion,  is  of  great  interest  to  every  citizen  of  the 
United  States.  Travellers  who  have  had  their  private 
correspondence  tampered  with  by  foreign  governments 
wilt  particularly  appreciate  the  force  of  his  reasoning. 
After  showing  that  congress  has  a  right  to  prescribe 
what  kind  of  matter  may  be  transmitted  by  means  of 
the  public  mails,  he  states  the  rights  of  the  people  to  a 
safe  and  secret  transportation  of  matter  entrusted  by 
them  to  the  post  office,  in  the  following  words : 

"  Letters  and  sealed  packages  of  this  kind  in  the 
mail  are  as  fully  guarded  from  examination,  except  as 
to  their  outward  form  and  weight,  as  if  they  were 
retained  by  the  parties  forwarding  them  in  their  own 
domiciles.  The  constitutional  guaranty  of  the  right 
of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  papers  against 
unreasonable  searches  and  siezures  extends  to  their 
papers,  thus  closed  against  inspection,  whatever  they 
mav  be.  Whilst  in  the  mail,  they  can  only  be  opened 
and  examined  under  like  warrant,  issued  upon  similar 
oath  or  affirmation,  particularly  describing  the  thing 
to  be  seized,  as  is  required  when  papers  are  subjected 
to  search  in  one's  own  household.  No  law  of  congress 
can  place  in  the  hands  of  officials  connected  with  the 
postal  service  any  authority  to  invade  the  secrecy  of 
letters  and  such  sealed  packages  in  the  mails ;  and  all 
regulations  adopted  as  to  mail  matter  of  this  kind 
must  be  in  subordination  to  the  great  principle 
embodied  in  the  fourth  amendment  of  the  constitution." 

Not  infrequently  it  has  been  the  fate  of  Judge 
Field  to  render  decisions  which  at  the  time  occasioned 
strong  feelings  of  resentment,  but  which  the  sober 
second  thought  of  the  people  fully  approved.  A  case 
of  this  kind,  which  excited  the  most  bitter  hostility 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  was  that  rendered  in  what  is 
popularly  styled  the  queue  case,  How  Ah  How  vs. 


I 


'i 

m 

-  i  'k"- 

■■Hi  I 

I: 

£ 

''m 

i     ' 

1     ^ 

'  '•  'l' 

i'  ■' 

^lii 

m 

mi 

m 

r 


»:i 


ADVENT  AND  AOENOY  OF  LAW. 


Matthew  Nunan,  sheriff.  At  that  time  the  wave  of 
popular  feeling  against  the  Chinese  bad  reached  its 
highest  point,  and  many  outrages  were  committed 
upon  them  during  the  agitation.  How  Ah  How  had 
been  imprisoned  for  violating  the  cubic-air  ordinance, 
and  the  sheriff,  in  obedience  to  an  ordinance  of  the 
board  of  supervisors  of  the  City  of  San  Francisco, 
cut  off  his  queue.  This  ordinance,  which  purported 
to  be  merely  a  sanitary  regulation  of  the  municipality, 
required  that  every  person  confined  in  the  county 
jail  should  have  his  hair  cut  off  within  two  inches  of 
his  head,  and  although  general  in  its  terms,  was 
directed  specially  against  the  Chinese.  Every  one 
knows  that  the  deprivation  of  his  queue  is  one  of  the 
greatest  calamities  that  can  befall  a  Chinaman,  since 
it  is  considered  as  not  only  disgracing  him  in  this 
world,  but  as  endangering  his  happiness  in  the  next. 
Suit  was  brought  by  the  Chinaman,  against  the 
sheriff,  in  the  United  States  circuit  court,  to  recover 
damages  for  the  injury  caused  by  the  loss  of  his  queue. 
The  determination  of  the  case  involved  the  validity  of 
the  ordinance  referred  to,  and  in  deciding  the  question 
Judge  Field  delivered  an  opinion  in  which  he  declared 
the  ordinance  to  be  special  legislation,  directed  against 
the  Chinese,  by  which  they  were  denied  the  equal 
protection  of  the  laws ;  that  it  was  in  violation  of  the 
fourteenth  amendment  of  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States,  and  therefore  void. 

In  the  United  States  supreme  court  he  has,  for 
more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century,  borne  his  share  of 
its  labors.  His  opinions,  among  other  things,  relate 
to  test  oaths,  military  commissions,  confiscations,  par- 
don and  amnesty,  legal  tender  notes,  legislative  power 
of  the  insurgent  states  during  the  civil  war,  protection 
of  sealed  matters  in  the  mails  from  inspection  bv  offi- 
cials, power  of  the  state  to  control  compensation  for 
use  of  private  property,  relation  between  general  and 
state  governments,  powers  and  liabilities  of  corpora- 
tions, interstate  commerce,  taxation,  trust  character 


z' 


STEPHEN  J.  FIELD.  4M 

of  directors  of  corporations,  and  the  use  of  running 
waters  on  public  lands. 

Among  the  more  important  of  these  opinions  the 
following  may  be  mentioned :  In  the  test  oath  cases, 
Cummings  v.  Missouri,  4  Wall.  277,  and  Ex  parte  Gar- 
land, 4  Wall.  333.  In  cases  relating  to  interstate 
commerce,  Welton  v.  Missouri,  91  U.  S.  275;  Caunty 
of  Mobile  V.  Kimball,  102  U.  S.  691 ;  Gloucester  Ferry 
Co.  V.  Pennsylvania,  114  U.  S.  196;  Sherlock  v.  Ailing, 
93  U.  S.  99;  Escanaba  v.  Chicago,  107  U.  S.  678; 
Mitler  v.  Mayor  of  New  York,  109  U.  S.  385;  Card- 
well  V.  Arfierican  Bridge  Co.,  113  U.  S.  205 ;  and  Huse 
V.  Glover,  119  U.  S.  543.  In  cases  on  questions  grow- 
ing out  of  the  civil  war,  Williams  v.  Bruffy,  96  U.  S. 
176  ;  Coleman  v.  Tennessee,  97  U.  S.  509;  Pacific  Rail- 
roads V.  United  States,  120  U.  S.  227 ;  Dow  v.  John- 
son, 100  U.  S.  158 ;  and  the  Tarble  Case,  13  Wall.  397. 
On  constitutional  questions  particularly  affected  by 
the  fourteenth  amendment,  Barbier  v.  Connelly,  113 
U.  S.  27;  Soon  Hing  v.  Crowley,  113  U.  S.  703; 
Missouri  Pacific  Railway  Co.  v.  Humes,  115  U.  S.  512; 
Hayes  v.  Missouri,  120  U.  S.  65.  On  state,  city,  and 
county  bonded   indebtedness,  Pillsbury  v.  Louisiana, 

105  U.  S.  278  ;  Hartman  v.  Greenhow,  102  U.  S.  672; 
United  States  v.  New  Orleans,  98  U.  S.  381 ;  Brough- 
ton  V.  Pensacola,  93  U.  S.  266.  On  patents  of  the 
United  States  for  lands  and  mining  claims,  Smelting 
Co.  V.  Kemp,  104  U.  S.  636;  Steel  v.  Smelting  Co., 

106  U.  S.  447.  On  mining  claims  and  water  rights, 
Jennison  v.  Kirk,  98  U.  S.  453 ;  Atchison  v.  Peterson, 
20  Wall.  507;  Dasey  v.  Gallagher,  20  Wall.  670;  on 
the  power  of  a  state  to  prescribe  the  conditions  on 
which  foreign  corporations  may  do  business  within  its 
limits,  Paul  v.  Virginia,  8  Wall.  168  ;  on  proceedings 
in  state  courts  against  non-resident  debtors,  Pennoyer 
V.  Neff,  95  U.  S.  714;  on  the  invalidity  of  contracts 
for  the  use  of  influence  with  public  officials,  Oscanyan 
V.  Arms  Co.,  103  U.  S.  261 ;  on  federal  jurisdiction 
over  lands  used  for  public  purposes  of  the  United 


«,  1 


I 


Il>i 


I'    •■;■ 


420 


ADVENT  AND  AGENCY  OF  LAW. 


States  government  within  the  states,  Fort  Leavenworth 
Co.  V.  Lowe,  1 1 4  U.  S.  525 ;  on  the  protection  of  sealed 
matter  in  the  mails,  Ex  parte  Jaclcaon,  96  U.  S.  727 ; 
and  many  others  of  equal  importance. 

On  the  first  day  of  January,  1873,  the  four  codes  of 
the  state  of  California — political,  civil,  penal,  and  civil 
procedure — went  into  operation.  Many  defects  soon 
became  apparent,  and  the  necessity  for  a  revision  by 
competent  hands  was  imperative.  In  choosing  a 
revisory  commission,  the  difiiculty  confronting  the 
governor  was  to  find  jurists  qualified  for  the  position, 
who  would  consent  to  serve.  When  it  was  learned 
that  Judge  Field  would  be  one  of  those  to  undertake 
this  important  work,  general  satisfaction  was  felt  by 
the  profession  and  by  the  public.  With  him  were 
associated  Jackson  Temple  and  John  W.  Dwindle, 
who  entered  upon  the  performance  of  their  duties 
with  promptitude,  and  the  beneficent  results  of  their 
joint  labors  have  been  enjoyed  by  the  people  of  this 
commonwealth  to  the  present  time.  Defects  were 
supplied,  ambiguities  removed,  and  important  changes 
and  additions  recommended,  most  of  which  were 
adopted  by  the  legislature. 

Among  those  taking  a  prominent  part  in  the  settle- 
ment of  the  disputed  presidential  election  of  1876, 
when  the  country  seemed,  for  a  time,  to  be  on  the 
verge  of  revolution.  Judge  Field  holds  an  honorable 
place.  It  will  be  remembered  ^nat  at  that  election 
Tilden  had  received  a  majority  of  about  a  quarter  of 
a  million  of  the  people's  votes,  and  if  to  these  were 
added  the  electoral  votes  of  either  Louisiana,  South 
Carolina,  or  Florida,  in  all  of  which  states  he  had 
received  considerable  majorities,  he  would  have  had 
a  majority  in  the  electoral  college.  To  avoid  this 
result,  the  returning  boards  of  those  states  proceeded 
to  canvass  the  votes,  and  by  rejecting  the  suffrages  of 
entire  communities,  which  had  given  large  majorities 
for  Tilden,  the  will  of  the  people  was  set  aside,  and 
certificates  of  election  given  to  the  Hayes  electors. 


STEPHEN  J.  FIELD. 


417 


Other  certificates  were  ffiven  by  the  proper  officials 
to  the  Tilden  electors.  Votes  were  cast  by  both  sets 
of  electors  and  forwarded  to  Washington.  The  ques- 
tion soon  arose  as  to  which  were  to  be  counted,  and 
who  was  to  decide  between  the  two.  The  senate 
being  republican  and  the  house  of  representctives 
democratic,  the  difference  in  opinion  upon  these  ques- 
tions were  irreconcilable.  Hot-headed  partisans  on 
either  side  were  urging  extreme  measures,  and  bloody 
conflicts  seemed  imminent. 

As  a  means  of  peacefully  and  lawfully  determining 
the  matter,  an  electoral  coromissiea  was  created,  to 
which  was  confided  the  exercise  of  ail  the  powers  of 
both  senate  and  representatives.  The  commission 
was  composed  of  five  senators,  *  ve  represpntatives, 
an<^  five  judges  of  the  supreme  courfc,  among  them 
being  Justice  Field,  and  to  it  was  er? trusted  the  right 
of  determining  which  of  the  two  curididates,  Tilden 
or  Hayes,  was  lawfully  entitled  to  the  electoral  votes 
of  the  states  mentioned,  and  also  of  the  state  of 
Oregon.  Of  the  opinions  delivered  by  the  members 
of  this  commission,  upon  the  questions  considered  by 
it,  none  were  more  learned  in  constitutional  law,  or 
more  judicious  in  tone,  than  that  of  Judge  Field, 
whose  vote  was  cast  with  the  minority. 

And  now  comes  an  episode  in  the  career  of  Judge 
Field,  which,  thou;^h  reflecting  the  utmost  credit  on 
himself,  I  would,  on  account  of  its  painful  character, 
have  fain  expunged  from  the  story  of  his  life.  In 
the  celebrated  case  of  Sharon  vs,  Sharon,  the  plain- 
tifi^,  Sarah  Althea  Hill,  claiming  to  be  defendant's 
wife,  and  suing  for  a  divorce,  with  a  division  of  the 
community  property,  a  decision  in  her  favor  was 
reversed  in  the  supreme  court,  and  the  case  was  after 
ward  dismissed  by  Judg^  McShafter,  in  the  superior 
court.  Meanwhile,  another  suit  was  instituted,  m 
which  William  Sharon,  a  well-known  capitalist  and 
ex-congressman,  apked  for  a  decree  declaring  the  mar- 


i 

I 


m 


!  I 


3  » 


iii* 


ADVENT  AND  AGENCY  OF  LAW. 


riage  contract,  produced  at  the  former  trial  a  forgery, 
and  enjcming  Miss  Hill  from  asserting  any  claims 
thereunder.  After  a  full  hearing  and  consideration 
of  the  case,  David  S.  Terry  acting  as  counsel  for  the 
defendant,  judgment  was  given  for  the  plaintiff. 

But  before  this  decision  was  rendered  Mr  Sharon 
died,  after  conveying  the  bulk  of  his  property  to 
trustees,  and  appointing  his  son,  Frederick  W.  Sharon, 
executor  for  the  remainder  of  his  estate.  A  few 
months  later  Miss  Hill  was  married  to  Mr  Terry,  and 
not  only  reused  to  surrender  the  marriage  contract 
for  cancellation,  as  ordered  by  the  circuit  court,  but 
continued  to  assert  her  claim  under  it  as  before. 
Thereupon  the  executor  and  the  trustees  of  the  estate 
of  Sharon  filed  bills  of  revivor  in  the  circuit  court, 
whereby  they  sought  to  revive  the  suit  in  their 
names,  that  the  decree  already  rendered  them  might 
be  employed  for  the  protection  of  the  estate  of  which 
they  were  custodians.  Resistance  was  made  to  these 
proceedings  b}-^  Terry  and  his  wife,  who  attempted  to 
assail  the  validity  of  the  decree,  on  the  ground  that 
the  circuit  court  had  no  jurisdiction  to  hear  and  deter- 
mine the  original  suit.  Upon  hearing  of  the  bills  of 
revivor  Judge  Field  presided  in  the  circuit  court, 
though  he  had  nothing  to  do  with  any  of  the  pre- 
vious suits  or  proceedings  between  the  parties.  With 
him  sat  judges  Sawyer  and  Sabin.  After  a  patient 
hearing  of  the  case,  Mr  Field  prepared  an  exhaustive 
opinion,  which,  on  the  3d  of  September,  1888,  he 
delivered  in  the  United  States  circuit  court,  in  San 
Francisco. 

The  courtroom  was  crowded,  and  besides  members 
of  the  bench  and  bar  were  many  prominent  citizens 
who  had  come  to  hear  Judge  Field's  opinion  on  a 
subject  which  had  been  so  long  before  the  community. 
Among  the  assemblage  was  the  defendant  and  her 
husband,  who  seated  themselves  near  the  judges,  at 
a  table  on  which  the  former  placed  the  satx;hel  she 
usually   carried.      Judge   Field   began   reading  the 


STEPHEN  J.    FIELD. 


439 


opinion  of  the  court,  and  no  sooner  did  Mrs  Terry 
catch  the  tenor  of  the  decision  than  she  started  to  her 
feet,  her  eyes  flashing  with  indignation. 

"Be  seated,  madam,"  said  the  judge.  "This  court 
has  been  bought  by  Newlands,"  cried  the  woman — 
Newlands  being  Sharon's  son-in-law.  "Judge  Field, 
how  much  did  you  get  ?"  Marshal  Franks  was  there- 
upon directed  to  remove  her  from  the  courtroom, 
but  as  he  stepped  forward  to  execute  his  orders  she 
sprang  at  him,  striking  him  in  the  face  with  both 
hands  and  using  insulting  language.  At  this  juncture 
Terry  interposed,  and  placing  himself  in  front  of  the 
marshal,  exclaimed,  "  No  man  shall  touch  my  wife ; 
get  a  written  order."  When  Franks  attempted  to 
take  her  by  the  arm,  Terry  struck  him  a  violent  blow 
in  the  mouth,  which  broke  one  of  his  teeth.  The 
latter  then  thrust  his  hand  into  his  bosom  for  the 
purpose  of  drawing  a  bowie-knife  which  he  carried  on 
his  person,  but  was  seized  by  several  officers  and 
forced  into  a  chair.  With  the  assistance  of  one  of  his 
deputies,  the  marshal  succeeded  in  removing  Mrs 
Terry  from  the  room,  she  mean  while  resisting,  scratch- 
ing, and  striking  him,  using  violent  language,  denounc- 
ing the  judges,  threatening  Franks,  and  charging  him 
with  having  stolen  the  diamonds  and  bracelets  from 
her  wrists.  She  called  also  for  her  satchel,  which 
had,  in  the  mean  time,  been  taken  possession  of  by 
one  of  her  friends.  This  the  marshal  secured,  after 
placing  the  woman  in  his  office,  and  on  being  opened 
it  was  found  to  contain  a  self-acting  Colt's  revolver, 
with  five  chambers  loaded,  the  sixth  being  empty. 

After  Mrs  Terry  had  been  removed  her  husband 
arose  to  follow  her,  and  as  he  emerged  from  the 
courijroom  again  drew  his  bowie-knife,  and  brand- 
ishing it  above  his  head,  threatened  to  kill  any  one 
who  should  prevent  him  from  rejoining  his  wife. 
He  was  promptly  disarmed,  and  both  were  detained 
in  custody  in  the  marshal's  office.  As  stated  in 
the    affidavit  of  one  of  the  officers  who  had  wit- 


111   Ha 


4ao 


ADVENT  AND  AOENCY  OF  LAW. 


,3i 


'M  ri 


nessed  the  transaction :  "  Terry's  conduct  throughout 
this  affair  was  most  violent.  He  acted  like  a  demon  ; 
and  all  the  time  while  in  the  corridor,  and  before  the 
counter  in  the  marshal's  office,  he  used  loud  and 
violent  language,  which  could  be  plainly  heard  in 
the  courtroom,  and  in  fact  throughout  the  building. 
Mrs  Terry  resisted  with  all  her  power  the  efforts 
of  the  marshal  in  taking  her  from  the  courtroom, 
and  he  was  compelled  to  remove  her  forcibly.  While 
being  removed,  she  screamed  and  shouted  her  abuse 
of  the  judges,  saying  they  had  been  bought,  and  so 
forth,  and  also  abused  Marshal  Franks,  calling  him 
*a  hireling,  paid  to  do  his  dirty  work.' " 

The  scene  over.  Judge  Field  proceeded  calmly 
to  finish  reading  his  opinion.  Orders  were  then 
made  adjudging  Terry  and  his  wife  guilty  of  con- 
tempt of  court,  and  directing  the  former  to  be 
imprisoned  for  six  months  and  the  latter  for  thirty 
days  in  the  Alameda  county  jail.  A  few  days  after- 
ward Terry  filed  a  petition,  asking  for  the  revocation 
of  the  order  committing  him  to  prison,  in  which  he 
stated  that  he  had  done  nothing  to  encourage  his 
wife  in  what  he  termed  "her  acts  of  indiscretion," 
and  that  he  did  not  intend  to  do  or  say  anything 
disrespectful  to  the  court.  On  the  contrary,  he 
claimed  that  he  had  not  drawn  his  knife  for  the  pur- 
pose of  attacking  any  one ;  that  he  had  merely 
attempted  to  defend  himself  and  wife  from  unlawful 
assault,  and  that  the  marshal  had  interfered  with 
him  while  he  "  was  making  an  honest  effort  to  peace- 
ably and  quietl}'  enforce  the  order  of  the  court,  so  as 
to  avoid  a  scandalous  scene." 

In  disposing  of  this  petition,  the  court,  speaking 
through  Judge  Field,  remarked  :  "  The  misbehavior 
of  the  defendant,  David  S.  Terry,  in  the  presence  of 
the  court,  in  the  courtroom,  and  in  the  corridor 
which  was  near  thereto,  and  in  one  of  which  (and  it 
matters  not  which)  he  drew  his  bowie-knife  and 
brandished  it  with  threats  against  the  deputy  of  the 


STEPHEN  J.  FIELD. 


431 


marshal  and  others  aiding  him,  is  sufficient  of  itself 
to  justify  the  punishment  imposed.  But  great  as  the 
offense  was,  the  forcible  resistance  offered  to  the 
marshal  in  his  attempt  to  execute  the  order  of  the 
court,  and  beating  him,  was  a  far  greater  and  more 
serious  affair.  This  resistance  and  beating  of  its 
officer  was  the  highest  possible  indignity  to  the  gov- 
ernment. When  the  flag  of  a  country  is  fired  upon 
and  insulted,  it  is  not  the  injury  to  the  bunting,  the 
linen,  or  silk  on  which  the  stars  and  stripes  are 
stamped,  which  startles  and  arouses  the  country ;  it 
is  the  indignity  and  insult  to  the  emblem  of  the 
nation's  majesty,  which  stirs  every  heart  and  makes 
every  patriot  eager  to  resent  them.  So  the  forcible 
resistance  to  an  officer  of  the  United  States  in  the 
execution  of  the  process,  orders,  and  judgments  of 
their  courts,  is  in  like  manner  an  indignity  and  insult 
to  the  power  and  authority  of  the  government,  which 
can  neither  be  overlooked  or  extenuated.  There  is 
nothing  in  his  petition  which  would  justify  any 
remission  of  the  imprisonment.  The  law  imputes  an 
intent  to  accomplish  the  natural  result  of  one's  acts, 
and  when  those  acts  are  of  a  criminal  nature  it  will 
not  accept,  against  such  implication,  the  denial  of  the 
transgressor.  No  one  would  be  safe  if  a  denial  of  a 
wrongful  or  criminal  intent  would  suffice  to  release 
the  violator  of  law  from  the  punishment  due  to  his 
offenses. 

"  Why  did  the  petitioner  come  into  court  with  a 
deadly  weapon  concealed  on  his  person  ?  He  knew 
that,  as  a  citizen,  he  was  violating  the  law,  which 
forbids  the  carrying  of  concealed  weapons,  and  as  an 
officer  of  the  court — and  all  attorneys  are  such  officers 
— was  committing  an  outrage  upon  professional  pro- 
priety, and  rendering  himself  liable  to  be  disbarred. 

"Therefore,  considering  the  enormity  of  the 
offenses  committed,  and  the  position  the  petitioner 
once  held  in  the  state,  wiiich  aggravates  them  to  a 
degree  not  imputable  to  the  generality  of  offenders. 


11 


^:-^ 

II 

!    ?    > 

:■;   ■! 

(  '•' 

. 

■  '  'if 

'   1 

'  *  . 

\t 

i  :  r. 

,     i  .-I 

;    C  , 

1  i    1 

lU    ■      i 

iiii 

i  1  ■  i  1 

m 


rlif     ■ 


m\ 


r^v- 


^  ? 


h 


'"r 


I 


432 


ADVEKT  AND  AGENCY  OF  LAW. 


the  court,  with  a  proper  regard  to  its  own  dignity, 
the  majesty  of  the  law,  and  the  necessity  of  impress- , 
ing  upon  all  men  that  forcible  resistance  to  the  lawful 
oilers  of  the  courts  of  the  United  States  will  not  go 
unpunished,  however  high  the  offending  parties, 
cannot  grant  the  prayer  of  the  petitioner ;  and  it  is 
accordingly  denied." 

Application  for  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  was  made  by 
Terry  to  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States ; 
but  this  was  also  denied,  upon  the  facts  stated  in  the 
petition.  An  appeal  to  the  same  court  from  the 
decision  in  Sharon  vs.  Terry — which  was  the  occasion 
of  the  proceedings  herein  described — was  also  taken 
by  the  defendants,  and  the  judgment  affirmed,  the 
court  holding  that  the  appeal  was  "  frivolous  and 
unwarranted  by  the  facts  of  the  case." 

After  the  order  was  made  committing  him  for  con- 
tempt, Terry  said  to  Marshal  Franks,  or  in  his 
hearing  :  "  Field  thinks  that  when  I  get  out  he  will 
be  away ;  but  I  will  meet  him  when  he  comes  back 
next  year,  and  it  will  not  be  a  pleasant  meeting  for 
him."  Mrs  Terry  threatened  several  times  that  she 
would  kill  both  Field  and  Sawyer.  These  facts  were 
sworn  to  by  Marshal  Franks,  upon  the  hearing  of 
Terry's  petition  for  a  revocation  of  the  order  com- 
mitting him  to  prison.  Subsequent  and  similar 
threats  were  made  by  Mr  and  Mrs  Terry  against  the 
judges,  and  the  danger  of  a  murderous  attack  being 
made  upon  Judge  Field,  on  his  return  to  California, 
was  the  subject  of  general  public  discussion.  The 
violent  temper  and  reckless  defiance  of  the  law  shown 
by  the  whole  life  of  Terry,  and  the  character  of  his 
wife,  were  well  known.  In  addition  to  this,  Mrs 
Terry  had  assaulted  Judge  Sawyer  some  time  after 
her  release  from  imprisonment,  while  in  a  Los  Angeles 
train,  pulling  his  hair  and  swinging  her  parasol  over 
his  head.  Her  husband  was  in  a  seat  near  by  facing 
the  judge,  witnessing  the  acts  of  his  wife,  and  tacitly 
approving  of  them. 


/■ 


STEPHEN  J.  FIELD. 


433 


Taking  all  these  facts  into  consideration,  many  of 
the  friends  of  Judge  Field  were  anxious  that  he 
should  not  return  to  California  in  1889.  But  he  was 
not  to  be  deterred  from  the  path  of  duty  by  threats 
of  personal  violence.  When  urged  to  arm  himself,  in 
order  to  guard  against  attack,  he  said :  "I  do  not, 
and  will  not,  carry  arms,  because  when  it  is  known 
that  the  judges  of  our  courts  are  compelled  to  carry 
arms  for  defense  against  assault,  in  consequence  of 
their  judicial  action,  it  will  be  time  to  dissolve  the 
courts,  consider  government  a  failure,  and  let  society 
lapse  into  barbarism." 

Although  the  judge  was  thus  resolved  to  confront 
the  danger  of  which  he  had  been  apprised,  and  yet 
to  adopt  no  special  precautions  to  protect  himself, 
measures  were  taken  to  maintain  the  law  and  prevent 
further  attacks  on  the  judiciary.  The  department  of 
justice  at  Washington  had  been  informed  of  the  con- 
dition of  affairs,  and  attorney-general  Miller  had 
instructed  Marshal  Franks  to  detail  an  officer  for  the 
special  service  of  protecting  Judge  Field  while  in 
California.  For  the  performance  of  this  service  the 
marshal  appointed  David  Neagle.  Mr  Crowley,  the 
chief  of  police  in  San  Francisco,  also  detailed  two 
officers  to  guard  the  judge  from  attack  while  holding 
court  in  that  city. 

On  the  afternoon  of  Tuesday,  August  13,  1889, 
Judge  Field  boarded  the  Los  Angeles  train  bound 
for  San  Francisco.  At  Fresno,  an  intermediate  sta- 
tion, about  three  o'clock  on  the  following  morning, 
Terry  and  hid  wife  boarded  the  same  train,  but  occu- 
pied another  car.  Their  presence  was  soon  discovered 
by  officer  Neagle,  then  in  attendance  on  Judge  Field, 
whom  he  notified  of  the  proximity  of  the  Terrys. 

Arriving  at  Lathrop  the  following  morning.  Field, 
with  Neagle,  stepped  from  the  train  to  a  restaurant 
adjoining  the  station  and  ordered  breakfast.  A  few 
minutes  later  Terry  and  his  wife  entered,  but  the 
latter,  catching  sight  of  Judge  Field,  immediately 


C.  B.-I.    28 


111:. 


ADVENT  AND  AOBNOY  OF  LAW. 


r,!s-:i 


I    ,ii 


left  the  room,  her  husband  taking  his  seat  Mean- 
while,  one  of  the  proprietors,  named  Stackpole,  had^ 
been  watching  events,  and  was  evidently  nervous  at 
Mrs  Terry's  absence.  Stepping  to  Terry's  side  he 
asked  him  whether  he  thought  she  would  be  so  indis- 
creet as  to  do  anything  desperate.  "Why  ?"  responded 
Terry,  "who  is  here  ?"  "Judge  Field,"  answered  the 
proprietor.  Terry  looked  intently  at  Judge  Field  for 
a  moment,  and  then  turning  to  Stackpole  said,  "Go 
and  watch  her  I  Qo  and  watch  her  I"  Terry  then 
arose  and  passed  through  the  room  behind  Judge 
Field,  Stackpole  supposing  he  had  gone  to  join  his 
wife.  When  he  reached  the  back  of  Field's  chair,  he 
paused  for  an  instant,  and  then,  without  the  least 
notice,  struck  him  on  both  sides  of  the  face.  Neagle 
sprang  to  his  feet  and  ordered  him  to  stop,  but 
heedless  of  the  command  he  placed  his  hand  in  his 
bosom,  as  if  to  draw  his  knife,  whereupon  Neagle  shot 
him  dead.  Thus  did  the  slayer  of  Broderick  meet 
with  the  fate  which  he  had  himself  intended  for  one 
whose  only  offense  was  that  he  discharged,  without 
fear  or  favor,  the  sacred  duties  of  his  office. 

When  Mrs  Terry  saw  her  husband  lying  prostrate 
on  the  floor,  she  was  seized  with  frenzy.  Stopping 
but  a  moment  to  wail  over  the  dead,  she  strode  forth 
and  passed  up  and  down  the  platform,  appealing  to 
the  crowd  to  avenge  the  death  of  Terry.  In  the 
midst  of  the  confusion,  Field  and  Neagle  quietly 
returned  to  the  train,  and  proceeded  upon  their  jour- 
ney. Neagle,  however,  was  arrested  before  reaching 
San  Francisco,  charged  with  murder,  and  confined  in 
the  jail  at  Stockton.  A  day  or  two  afterward.  Judge 
Field  was  himself  arrested  upon  the  same  charge, 
made  by  Mrs  Terry  before  a  Stockton  justice,  but 
was  released  by  the  United  States  circuit  court  upon 
habeas  corptis,  and  the  prosecution  dismissed  by  the 
district  attorney  of  San  Joaquin  county,  under  the 
direction  of  the  attoi^ney-general  of  the  state.  The 
governor  had  also  "'ddressed  a  letter  to  the  latter 


STEPHEN  J.  FIELD. 


435 


official,  in  which  he  urged  him  to  save  the  state  from 
the  burning  disgrace  of  a  malicious  prosecution  of  a 
United  States  supreme  judge,  upon  the  charges  of 
such  a  woman. 

A  writ  of  habeas  corpus  was  also  sued  out  on  behalf 
of  Neagle,  to  whose  release  a  strenuous  resistance 
was  made.  Elaborate  arguments  were  presented, 
and  after  a  thorough  investigation  of  the  facts,  and  a 
full  consideration  of  the  case,  Sawyer  delivered  an 
opinion  concluding  with  an  order  for  the  discharge  of 
Neagle.  This  decision  caused  considerable  adverse 
comment  on  the  part  of  a  portion  of  the  people  and 
the  press,  who  said  that  Neagle  should  have  been 
tried  and  acquitted  by  a  jury,  as  in  ordinary  cases  of 
homicide  occurring  within  the  state.  An  appeal  was 
therefore  taken  to  the  supreme  court  of  the  United 
States,  where  Sawyer's  judgment  was  approved. 

In  the  opinion  of  that  tribunal,  as  rendered  by  Jus- 
tice Miller,  it  was  stated  that  the  denunciations  of 
Terry  and  his  wife  from  the  time  of  their  imprison- 
ment until  the  death  of  the  formei*,  "were  open,  fre- 
quent, and  of  the  most  vindictive  and  malevolent 
character."  While  being  carried  to  the  jail  at  Alame- 
da, Mrs  Terry  threatened,  a  number  of  times  that  she 
would  kill  both  Judge  Field  and  Judge  Sawyer.  Her 
husband,  who  did  nothing  to  restrain  her,  declared 
that  the  world  was  not  wide  enough  to  keep  him  from 
finding  Judge  Field  and  horsewhipping  him,  and  that 
if  he  resented  it  he  would  kill  him.  In  an  interview 
with  a  newspaper  editor,  Terry  had  said  that  Justice 
Field  had  put  a  lie  on  record  about  him,  and  when 
he  met  him,  if  he  did  not  take  it  back  and  apologize, 
he  would  slap  his  face.  The  impression  made  by  the 
conversation  was  that  he  was  seeking  to  force  a  quar- 
rel upon  him  and  thus  bring  on  a  fight. 

In  concluding.  Judge  Miller  remarked ;  "The  result 
at  which  we  have  arrived  upon  this  examination  is, 
that  in  the  protection  of  the  person  and  the  life  of 
Mr  Justice  Field,  while  in  the  discharge  of  his  official 


ill 


> 


g 


: 


:.  li 


i 


ADVENT  AND  AOKNOY  OF  LAW. 

duties,  Neagle  was  authorized  to  resist  the  attiok  of 
Terry  upon  him;  that  Neagle  was  correct  in  the 
belief  that,  without  prompt  action  on  his  part,  the 
assault  of  Terry  upon  the  judge  would  have  ended 
in  the  death  of  the  latter  ;  that  such  being  his  well- 
founded  belief,  he  was  justified  in  taking  the  life  of 
Terry,  as  the  only  means  of  preventing  the  death  of 
the  man  who  was  intended  to  be  his  victim  ;  that  in 
taking  the  life  of  Terry,  under  the  circumstances,  he 
was  acting  under  the  authority  of  the  law  of  the 
United  States,  and  was  justified  in  so  doing,  and  that 
he  is  not  liable  to  answer  in  the  courts  of  California 
an  account  of  his  part  in  that  transaction." 

In  connection  with  the  narrow  escape  of  Judge 
Field  may  be  mentioned  a  still  narrower  escape, 
which  occurred  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century 
before. 

In  October,  1865,  before  leaving  California  to 
attend  the  approaching  term  of  the  supreme  court, 
Mr  Field  was  requested  by  the  proprietor  of  the 
Rulofson  gallery  to  sit  for  his  photograph.  He  con- 
sented, and  a  large  sized  photograph  was  taken,  which 
Rulofson  desired  to  add  to  his  collection  of  portraits 
of  distinguished  persons.  The  photographer  then 
said  that  he  would  make  some  small  copies  of  the 
picture,  and  send  them  to  Judge  Field  at  Washington. 
On  the  morning  of  the  13th  of  January  following, 
Judge  Delos  Lake,  of  San  Francisco,  called  on  Air 
Field  in  Washington,  and  asked  if  any  letters  had 
been  received  for  him,  as  he  had  directed  his  mail  to 
be  sent  to  his  care.  As  the  messenger  had  not 
brought  the  mail,  when  Field  left  his  apartments  at 
the  hotel  he  requested  Lake  to  accompany  him, 
remarking  that  they  would  probably  find  it.  Accord- 
ingly, they  proceeded  to  his  rooms,  and  there  found 
the  California  mail  lying  on  a  center-table. 

Among  the  letters  and  papers  he  noticed  a  small 
package,  addressed  to  Honorable  Stephen  J.  Field, 


STEPHEN  J.  FIELD. 


417 


Wasnington,  D.  C,  and  with  the  words  '^r  steamer/' 
on  one  side.  The  name  had  been  cut  from  the  CtU- 
i/omia  Reports,  and  the  "Washington,  D.  C."  from 
some  newspaper,  and  the  printed  slips  had  been  fas- 
tened on  the  package  with  mucilage,  while  on  the 
back  was  a  printed  slip,  "From  George  H.  Johnson's 
pioneer  gallery,  645  and  649  Clay  street,  San  Fran- 
cisco." Until  he  observed  this  slip  Mr  Field  sup- 
posed that  the  package  was  from  Kulofson.  His  next 
thought  was  that  it  might  be  a  Christmas  present  for 
his  wife  ;  so  he  decided  to  open  it,  intending,  if  that 
were  the  case,  to  seal  it  up  again  and  remail  it  to  her 
at  New  York,  where  she  was  spending  the  holidays. 
He  accordingly  tore  off  the  cover  and  began  to  raise 
the  lid,  but  very  cautiously.  He  was  struck  with 
the  black  appearance  of  the  inside  and  called  Lake's 
attention  to  it.  Lake  looked  over  his  shoulder  and 
quickly  exclaimed,  "  Don't  open  it,  it's  a  torpedo  I" 

The  package  was  then  taken  to  the  capitol,  and 
shown  to  one  of  the  deputy  clerks  of  the  supreme 
court.  They  dipped  the  package  in  water,  and  left 
it  to  soak  for  some  minutes ;  then  taking  it  to  a  safe 
place,  and  shielding  themselves  behind  one  of  the 
columns  of  the  capitol,  threw  the  package  violently 
against  the  wall.  The  hinge  of  the  lid  was  broken 
and  the  contents  of  the  package  exposed.  It  was 
truly  an  infernal  machine,  the  product  of  a  most 
diabolical  ingenuity.  It  consisted  of  twelve  cart- 
ridges, about  an  inch  in  length,  imbedded  in  a  pc  .te 
covered  with  fulminating  powder,  and  a  connection 
with  a  bunch  of  friction  matches  and  a  slip  of  sand- 
paper was  so  arranged  that  in  opening  the  box  the 
matches  would  be  ignited  and  the  whole  exploded 
There  was  a  newspaper  slip  glued  to  the  inside  of  the 
lid,  containing  the  following  words :  "The  City  of 
San  Francisco  m.  United  States.  Judge  Field  yes- 
terday delivered  the  following  opinion  in  the  above 
case.      Then  followed  several  lines  of  the  opinion. 

It  was  evident  that  it  was  the  work  of  some  one 


i\ 


1<      M     i  ■ 


ADVENT  AND  AOBNOY  OF  LAW. 


whose  interests  had  been  affected  by  the  decision. 
"Every  effort  was  made  by  the  police  of  San  Francisco 
to  detect  the  criminal,  but  without  avail.  The  mys^ 
tery  still  remains  unsolved.  Judge  Field  could  never 
understand  why  he  opened  the  box  with  such  delib- 
eration, since  an  infernal  machine  was  the  very  last 
thing  that  entered  his  thoughts.  Certainly  it  was 
not  through  fear,  for  neither  in  the  aspect  nor  char- 
acter of  the  man  is  such  weakness  indicated. 

The  personal  appearance  of  Judge  Field  is  striking, 
commanding  the  attention  of  the  casual  passer-by,  as 
well  as  of  the  thoughtful  observer.  With  features 
such  as  the  phrenologist  loves  to  study,  he  combines 
the  mien  and  bearing  of  the  ideal  magistrate.  Off 
the  bench,  as  well  as  on  it,  he  is  suave  and  urbane  in 
manner.  His  gestures  are  graceful,  and  his  voice 
lends  additional  charm  to  the  matter  of  his  discourse. 
It  may  readily  be  conceived,  therefore,  that  with  his 
store  of  knowledge,  drawn  from  so  varied  an  experi- 
ence, coupled  with  considerable  power  of  dramatic 
and  humorous  narrative,  he  is  most  charming  in  social 
intercourse,  and  that  his  hosts  of  friends  are  bound 
to  him  with  more  than  bonds  of  steel. 

In  1859  he  was  married,  at  San  Francisco,  to  Miss 
Sue  Swearingen,  and  though  childless  their  wedded 
life  has  been  of  the  happiest.  Mrs  Field  has  accom- 
panied her  husband  upon  his  many  journeys  across 
the  continent,  to  and  from  this  great  empire  of  the 
Pacific,  which  owes  so  much  to  his  civic  virtues  and 
juristic  wisdom.  She  has  also  accompanied  him  on 
his  visits  to  the  old  world,  where  the  name  of  Judge 
Field  has  long  been  associated  with  legal  and  scien- 
tific progress.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  their 
home  is  the  abode  of  hospitality,  culture,  and  refine- 
ment. 

No  better  proof  of  his  official  eminence  and  private 
worth  could  be  given,  than  that  which  was  displayed 
at  the  celebration  of  the  centennial  anniversary  of  the 


STEPHEN  J.  FIELD. 


419 


tupreme  court  in  February  1890.  Respected  most 
by  those  who  know  him  best,  he  was  chosen  by  his 
illuBtrious  associates  to  speak  for  them  on  that  occa- 
sion. That  he  had  earned  this  high  tribute  to  his 
character  and  ability,  was  demonstrated  by  the 
thoughtful  and  eloquent  address  delivered  by  him,  to 
the  delight  of  all.  For  twenty-eight  years  of  the 
century  that  has  passed,  since  the  institution  of  that 
great  tribunal,  Judge  Field  has  served  his  country 
as  a  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States. 
The  law  of  the  land,  in  recognition  of  the  value  of 
such  services,  authorizes  him  to  cease  from  his  labors, 
and  to  draw  the  full  salary  to  which  he  is  now 
entitled,  so  long  as  he  may  live.  But  he  has  declined 
to  avail  himself  of  this  right,  and  still,  with  eye 
undimmed  and  natural  force  unabated,  performs  his 
arduous  duties;  and  it  is  said  by  the  profession  that 
one  of  the  ablest  opinions  ever  rendered  by  him  was 
delivered  in  1891,  in  Ross  v.  Mclntyre,  respecting  the 
jurisdiction  of  consular  tribunals. 

In  looking  back  upon  the  judicial  work  of  Judge 
Field,  it  w  \  be  found  that  one  of  his  strongest 
characteristics  has  been  the  fearlessness  with  which 
he  has  asserted  what  he  believed  to  be  the  law,  no 
matter  how  violent  che  opposition  he  encountered, 
extending  as  this  sometimes  did  to  harsh  personal 
attacks.  For  this  courage,  both  physical  and  moral, 
was  demanded.  The  former  is  not  uncommon ;  the 
latter  is  the  greater  and  rarer  virtue.  That  Judge 
Field  possesses  his  full  share  of  physical  courage  has 
been  demonstrated  by  the  incidents  of  his  early 
career  in  California  as  already  related,  and  by  many 
others  that  might  be  related.  Like  a  certain  English 
judge,  if  he  had  desired  popularity,  it  has  been  that 
popularity  which  follows,  not  that  which  is  run  after. 
His  own  self-respect  has  always  been  dearer  to  him 
than  popular  favor  gained  by  unworthy  device,  or 
cowardly  subservience  to  local  passion  and  sectional 
prejudice. 


» 


^^ 


!.*.•■  ' 

f 

"i 

zr 

■    •.-7' 

.■:, 

~i  1 

-?: 

6  .;.  j 

1 

1  ;■  i 
'■■  i 

1 

!;•)!<■ 

'H 


fi 


CHAPTER  VII. 

AGENCY  OF  INDUSTRY. 

Lm  Of  iBTnro  Mubbat  Soott— Hn  AiriAitANOB  in  Sak  Fbavoimio  ih 
1860— Anoistrt  akd  Eduoatioh — At  thb  Dohahvi  Focbdbt— Iii< 
▼BMTioNfl  AND  iMmovKmNTs— Thb  CounocK  LoDB— Trb  Ubiom 
Iron-works— Ship-buildino— Immigration— Thi  Moua.ukim*  Umob — 
Opinions  and  Tastxs— Wine  and  Family — Summary  op  Cabbbb.' 

Toward  the  close  of  the  year  1860,  at  almost  any 
hour  during  the  day,  there  might  be  seen  at  the 
Union  Iron- works,  on  First  and  Mission  streets,  in 
the  city  of  San  Francisco,  a  young  man  bending  over 
a  draughtsman's  table  in  the  office,  or  with  rapid 
stride  passing  hither  and  thither  about  the  yards,  the 
body  inclining  forward  and  the  eye  fixed  on  the  ob- 
ject sought,  as  if  time  and  purpose  were  both  of  some 
consideration.  Though  neither  of  commanding  stat- 
ure nor  of  imposing  frame,  his  twenty-third  birthday 
being  yet  before  him,  there  is  something  striking 
about  the  figure,  which  holds  the  interest  of  the  ob- 
server on  nearer  inspection.  Not  so  much  grace  as 
strength,  we  should  say,  though  the  youth  is  comely 
and  well  proportioned ;  but  if  indications  fail  not,  there 
is  material  here  for  something  more  than  the  ordinaiy 
man. 

A  large  and  well-shap.  ^  head,  with  arched  and 
expansive  brow,  set  on  l  >ad  shoulders;  features 
pleasing,  animated,  earnest,  i  <d  lighted  with  intelli- 

fence  and  good-will — not  ye     overspread  with  the 
urden  of  care  which  comes    iter  in  life;  forehead 

(440) 


s    ,    . 


-  !, 


"•</,••  '7,tiS'!jt/'.'  ;?n^lf£ 


i  I 


j3rv?K^  l^^fyf^e^^ 


IRVING   M.  SCOTT. 


441 


f- 


^ 


massive  antl  well  dovelopetl,  projecting  over  the  clear- 
est of  blue-gray  eyes;  brown  hair,  whieVi  time  will 
presently  thin  jw  front:  fa«  c  <^'lean-shave?i,  b'lt  pres- 
ently to  be  adorned  vvith  a  iuxarious  growth  U'>t)n  tb^ 
upper  lip ;  chin  nm-sRiive ;  couiiplexiv)*}  ruddy,  h'.t  fair, 
temperament  nervous-sanguine — th*5  ^>wf  ensem-hk  dts- 
noting,  in  a  word,  physical  activity  with  cuMurt, 
refinement,  and  intellectual  power  i  i:  is  not  a  fiuu; 
which  as  yet  bears  evidence  of  ninf.y  trouble^  or 
even  of  much  hard  labor,  nor  one  which  seoins*  to 
anticipate  the  coming  of  sorrows,  or  when  they  come 
to  permit  a  too  deep  plougliing  of  furrows;  therein  a 
juiet  stoicism,  great  unconscious  and  some  conscious 
pride,  as  Carlyie  says  of  Frederick  the  (ireat;  and  a 
voice  clear  and  melodious,  which  one  hearing  for  the 
first  time  does  not  readily  forget.  I  miu'ht  spe^ik  of 
<lres8,  and  possibly  gain  some  further  insit'ht  into  his 
idiosyncrasies ;  but  clothes  did  nui  makt:  the  man  at 
this  time  in  California. 

In  upon  this  point  of  time  and  place  ehanoed  the 
young  man,  and  if  with  him  there  liad  'i^<en  fifty  oth- 
era  like  him,  the  history  of  this  ivestorsi  coa.st  would 
read  somewhat  dilierently  to-day,  an  1  will  presently 
ex  I  lain.  It  was  a  pivotal  year,  tJiis  of  IH60,  many 
destinies  turning  upon  it.  lancoin  was  ( leeted,  and 
the  train  laid  to  set  the  land  ablaze,  the  structures 
to  be  reared  upon  the  allies  nevermore  to  be  the 
same.  A  railway  must  be  laid  across  the  continent, 
and  a  mouutuiu  of  silver  brt  ight  from  Nevvda 
Never  ha<l  thcTO  been  a  tin\e  ii  this  country  %-b.:fi 
nictah"  and  mechanisms  v/ere  d(  <tined  to  jUu  ^  uii- 
portant  a  part  in  the  annals  of  niunkiiui. 

In  tlio  days  of  Charles  V.  men  woutjk*,  siftcjr  th*'* 
magnificent,  and  so  lar  m  fvotnp  and  t'^.tv.trd  shov* 
were  concerned,  they  a«'<'»inphshed  tj(iii*eh,  even  t<^  ti^e 
i'neompassing  of  the  cfiilh  with  tii'nr  »^i*uitieH  ami  -i-u- 
perticial  rule.  Thost^  vh<i  iiow  W4  file  way  m  ^-^fp-Mr 
soeve;  makes  lif(>  iioile,  labor  v -th  other  t'».fjx»(ie, 
letting  their  works  npoak    for    'Ueua.     Thtj     trdiiUkI 


p 

■11 

1 

'    1 

: 

ii 

Ml 

,'i 

f  1 

I  1 

f 

D 

i/ 

iW   ' 

^  ^ 

's-1 1 

^ 

sIb9|^ 

< 

^  f 

Pi'> 

f 

I  f ' 

ii 

V  'x 

'31 

1; 

i 

KM 

)^' 


;r:i^ 


1(1  -i 


iii 


/■ 


IRVnNO  M.  SCOTT. 


441 


maiBsive  and  well  developed,  projecting  over  the  clear- 
est of  blue-gray  eyes;  brown  hair,  which  time  will 
presently  thin  in  front;  face  clean-shaven,  but  pres- 
ently to  be  adorned  with  a  luxurious  growth  upon  the 
upper  lip;  chin  massive;  complexion  ruddy,  but  fair; 
temperament  nervous-sanguine — the  tovi  ensemble  de- 
noting, in  a  word,  physical  activity,  with  culture, 
refinement,  and  intellectual  power.  It  is  not  a  face 
which  as  yet  bears  evidence  of  many  troubles,  or 
even  of  much  hard  labor,  nor  one  which  seems  to 
anticipate  the  coming  of  sorrows,  or  when  they  come 
to  permit  a  too  deep  ploughing  of  furrows :  there  is  a 
quiet  stoicism,  great  unconscious  and  some  conscious 
pride,  as  Carlyle  says  of  Frederick  the  Great ;  and  a 
voice  clear  and  melodious,  which  one  hearing  for  the 
first  time  does  not  readily  foi^et.  I  might  speak  of 
dress,  and  possibly  gain  some  further  insight  into  his 
idiosyncrasies ;  but  clothes  did  not  make  the  man  at 
this  time  in  California. 

In  upon  this  point  of  time  and  place  chanced  the 
young  man,  and  if  with  him  there  had  been  fifty  oth- 
ers like  him,  the  history  of  this  western  coast  \vould 
read  somewhat  differently  to-day,  as  I  will  presently 
explain.  It  was  a  pivotal  year,  this  of  1860,  many 
destinies  turning  upon  it.  Lincoln  was  elected,  and 
the  train  laid  to  set  the  land  ablaze,  the  structures 
to  be  reared  upon  the  ashes  nevermore  to  be  the 
same.  A  railway  must  be  laid  across  the  continent, 
and  a  mountain  of  silver  brought  from  Nevada. 
Never  had  there  been  a  time  in  this  country  when 
metals  and  mechanisms  were  destined  to  play  so  im- 
portant a  part  in  the  annals  of  mankind. 

In  the  days  of  Charles  V.  men  sought  after  the 
magnificent,  and  so  far  as  pomp  and  outward  show 
were  concerned,  they  accomplished  much,  even  to  the 
encompassing  of  the  earth  with  their  vanities  and  su- 
perficial rule.  Those  who  now  lead  the  way  in  what- 
soever makes  life  noble,  labor  with  other  purpose, 
letting  their  works  speak   for  them.     The   cardinal 


u 


1 1 


J  ■ 

j! 


i    I  'I  :  . 
I  -IF  ;! 


I| 


,1 


"FTI 


m 


442 


AGENCY  OF  INDUSTRY 


.;■  ! 


Ili'S. 


I'  I 


virtues  of  to-day  are  not  cloistered  in  creeds,  but  ap- 
pear in  practical  uses.  Good  performance  is  better 
than  a  promised  kingdom  of  heaven.  The  divinity 
which  shapes  our  ends  disdains  not  to  handle  the 
hammer  and  the  saw. 

To  the  man  who  discovered  the  process  of  making 
bricks  or  of  smelting  iron  the  world  is  more  indebted 
than  to  the  greatest  of  philosophers ;  for  with  bricks 
and  iron  we  can  build  houses,  railroads,  ships ;  but 
philosophy  will  not  bridge  an  ocean,  or  span  a  conti- 
nent, or  even  keep  out  the  cold.  And  so  it  is  with 
other  branches  of  manufacture  which  add  to  the  com- 
fort and  well-being  of  mankind.  Manufactures,  it  has 
been  well  remarked,  are  the  very  backbone  of  a  nation, 
and  without  them,  at  least  in  modern  times,  no  nation 
ever  became  really  great.  And  as  with  nations,  so 
with  cities  and  communities.  Though  as  yet  almost 
in  their  infancy,  it  is  largely  due  to  her  manufactures, 
employing  directly  many  thousands  of  workmen,  and 
indirectly  many  additional  thousands,  that  California 
owes  her  present  position  among  the  sisterhood  of 
states,  that  her  metropolis  ranks  already  among  the 
great  centres  o**  wealth  and  population ;  for  in  San 
Francisco  is  concentrated  almost  as  large  a  proportion 
of  the  manufactures  as  of  the  commerce  of  the  Pacific 
coast.  Of  the  golden  state  it  has  been  more  than 
once  predicted,  and  that  by  some  of  the  foremost  of 
political  economists,  that  her  manufacturing  interests 
will  eventually  exceed  both  mining  and  agriculture 
in  value  of  production.  Although  to  many  the  ful- 
filment of  this  prophecy  may  appear  somewhat  re- 
mote, nevertheless,  with  our  special  facilities  and 
abundance  of  raw  material,  an  increase  of  population, 
with  cheaper  labor  and  capital,  alone  are  wanted  to 
bring  it  to  pass. 

First  among  the  manufactures  of  San  Francisco,  or 
among  the  first,  was  that  of  iron,  and  first  among 
iron  foundries  was  that  of  the  brothers  Donahue, 
now   known   as   the    Union    Iron-works,    so    named 


IRVING  M.  SCOTT. 


448 


after  those  at  Paterson,  New  Jersey,  where  Peter 
Donahue,  the  founder  of  the  enterprise,  learned  his 
trade  as  machinist.  The  history  of  the  now  world- 
famous  Union  Iron-works  is  related  elsewhere. 
Suffice  it  here  to  say,  that  the  establishment  which 
produced  in  the  Cfiarleston  and  San  Francisco  two  of 
the  finest  and  most  powerful  cruisers  in  the  American 
navy,  that  is  now  building  the  coast-defence  vessel 
Monterey,  the  swift  cruiser  No.  6,  and  a  line-of-battle 
ship — the  Oregon — of  10,500  tons  displacement,  of  the 
highest  type,  of  a  pattern  ever  before  attempted, 
and  with  the  most  powerful  armament  ever  placed 
on  a  man-of-war,  was  originally  contained  in  a  tent, 
which  at  the  close  of  1849  did  duty  for  blacksmith 
and  machine  shop  on  Montgomery  street.  Thence, 
in  the  spring  of  1850,  the  Donahue  brothers,  Peter 
and  James,  removed  to  the  site  where  now  stands  the 
Union  foundry  block,  on  Mission,  First,  and  Fremont 
streets,  in  what  was  then  known  as  Happy  valley. 
The  smoke-stack  of  a  dismantled  steamer  served  them 
for  furnace,  and  for  blasting  purposes  a  pair  of  old- 
fashioned  blacksmith  bellows.  With  these  rude  ap- 
pliances were  manufactured  two  pillow-blocks  for  the 
shaft  of  the  ocean  propeller  McKim,  each  of  them 
weighing  200  pounds,  and  the  cost  one  dollar  a 
pound.  Even  at  that  rate  there  was  but  a  slender 
margin  of  profit ;  for  they  were  the  first  castings  made 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  at  a  time  when  labor  and 
material  commanded  fabulous  prices. 

But  soon  material  became  cheap  and  plentiful 
enough,  for  after  the  conflagrations  which  laid  waste 
the  business  portion  of  the  metropolis,  old  iron  could 
be  had  for  the  asking,  or  at  most  for  $20  a  ton.  This 
the  Donahues  moulded  into  forms  which  brought  them 
from  $200  to  $400  a  ton,  and  then  they  began  to  make 
money.      Presently  their  roofless  wooden   structure 

gave  place  to  a  more  pretentious  building.     To  other 
ranches  of  their  business  they  added  the  repairing 
of  engines,  the  construction  of  quartz-mills,  of  rain- 


u 


I. 


ii 


t 


fi 


i 


'! 


n 


It 


ill 


"*■: 


!f|Jll 


M 


;  1 


444 


AGENCY  OF  INDUSTRY. 


ing  machinery  and  mining  pumps,  and  the  erection  of 
|fas-works.  Here  we  have  the  inception  of  the  iron 
industries  of  the  Pacific  coast,  which  in  1860  included 
in  San  Francisco  alon'^  fourteen  foundries  and  ma- 
chine-shops, with  manufactures  valued  at  $1,200,000, 
increasing  within  the  next  decade  to  about  $5,000,- 
000,  in  1870  to  at  least  $15,000,000,  in  1880  to  |20,- 
000,000,  and  in  1890  to  $25,000,000. 

It  was  in  1860,  as  we  have  seen,  that  the  youth  of 
whom  I  have  spoken  arrived  in  San  Francisco,  and 
how  much  of  this  development  in  our  iron  industries 
is  due  to  his  agency,  to  his  ability  and  application, 
and  to  the  lessons  which  he  has  never  been  slow  to 
gather  from  experience,  the  sequel  will  presently  ex- 
plain. But  before  proceeding  further,  let  us  first 
hear  the  story  of  his  nativity,  his  boyhood,  and  his 
earlier  career. 

On  the  father's  side,  the  ancestors  of  I.  <ring  Murray 
Scott — for  such  was  his  name — belonged  to  the  soci- 
ety of  friends,  and  on  the  mother's  were  metho- 
dists,  all  of  them  men  and  women  noted  for  their 
industry  and  frugality,  their  physical  and  intellectual 
powers,  and  their  moral  worth.  Among  their  gifts 
was  the  gift  of  longevity,  Thomas  Scott,  the  grand- 
father of  Irving,  surviving  the  fourscore  years  which 
the  psalmist  allots  as  the  span  of  human  life.  He 
was  a  man  of  strong  and  decided  character ;  and  in  a 
large  section  of  his  nativ  3  state  of  Maryland,  lying 
north  of  Hebron  mills,  in  Baltimore  county,  was  the 
legal  adviser  and  monitor  of  the  entire  community, 
settling  their  differences  by  arbitration,  and  when  the 
occasion  required  it,  consulting  some  trusted  practi- 
tioner, usually  one  Samuel  Target  by  name.  But 
whatever  his  decision,  the  parties  at  issue  were  al- 
ways satisfied,  no  matter  how  rancorous  their  dis- 
putes. Among  his  other  branches  of  business  was 
the  purchase  of  cattle  from  his  neighbors,  which  he 
disposed  of  in  Baltimore,  a  few  leagues  distant  from 
his  home.     To   the    Hebron  mills  also   the  farmers 


mVINO  M.  SCOTT. 


445 


brought  their  grain  for  sale,  passing  by  other  mills 
that  were  nearer  to  them ;  for  at  the  former  they  were 
sure  of  a  fair  equivalent,  and  that  in  good  gold  coin. 

Irving's  father,  the  reverend  John  Scott,  was  a 
minister  according  to  the  forms  of  the  quaker  church, 
preaching  the  gospel  as  interpreted  in  the  teachings 
of  George  Fox,  one  of  the  greatest  of  its  apostles,  and 
for  that  purpose  travelling  extensively  over  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  He  was  a  man  of  medium  stat- 
ure and  compact  and  sturdy  frame,  one  ready  of  re- 
source, cheerful,  hopeful,  and  always  with  a  kindly 
and  encouraging  word  for  his  neighbors,  especially 
when  overtaken  with  adversity;  one  who,  however 
dark  the  prospect,  could  point  to  some  ray  of  light, 
some  means  of  escape  from  the  difficulty.  In  the  all- 
seeing  and  all-embracing  care  of  a  heavenly  father  he 
had  an  abiding  faith,  the  simple,  unquestioning  faith 
of  a  child,  and  yet  with  a  force  of  conviction  that 
throughout  the  long  years  of  a  noble  and  beneficent 
career  remained  unshaken  as  the  eternal  hills. 

While  a  minister  by  profession,  he  did  not  depend 
on  that  profession  for  a  livelihood.  He  was  the 
owner  of  a  goodly  farm,  and  of  the  Hebron  mills,  add- 
ing to  his  other  occupations  the  management  of  a 
carding  factory  in  connection  with  the  mills,  until  the 
former  was  carried  away  by  one  of  the  freshets  which 
sweep  at  times  through  the  peaceful  vales  of  Mary- 
land. Though  in  all  that  state  there  was  no  more 
sincere  and  earnest  Christian,  there  was  nothing  about 
him  of  the  gloom  and  melancholy  which  some  mistake 
for  a  special  token  of  grace.  Often  might  he  be  seen 
joining  in  the  pastimes  of  his  children,  romping  with 
them,  and  even  going  down  "on  all  fours"  with  them; 
but  once  they  were  told  "  that  is  enough,"  then  in  an 
instant  their  gambols  ceased,  not  out  of  fear,  but  from 
love,  because  it  was  their  father's  wish.  Every  need 
and  desire  of  those  children  was  either  anticipated  or 
discussed ;  was  granted  if  possible  and  reasonable,  if 
otherwise,  was  gently  but  firmly  denied.     Length  of 


i 


;! 


'A 


I 


if 


f    f  ! 


I 
i 


m 

li'-j  ' 


, 

"Ik 

1 

•^■i' 

'    ■ 

t\ 

•r 

, 

•J 

>      » 

/ 

-1 

t      i 

ill 

y^ 

i"  ■ 


,1 

/ 


446 


AGENCY  OF  INDUSTRY. 


days,  amon^  other  blessings,  was  added  to  the  lot  of 
this  well-beloved  pastor,  father,  citizen,  and  friend,  and 
on  the  9th  of  June,  1887,  after  surviving  the  eighty- 
ninth  anniversary  of  his  birth,  his  remains  were  laid 
at  rest. 

The  mother  of  Irving  M.  Scott  was  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  George  Littig,  collector  of  customs  at 
Baltimore  during  the  Adams  administration.  She 
was  a  woman  of  most  estimable  character,  and  with  a 
deep  religious  element  in  her  nature,  of  the  methodist 
persuasion,  but  in  thorough  sympathy  with  her  hus- 
band's labors,  and  for  well-nigh  ohree  score  of  years 
taking  on  herself  a  full  share  of  his  burdens.  If  she 
was  ambitious,  it  was  with  a  worthy  ambition,  a  pride 
that  was  limited  to  the  affairs  of  her  household,  to 
see  that  her  table  was  of  the  best,  her  food  the  best 
cooked,  her  children  the  best  attired,  her  flower-beds 
of  tulips,  dahlias,  and  chrysanthemums  in  the  trim- 
mest order,  and  her  carriage  the  neatest  and  best 
equipped  in  all  the  country  round.  In  her  pantry 
would  be  found  the  choicest  of  meats,  the  freshest  of 
butter  and  eggs,  and  the  largest  and  best  assortment 
of  preserves,  tha  fruits  that  made  the  last  being  ex- 
changed among  the  neighbors,  so  that  in  every  well- 
ordered  household  would  be  found  some  of  every 
description.  Among  all  the  matrons  of  Marjdand 
there  were  none  more  widely  respected,  none  more 
deeply  regretted,  when,  some  two  years  before  her 
husband's  decease,  she  passed  away,  at  the  age  of  four- 
score and  five. 

Of  the  eleven  children  born  of  this  union,  six  have 
survived,  one  of  the  daughters,  now  Mrs  Edwin 
Scott,  and  two  of  the  sons,  George  L.  and  Harrison, 
all  of  them  residents  of  Maryland,  and  Mrs  Mary 
Francis  Orrick,  Irving  M.,  and  Henry  T.  Scott, 
whose  home  is  in  California. 

At  the  Hebron  mills  was  the  birthplace  of  Irving, 
and  the  date,  Christmas  day  of  1837.  His  boyhood 
was   passed  on   the   farm ;   and  with  such    a  home 


IRVING  M.  SCOTT. 


4m 


'fd' 


and  such  environment  it  could  not  fail  to  be  a  happy 
one.      Indeed,  in   the  fame    and  fortune   which    he 
has  since  acquired,  as  one  of  the  foremost  of  modern 
engineers,  have  brought  not  with  them  the  deep  con- 
tent that  marked   his  childhood's  days.     One  thing 
only  troubled  him,  and  that  was  a  somewhat  weakly 
constitution,  caused  in  part  by  an  attack  of  scarlet 
fever  in  malignant  form,  which  brought  on  a  partial 
deafness  that  has  never  since  been  overcome.     He 
was  also  subject  to  occasional  fainting-spells,  and  the 
tracheal  affection  then  known  as  the  hives,  or  as  it  is 
now  termed,  the  croup.     Especially  was  he  liable  to 
these   ailments    during    the  summer    heat,   and   at 
times  they  were  accompanied  with  fever,  causing  his 
head  to  swell  and  his  eyes  to  close,  though  without 
any  dangerous  symptoms.     Among  the  stories  told 
of  his  childhood,  it  is  said  that  he  once  declared  to 
his  father,  "  the  sun  or  himself  must  seek  the  shade." 
Thus  at  this  season  of  year   he  could  not   endure 
continuous  out-door  work,  nor  was  it  expected  of  him. 
His  favorite  occupation,  or  rather  his  favorite  pastime, 
was  tending  the  cattle  and  sheep,  protecting  thei 
young,  and  studying  their  habits,  feeding  them,  and 
looking  to  the  condition  of  their  stalls,  with  matters 
pertaining  to  cleanliness,  drainage,  and  ventilation. 
Among  all  the  adjacent  farms  there  were  none  where 
the  stock  was  better  cared  for,  or  where  the  loss  in 
lambing-time  was  smaller  in  proportion.     With  Irving 
it  was  a  constant  study  how  to  produce  the  best  re- 
sults, how  to  make  improvements  that  should  outdo 
his  neighbors;  and  with   this  view,  as   he   says,  he 
made  himself  acquainted  with  the  history  and  pedigree 
of  every  animal  on  the  place. 

The  trade  of  a  miller  he  also  studied,  and  in  this 
he  became  so  proficient  that  he  was  often  left  in  charge 
of  the  mills,  for  the  miller  himself,  one  Nicholas  Mer- 
ryman  by  name,  or  "Old  Nick,"  as  he  was  more 
familiarly  termed,  could  not  produce  better  flour,  or 
corn,  or  oaten  meal.     From  that  foreman,  somewhat 


ii: 


(    n 


'  j>n 


:;i; 


k 


If 'i 


'i 


AGENCY  QF  INDUSTRY. 


of  a  genius  in  his  way,  he  gained  his  first  practical 
knowledge  of  mechanics,  learned  how  to  make  cogs 
and  spokes  and  felloes,  and  to  fit  them  to  wheels, 
how  to  make  bolsters  for  wagons,  how  to  turn  wood, 
and  in  a  word,  to  do  any  description  of  work  that 
required  mechanical  skill  and  the  handling  of  tools. 
Posts  and  rails  he  could  also  fashion,  and  as  a  gar- 
dener his  services  were  in  request.  He  could 
plant,  prune,  and  graft  fruit  trees,  could  plant  and 
prepare  the  ground  for  vegetables ;  he  knew  how  to 
make  cider,  how  to  smoke  bacon,  how  to  kill  and  dress 
a  steer,  a  sheep,  or  a  hog.  Indeed,  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  mention  anything  connected  with  the  opera- 
tions of  a  farm  with  which  he  was  not  acquainted. 

Irving  received  his  education  first  at  the  public 
schools  of  Baltimore  county,  and  afterward  at  the  Mil- 
ton academy,  of  which  Emerson  Lamb  was  principal, 
and  where,  after  a  three  years*  course,  he  graduated. 
At  both  he  was  known  as  an  apt  and  diligent  pupil ; 
but  it  was  rather  through  his  ability  than  through  any 
special  application  that  he  was  always  founu  near  the 
head  of  his  class,  for  his  tasks  were  easily  mastered, 
and  problems  over  which  his  fellow-students  would 
pore  for  hours  he  solved  almost  by  intuition.  Except 
for  what  his  teacher  was  pleased  to  term  stubborn- 
ness, but  what  was  really  the  strength  of  purpose 
which  marks  all  leaders  of  men,  he  was  never  cor- 
rected, or  if  so,  it  was  at  the  hands  of  some  school- 
mate much  older  and  stronger  than  himself  He  was 
a  hot-tempered  youth;  was  always  ready  to  fight  on 
the  smallest  provocation,  and  if  at  times  he  was 
worsted,  before  his  school  days  were  ended  he  could 
at  least  divide  the  honors  with  any  to  whom  he  threw 
down  the  gauntlet.  If  it  lay  within  his  power,  he 
would  never  allow  any  one  to  outstrip  him,  whether  it 
was  in  running,  jumping,  lifting,  climbing,  or  spelling, 
but  least  of  all  in  fighting.  His  play  hours  were 
passed  in  gathering  information,  for  the  most  part  in 
the  fields  and  woods,  though  from  boyhood  he  was  a 


m 


IRVING   M.  SCOTT. 

oonstant  reader.  He  loved  to  study  the  growth  of 
plants  and  the  places  Tvhere  they  grew,  the  places 
where  birds  and  squirrels  nested,  the  water-ways,  the 
hills  and  rocks,  with  their  formations  and  all  their 
peculiarities.  He  knew  the  haunts  and  habits,  the 
feeding-tiraes  and  feeding-places  of  fish,  and  would  al- 
ways bring  home  a  larger  basket  than  any  other  lad  in 
the  neighborhood.  While  by  no  means  averse  to  soci- 
ety, he  could  live  without  it,  and  preferred  to  all  other 
the  company  of  men,  never  making  a  boyish  friendship, 
or  indeed  the  friendship  of  a  girl,  though  for  the  lat- 
ter defect  he  afterward  made  amends. 

While  yet  a  student  at  the  academy,  his  father 
offered  him  his  choice  of  a  profession,  promising  to 
furnish  the  necessary  nieans.  At  first  he  inclined  to 
a  medical  career ;  but  his  final  decision  was  to  become 
a  machinist,  and  with  that  view  his  course  of  study 
was  altered,  Latin  and  Greek  giving  place  to  a  course 
of  higher  mathematics,  with  history,  geography,  and 
subjects  of  a  practical  nature.  When  seventeen  years 
of  age  he  entered  the  Baltimore  factory  of  Obed 
Hussey,  by  whom  was  invented  the  first  successful 
reaping-machine,  and  here  he  soon  became  an  expert 
in  all  the  branches  of  wood  and  iron  work  that  per- 
tained to  the  establishment.  Then,  through  the 
recommendation  of  his  employer,  he  received  an  ap- 
pointment in  the  iron-works  of  Murray  &  Hazlehurst, 
on  Federal  hill,  in  the  same  city.  After  becoming  a 
proficient  draughtsman,  he  was  promoted  from  the 
machinery  department  and  placed  in  charge  of  the 
construction  of  stationary  and  fire  engines,  whereby  a 
wider  field  was  opened  for  the  exercise  of  his  mechani- 
cal ingenuity,  and  one  which  he  did  not  fail  to  improve. 

It  was  a  wholesome  discipline  that  the  young  man 
experienced  in  these  early  days,  now  having  passed 
his  twentieth  year  and  thrown  entirely  on  his  own 
resources.  Reared  under  the  most  favorable  con- 
ditions, with  the  best  of  parents  and  teachers,  among 
one  of  the  most  thrifty  and  industrious,  the  most  up- 

C.  B.— I.    29 


-;   I 


: 


} 


V 


I  f    ,  i 


\v 


i )   ■ '- 


Kh 


ill-: 


!i ; 


i  f  * 


■■!| 


4M 


AUKNCV  OF   INDUSTRY. 


' 

i 

}  - 

1 

right  and  God-fearing  of  all  the  simple  farming  com- 
munities of  Maryland,  it  would  be  strange  indeed  if 
he  did  not  profit  by  such  example.  But  greater  than 
all  this  discipline,  than  all  this  example,  was  the  dis- 
cipline wliieh  he  gave  to  himself.  Seven  o'clock  each 
morning  found  him  at  work,  and  at  work  he  remained 
until  six  at  night,  walking  to  and  from  his  home  and 
the  shop,  the  latter  in  a  distant  suburb  of  the  city.  In 
the  winter  months,  three  evenings  each  week  were 
passed  at  the  Mechanics'  institute,  in  learning  the  art 
of  mechanical  drawing.  A  fourth  was  devoted  to  the 
study  of  German,  and  a  fifth  to  popular  lectures,  at 
which  were  heard  some  of  the  foremost  men  of  the 
day,  such  men  as  Thomas  Starr  King,  as  Doctors  Bel- 
lows and  Bethune,  as  Mortimer  Thompson,  and  E.  H. 
Reece.  Saturday  night  was  spent  in  writing  up  such 
information  as  he  had  gathered  during  the  week,  pres- 
ently to  be  used  in  a  debating  society  whose  meetings 
were  held  in  the  basement  of  a  church.  His  sabbath 
evenings  were  invariably  passed  at  the  home  of  his 
uncle,  whose  kindly  attention  and  excellent  advice  had, 
as  he  admits,  a  decided  influence  on  his  future  life. 
Here  also  he  had  access  to  a  well-selected  library,  the 
value  of  which  he  thoroughly  appreciated.  Rarely 
would  he  afford  himself  the  time  or  money  to  attend  a 
place  of  amusement,  and  then  only  to  hear  one  of 
Shakespere's  plays,  for  which  to  this  day  he  has  never 
lost  his  taste,  seldom  missing  a  good  Shakesperian 
actor,  or  a  lecturer  who  has  anything  to  say  that  is 
worth  the  hearing. 

For  some  two  years  Mr  Scott  remained  at  the 
works  of  Murray  &  Hazlchrrst,  until  in  1851),  through 
the  failure  of  the  firm,  its  effects  were  disposed  of  at 
sheriff's  sale.  Among  those  present  at  that  sale  was 
Peter  Donahue,  who  purchased  a  steam  fire-engine, 
designed  in  part  by  Irving,  and  built  under  his  super- 
intendence. Being  asked  what  use  he  intended  to 
make  of  it,  Mr  Donahue  replied  that  he  would  ship 
it  to  California,  and  in  response  to  a  further  inquiry 


IRVINQ  M.  yccaT. 


451 


the 


from  the  young  machinist  whether  he  had  any  one  to 
take  charge  of  it,  asked  him  what  he  could  do.  For 
answer  he  was  referred  to  one  of  his  former  employers, 
who  stated  that  whatever  Mr  Scott  professed  or 
promised  to  do,  that  he  would  surely  accomplish. 
Thereupon  he  was  at  once  engaged  us  a  draughts- 
man for  the  Union  Iron-works  in  San  Francisco,  and 
on  the  return  of  Mr  Donahue  from  a  European  trip, 
followed  him  to  California,  meanwhile  taking  charge 
of  his  business  in  New  York  city. 

Thus  it  was  that,  toward  the  close  of  1860,  we  find 
Mr  Scott  en  route  for  our  Pacific  coast  metropolis, 
by  way  of  the  Isthmus,  whence  he  took  passage  on 
the  Golden  Age,  commanded  by  Commodore  Watkins. 
There  was  nothing  remarkable  about  his  voyage,  ex- 
cept that  he  was  remarkably  sea-sick,  suffering  from 
this   distressing   malady  from   Sandy  Hook   to  the 
Golden   Gate,  and   as  a   consequence,   with    weight 
reduced  to  something  less  than  ninety  pounds.     His 
first  impressions  of  the  city  were  to  him  a  novel  and 
by   no   means   pleasing   experience.     Gambling   was 
openly  practised,  such  gambling  as  he  had  never  wit- 
nessed, and  in  more  orderly  communities  was  forbid- 
den by  law.     Everything  was  rough  and  rude,  with 
little  of  system  and  less  of  restraint.     At  night  men 
gathered   in  drug-stores,  in   hotels  and    saloons,  for 
they  had  nowhere  else  to  go,  and  there  is  tiothing 
that  the  average  San  Franciscan  dislikes  so  much  as 
the  solitude  of  his  chamber  and  the  company  of  a 
book.     In  all  the  city,  with  its  thousands  of  stores  and 
offices  and  lodging-houses,  there  was  not  probably  a 
.score  of  homes,  and  those  to  be  found  only  in  what 
was  then  the  fashionable  quarter,  on  Folsom,  Harrison, 
and  adjacent  streets.     In  all  the  city  there  was  not  a 
man  with  whom  Irving  M.  Scott  was  acquainted,  not 
a  door-bell  that  he  could  ring,  not  a  house  where  he 
could  call,  save  that  of  Peter  Donahue. 

"You  are  a  punctual   man,"   was  Mr  Donahue's 
greeting,  when  Irving  made  his  appearance  on  the 


fr! 


!■ 

i  1 


ii 


i 


(,. 


li'i 


11"' 


'If: 
i|:|| 

l;r 

Mi-i  i 

'■Mis 
IK:»': 

p- 

i 

i: 

lil:!--'!?!  • 


|;,l! 


IT  "' 


I 


AGENCY  OP  INDUSTRY. 


very  day  of  his  landing.  The  former  had  already 
engaged  for  him  an  apartment  in  what  then  ranked 
as  a  first-class  house,  on  the  comer  o.f  First  and 
Mission  streets,  one  that  has  long  since  given  place 
to  a  structure  of  brick  in  the  midst  of  our  city  front 
planing-raills.  Here  he  at  oncfe  made  a  monthly  con- 
tract for  his  board  and  room,  and  the  following  day 
found  him  at  his  task  at  the  foundry.  Little  did  he 
then  imagine  that  he  was  soon  to  be  placed  in  sole 
charge  of  those  works,  and  to  develop  them  into  the 
largest  and  most  successful  manufactory  of  the  kind 
on  the  Pacific  coast. 

Before  proceeding  further,  it  may  here  be  men- 
tioned that,  like  other  new-comers,  Mr  Scott  was 
under  the  impression  that  the  gold-mines  were  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  city,  that  it  was  only  necessary  to 
walk  out  to  them,  to  pick  up  such  gold  as  he  required, 
and  return,  a  rich  man,  to  the  home  of  his  boyhood. 
For  this  purpose  he  had  brought  with  him  a  pair  of 
alligator-leather  boots  with  rubber  soles,  as  a  protec- 
tion against  cold  and  wet;  but  of  his  impression,  as  also 
of  his  boots,  I  need  not  say  that  he  was  soon  relieved. 
His  first  actual  visit  to  the  mines  was  at  Sufimer- 
ville,  where  he  learned  the  methods  of  exploration, 
and  of  extracting  and  hoisting  the  coal,  thus  preparing 
the  way  for  such  improvements  in  mining  machinery 
as  gave  to  the  Union  Iron-works  a  more  than  national 
repute. 

During  his  first  year  at  the  foundry  Mr  Scott  ac- 
cumulated $400,  and  that  from  a  salary  which,  though 
twice  as  much  as  he  had  before  received,  was  by  no 
no  means  a  liberal  compensation.  To  the  amount  of 
that  salary  he  seldom  gave  a  thought;  only  it  seemed 
to  him  unfair  that  he  should  have  no  more  than  half 
the  wages  paid  to  less  skilful  mechanics.  How  little 
the  matter  of  compensation,  troubled  him  appears 
from  the  fact  that  he  refused  the  offer  of  an  increase 
at  the  end  of  six  months'  service.  "Well,"  said  Mr 
Donahue,  "you  are  the  first  man  I  ever  saw   that 


IRVING  M.  scorr. 


453 


would  not  have  his  wages  raised."  To  this  his  em- 
ployd  replied  that  he  had  made  a  contract  for  one 
year  and  would  carry  it  out.  If  the  contract  was  to 
be  altered  at  that  moment  Mr  Donahue  could  make 
his  own  terms,  but  at  the  end  of  the  year  he  would 
require  whatever  he  might  be  worth.  The  twelve- 
month expired,  he  commanded  thrice  his  former  sal- 
ary, and  then  he  began  to  save  money  rapidly,  living 
plainly  but  substantially,  and  avoiding  all  needless 
expenses.  His  leisure  time  was  passed  in  studying 
the  geography  of  the  city  and  the  state,  in  studying 
their  requirements,  and  especially  in  considering  what 
improvements  could  be  made  in  the  methods  and 
processes  of  the  iron-works.  Of  all  the  faculties  with 
which  Mr  Scott  is  gifted,  perhaps  the  strongest  is 
the  faculty  of  observation,  one  that  if  it  does  not  of 
itself  constitute  genius  is  to  its  possessor  of  far  more 
value  than  genius. 

At  this  time  most  of  the  responsible  positions  at 
the  foundry  were  filled  by  relatives  of  Peter  Dona- 
hue, many  of  them  without  any  special  aptitude, 
unless  it  might  be  the  aptitude  for  drawing  their  sal- 
aries. There  were  neither  rules  nor  discipline,  and 
the  men  did  very  much  as  they  pleased,  chatting  and 
smoking  in  working  hours,  and  whenever  they  felt 
disposed,  which  was  not  seldom,  adjourning  for  bibu- 
lous refreshments.  Matters  were  at  their  worst  in  the 
winter  ol  18G1,  when  Mr  Donahue  passed  nmch  of  his 
time  in  Sacramento,  procuring  from  the  legislature 
the  iirsfc  franchise  granted  to  a  metropolitan  street- 
car company.  Meanwhile  his  foreman  had  resigned, 
leaving  no  one  at  the  head  of  affairs.  At  this 
juncture,  with  a  view  to  protect  his  employer's  inter- 
ests, Mr  Scott  took  charge  of  the  establishment,  and 
with  such  excellent  results  that  on  the  return  of  the 
proprietor  he  was  ap  pointed  superintendent,  with  au- 
thority to  make  and  enforce  such  regulations  as  seemed 
to  him  best.  First  cf  all,  he  closed  up  ail  the  open- 
ings, with  one  exception^  and  at  the  single  gateway 


I 


i  ?, 


\m\ 


P 


11 


i!  : 
j !  i. 
■  ■  i 


P" 


!•  i 


W  J'^ 


w  ■ 

1?''':        ' 

i!;-?!^ 

\'>^'i 

M 

!^i;  -■ 


PNw^» 


|l:-  -Mi 


li  ■ 

/ 

i  '^ 

VI 

fii .  i., 

^,  1 '  ■ 

!--- 

1  i 

1 

a     .. 

^ 

1          1 

^i 

li 

? 

1  I 

4M 


AGENCY  OF  INDUSTRY. 


left  open  placed  a  watchman,  with  orders  to  forbid  all 
egress.  He  then  informed  the  men  that  in  working 
hours  they  would  not  be  allowed  to  smoke  or  drink  or 
converse ;  that  tiie  tools  must  be  kept  clean,  and  the 
shops  in  good  order.  At  first  these  measures  were 
strongly  opposed,  and  for  a  time  a  strike  was  threat- 
ened; but  with  the  support  of  Mr  Donahue,  who  was 
gratified  with  the  new  order  of  things,  the  superin- 
tendent carried  the  day.  The  same  discipline  has 
been  maintained  at  the  Union  Iron-works  to  the 
present  time,  and  is  not  least  among  the  factors  that 
have  made  them  famous;  for  thus  despatch  and 
promptitude  and  exactness  are  secured,  together 
with  the  very  best  quality  of  work,  and  its  delivery 
at  the  time  agreed  upon. 

It  was  as  a  draughtsman,  as  I  have  said,  that  Mr 
Scott  was  first  employed,  though  presently  his  ser- 
vices were  transferred  to  the  workshops,  of  which  he 
was  gradually  placed  in  control.  It  was  now  the 
time  when  the  marvelous  riches  of  the  Oomstock 
lode  were  attracting  the  attention  of  the  world,  and 
to  explore  its  depths  and  extract  its  treasures  the 
heaviest  and  most  improved  machinery  was  in  urgent 
demand.  In  this  direction,  as  Mr  Scott  foresaw, 
would  be  the  immediate  future  of  our  iron  industries; 
nor  was  his  judgment  at  fault,  for  in  many  of  the 
intervening  years  the  amount  paid  out  for  this  class 
of  work  alone  has  risen  far  into  the  millions.  With 
a  view  to  learn  this  branch  of  the  business,  not  at 
that  time  included  in  the  Donahue  establishment,  he 
accepted  a  position  in  the  Miners'  foundry,  then  at 
the  head  of  all  others  in  San  Francisco  in  the  con- 
struction of  mining  machinery.  Here  he  was  placed 
in  charge  of  the  draughtsman's  department,  was 
brought  into  contact  with  some  of  the  leading  miners 
and  inventors  of  the  day,  and  thus  gained  a  perfect 
mastery  of  his  craft,  understanding  thoroughly  and 
completely  all  that  was  needed  in  the  building  of 
quartz-roills  and  quartz  machinery. 


IRVING   M.  SCOTT. 


455 


In  1863  two- thirds  the  interest  of  Peter  Donahue 
was  purchased  by  H.  J.  Booth  and  C.  S.  Higgins, 
the  firm  being  then  known  as  Donahue,  Booth,  & 
Higgins,  and  two  years  later  as  H.  J.  Booth  &  com- 
pany, the  other  members  being  George  W.  Prescott 
and  Irving  M.  Scott,  Donahue  and  Higgins  having 
disposed  of  their  interest.  In  1 87  5  still  another  change 
was  made,  and  the  associates  adopted  their  present 
style  of  Prescott,  Scott,  &  company,  Henry  T.  Scott, 
the  youngest  brother  of  Irving,  being  admitted  as  a 
partner.  One  of  the  first  steps  taken  by  H.  J.  Booth 
&  company  was  to  ofl*er  to  Mr  Scott  the  appointment 
of  general  manager  and  superintendent,  which  position 
he  has  held  continuously  for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a 
century.  How  well  he  has  fulfilled  its  duties  may  be 
judged  from  the  fact  that  from  a  few  score  thousands 
the  business  of  the  firm  has  increased  to  several  mil- 
lions a  year,  and  instead  of  22  workmen,  as  when  first 
he  joined  the  Union  foundry,  there  were,  in  the  spring 
of  1891,  some  1,400  on  its  pay-roll. 

In  1860  the  business  of  the  Union  Iron-works  con- 
sisted mainly  of  repairs  to  steamers  plying  on  harbor 
and  river,  with  the  making  of  gas-pipes,  the  building 
of  gas-works,  and  such  other  branches  as  fell  to  their 
lot.  As  yet  their  reputation  was  but  local,  and  the 
construction  of  mining  machinery  for  which  they 
afterward  became  world  famous  had  not  been  even 
attempted. 

It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  a  country  which 
has  revolutionized  mining  methods,  whose  machinery 
and  appliances  in  this  direction  have  been  adopted 
more  or  less  widely  in  the  mining  districts  of  the 
world,  should  at  first  have  been  so  backward  in  this 
respect.  It  was  not  until  long  after  the  gold  dis- 
covery that  the  rocker  and  pan  gave  way  to  the  sluice 
and  hydraulic  pipe,  enabling  one  man  to  do  the  work 
of  hundreds,  and  rendering  easy  of  accomplishment 
enterprises  which  had  before  appeared  impossible. 
It  was  not  until  several  years  later  that  quartz-mills 


:/! 


f?i 


436 


AGENCY  OP  INDUSTRY. 


li 

lit! 


/ 


came  into  common  use,  and  those  of  such  patterns  as 
have  long  since  been  discarded,  even  in  Mexican  min- 
ing camps.  As  late  as  1851  gold-bearing  rock  was 
pounded  in  huge  iron  mortars,  with  pestles  made  fast 
to  branches  of  trees,  the  rebound  of  which  was  almost 
sufficient  to  raise  them.  The  pulverized  matter  was 
then  treated  with  quicksilver,  and  even  with  these  rude 
contrivances  the  miner  averaged  $10  a  day.  In 
the  autumn  of  1851  the  first  quartz-mill  in  California 
was  erected  in  Yuba  county,  by  a  company  owning  a 
claim  in  Brown  valley.  It  was  a  sorry  affair,  work- 
ing by  si  I-''  -"ower  single  stamps  in  each  of  several 
mortars,  u.  -ar  or  two  later  others  were  added, 
which  from  Vciiious  reasons  resulted  in  failure;  but  in 
1855  the  work  of  building  quartz-mills  began  in  ear- 
nest. In  1857  there  were  about  150  in  operation, 
built  at  a  total  expense  of  some  $2,000,000;  in  1890 
there  were  at  least  400,  costing  from  $6,000  to  $60,- 
000.  Said  Horace  Greeley,  the  man  of  intuitions, 
who  in  1859  paid  a  flying  visit  to  the  Pacific  coast; 
"  The  time  has  not  yet  come  for  profitable  mining  in 
quartz,  and  three  out  of  four  mines  are  failures."  The 
average  yield  he  placed  at  about  $20  a  ton,  which 
would  not  repay  the  expenses  of  mining  and  milling. 
And  yet  from  much  poorer  rock,  when  found  in  suffi- 
cient quantity,  fair  dividends  have  since  been  re- 
turned. 

Even  in  1860,  when  Mr  Scott  first  set  foot  on 
these  shores,  mining  machinery  was  constructed  with 
slight  regard  to  correct  mechanical  principles,  and  the 
lapse  of  twenty  centuries  had  done  little  to  improve 
the  methods  of  reducing  ores.  Such  mills  as  we  had 
were  built  by  ordinary  millwrights,  wheelwrights,  and 
machinists,  who  brought  to  their  task  only  the  knowl- 
edge acquired  in  the  usual  branches  of  their  trade. 
The  cam  used  in  lifting  the  stamp  received  it  with  a 
sharp  concussion,  due  to  the  remoteness  of  the  point 
of  contact  from  the  axis  of  revolution.  For  all  de- 
scriptions of  quartz  crushing  the  same  kind,  of  mortar 


IRVING  M.  SCOTT. 


4B7 


Avas  used,  whether  for  gold  crushing  and  amalgamat- 
ing, for  silver  crushing  without  amalgamation,  for  dry 
crushing,  or  crushing  cement  and  bowlders  for  the 
coarse  gold  which  they  contained.  The  stamp  was 
shoeless,  and  retained  its  square  wooden  stem.  The 
battery  mortar  had  wooden  sides  and  a  cast-iron 
bottom,  consisting  of  a  simple  die,  or  at  best  a  shallow 
trough,  causing  inevitable  waste  through  leakage  of 
the  quicksilver  containing  the  precious  metals. 

All  these  defects  and  many  others  have  since  been 
remedied,  largely  through  the  mechanical  ingenuity 
of  Irving  M.  Scott.  If  an  improvement  was  originated 
in  the  mind  of  another,  he  was  the  one  who  eradi- 
cated its  defects,  supplied  its  deficiencies,  and  thus 
modified,  adapted  it  for  practical  application.  The 
gib-tappet,  for  instance,  had  not  at  this  time  been 
brought  into  general  use,  on  account  of  an  imperfec- 
tion in  allowing  the  end  of  the  gib  to  run  through  the 
tappet.  This  he  remedied  by  shortening  the  gib, 
and  causing  the  tappet  to  pass  over  each  end,  thus 
changing  an  impracticable  device  into  one  that  has 
since  been  adopted  throughout  the  mining  world.  So 
with  the  double-armed  cam,  with  the  hub  on  one  of 
its  sides  ;  so  with  the  direct  actitig  hoisting-engine,  the 
combination  amalgamation-pan,  the  division  of  crush- 
ings  into  classes,  and  these  again  into  subdivisions. 
In  a  word,  the  improvements  in  modern  metallurgy, 
which  have  made  the  system  here  in  vogue  the  stan- 
dard of  all  other  states  and  nations,  were,  in  their 
essential  features,  perfected  under  his  direction  and 
management.  Tlirough  his  efforts  the  mechanics  of 
that  science  have  been  evolved  from  the  crude  condition 
of  pioneer  days  into  the  highest  type  that  has  yet  been 
produced,  and,  as  it  would  seem,  almost  into  the 
Jiighest  of  which  they  are  capable.  There  is  always 
the  right  man  for  the  occasion,  it  is  said,  if  only  he 
can  be  found,  and  fortunate  it  is  that  when  the  enor- 
mous ore  deposits  of  the  Comstock  were  unearthed, 
we  had  on  .this  coast  an  engineer  of  such  caliber  as 


t^  ■: 


•    i 


.'1 


I-  h 


li.J 


458 


AGENCY  OP  INDUSTRY. 


('•/■'i 


9      '•■ 


/ 


,  it  - 


Irving  M.  Scott  for  beyond  a  doubt  he  was  the  man 
for  the  occasion. 

The  year  1863,  when  Mr  Scott  assumed  the  man- 
agement of  the  Union  Iron-works,  was  one  long  re- 
membered in  the  earlier  history  of  the  Comstock.  In 
that  year  the  attention  of  the  mining  world  was  drawn 
to  the  rich  yield  of  the  Gould  &  Curry,  producing 
in  1863  nearly  50,000  tons  of  ore,  and  about  $4,000,000 
in  bullion.  Other  mines  were  also  producing  largely, 
the  total  dividends  for  the  twelvemonth  being  little 
short  of  $2,000,000.  Although  the  glories  of  the 
Gould  &  Curry  have  long  since  been  eclipsed  by  larger 
and  even  richer  bonanzas,  at  the  time  such  results 
were  considered  phenomenal,  and  these  were  long  re- 
garded OS  the  most  brilliant  days  of  the  Comstock. 
Since  that  date  there  have  been  produced  in  a  single 
year,  ard  that  from  the  single  ore  deposit  of  the  Cal- 
ifornia and  Consolidated  Virginia,  273,000  tons  of  ore, 
with  an  average  yield  of  more  than  $1 10  a  ton,  a  total 
of  more  than  $30,000,000,  and  with  dividends  exceed- 
ing $21,500,000.  Up  to  the  close  of  1890  the  entire 
output  of  the  great  lode  was  at  the  lowest  estimate 
10,000,000,000  tons  of  metal-bearing  rock,  and  its 
value  $325,000,000.  If  to  this  be  added  the  thou- 
sands of  millions  of  tons  of  waste  rock  that  have  also 
been  hoisted,  the  thousands  of  millions  of  tons  of 
water,  it  will  be  seen  that  only  the  most  powerful  and 
massive  machinery  could  make  any  impression  on  this 
AntaBan  task. 

It  is  to  Mr  Scott  a  source  of  just  and  honorable 
pride,  exceeded  only  by  that  which  he  felt  in  his 
career  as  a  naval  artificer,  that  almost  from  the  day 
when  he  was  placed  in  charge,  the  Union  Iron-works 
have  been  the  leading  foundry  for  the  planning  and 
construction  of  mining  and  metallurgical  machin- 
ery. Whether  for  the  mining  of  ores,  for  hoisting 
them  to  the  surface,  for  conveying  them  to  the  mills, 
for  crushing  and  amalgamation,  for  separating  the 
bullion,  for  melting  it  into  bars,  here  have  been  sup- 


I 


K'', 


IRVING  M.  SCOTT. 


459 


plied,  for  these  and  other  processes,  the  models,  de- 
signs, and  drawings  which  are  to-day  the  standards  of 
the  world. 

As  early  as  1866  Mr  Scott  was  the  principal  au- 
thority on  mechanics  as  applied  to  metallurgy.  A 
circular  prepared  in  that  year  under  his  own  super- 
vision was  regarded  even  by  his  competitors  as  a  val- 
uable text-book,  rather  than  an  advertisement  of  the 
business  of  the  firm,  one  so  valuable  indeed  that  it 
should  not  have  been  given  to  the  public.  But  it 
has  never  been  his  practice  to  withhold  from  others 
the  benefit  of  his  improvements  and  inventions. 
Many  of  those  inventions  he  has  not  even  protected 
by  patent,  allowing  his  fellow-mau  to  profit  by  them 
equally  with  himself. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  firm  of  Booth  &  com- 
pany had  no  reason  to  regret  their  choice  in  appointing 
Irving  M.  Scott  to  the  most  responsible  position  in 
their  establishment.  Ko  soooT.r  was  he  placed  in 
charge  of  the  mechanical  department  than  a  change 
like  that  of  a  ne\n  life  was  infused  into  all  its 
branches.  Such  was  the  press  of  work  that  every 
machine  was  in  operation  day  and  night,  and  other 
machines  were  imported,  more  powerful  than  any  be- 
fore in  use  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Among  them  was  a 
15-ton  steam-hammer,  a  plane  that,  could  handle  a 
column  10  feet  square  and  25  feet  in  length,  a  lithe 
that  could  turn  a  balance-wheel  25  feet  in  diameter, 
and  cranes  of  a  lifting  capacity  of  30  tons.  Never- 
theless, so  rapidly  did  orders  accumulate  that  even 
with  an  enlargement  of  their  premises  and  the  closest 
economy  of  space,  large  quantities  of  castings  had  to 
be  made  elsewhere. 

Even  during  the  years  when  business  was  at  its 
slackest,  when  the  upper  levels  of  the  Comstock  were 
almost  exhausted,  and  the  riches  of  the  deeper  levels 
had  not  as  yet  been  disclosed,  the  Union  Iron- works 
were  never  idle.  Presently  came  the  discovery  of 
the  Crown  Point  and  Belcher  bonanza,  followed  some 


If. 


r»M 


.    i^v'V 


[.-•^y 


m 


''■   ^<S^' 


/.' 


I'i'f   '! 


=  t 


/ 


iBviNa  M.  scarr. 


three  years  later  by  that  of  the  Consolidated  Virginia 
and  California,  with  others  either  imaginary  or  yet  to 
be  revealed.  In  1877-8  the  volume  of  production 
at  the  Union  works  was  at  least  one  fourth  of  that 
of  the  entire  Pacific  coast,  and  more  than  one  half  of 
that  of  the  Pacific  coast  metropolis.  Of  the  $4,700,- 
000  a  year  of  San  Francisco  manufactures  and  her 
1,200  foundry  operatives,  at  least  $2,000,000  with 
400  workmen  were  accredited  to  the  Union  Iron- 
works. For  these  results  the  firm  was  largely  in- 
debted to  Irving  M.  Scott,  for  of  the  two  other  members 
whom  it  included,  Henry,  his  youngest  brother,  at- 
tended mainly  to  the  financial  department,  for  which 
he  was  eminently  fitted,  and  it  was  not  until  1875 
that  Mr  Prescott  took  an  active  part  in  its  aftairs. 

Of  the  so-called  bonanza  mines  it  was  declared  by 
one  of  the  manipulators  of  their  stock  that  they  would 
continue  to  pay  dividends  long  after  their  detractors 
were  in  the  grave;  but  their  dividends  have  long 
since  come  to  an  end,  and  there  are  many  of  their  de- 
tractors who  are  not  as  yet  in  the  grave.  From  an 
output  of  more  $30,000,000  in  the  centennial  year, 
their  yield  decreased  to  about  $2,600,000  in  1880,  and 
with  this  decrease,  as  no  other  Comstock  mines  were 
yielding  largely,  came  a  serious  falling  off  in  the  de- 
mand for  mining  machinery,  one  that  affected,  more 
than  all  others,  the  Union  Iron- works;  for  in  this 
direction  was  their  specialty.  Additional  reasons  for 
this  season  of  adversity  were  the  general  business  de- 
pression, and  the  loss  for  a  time  of  the  personal  super- 
vision of  Irving  M.  Scott. 

Partly  at  the  request  of  James  G.  Fair,  with  whom 
he  had  long  held  business  relations,  consulting  him 
especially  as  to  designs  for  mining  machinery,  in 
February  1880  he  accompanied  him  on  what  was 
intended  to  be  a  trip  to  Hong  Kong,  and  that  with 
a  stay  of  the  briefest,  but  in  his  own  case  proved  to 
be  a  trip  around  the  world.  Both  were  sorely  in 
need  of  rest,  with   health  impaired  by  the  ceaseless 


IRVING  M.  SCOTT. 


461 


horn 
him 
,  ir. 
was 
with 
d  to 
y  in 
eless 


strain  of  overwork;  for  as  with  the  millionaire,  so 
with  the  engineer,  each  one  had  accomplished  for 
many  years  the  task  of  a  dozen  ordinary  men.  The 
journey  was  arranged  in  a  single  day,  and  three  days 
thereafter  we  find  Mr  Scott  on  board  the  City  of 
Pekin,  bound  for  the  port  of  Yokohama. 

When  the  ship  was  a  week  or  two  out  at  sea  there 
might  have  been  observed,  in  a  secluded  corner  of  the 
quarter-deck,  a  group  of  men  conversing,  now  in  ear- 
nest and  now  in  jocular  mood.  They  were  Mr  Fair 
and  his  secretary,  Captain  Morse,  commander  of  the 
vessel,  and  Irving  M.  Scott.  On  Thursday,  the  18th 
of  i'ebruary,  the  City  of  Pekin  had  crossed  the  180th 
meridian,  and,  as  the  saying  is,  had  lost  a  day,  Friday 
being  omitted  from  the  calendar.  It  was  the  loss  of 
this  day  that  formed  the  subject  of  their  conversation. 

"I  will  build  a  ship  of  my  own  in  San  Francisco," 
said  Mr  Fair,  "and  we  will  sail  around  the  world  and 
pick  up  that  lost  day." 

"You  will  never  find  it  by  sailing  west,"  remarked 
the  captain.  "Let  me  sail  the  new  ship,  and  we  will 
pick  up  pi  nty  of  things  that  other  people  have  lost." 

"  Make  me  purser,  and  then  every  man  shall  get 
his  due,"  declared  the  secretary. 

"  And  I,"  said  Mr  Scott,  "  will  build  the  works  to 
build  the  ship." 

If  these  last  words  were  taken  in  jest,  they  were 
not  so  intended.  It  was  but  a  few  years  later — in 
June  1887 — when  the  City  of  Pekin  was  lying  for  re- 
pairs at  the  wharf  of  the  Union  Iron-works,  that  her 
former  captain  and  Mr  Scott  exchanged  congratula- 
tions on  board  the  very  ship  where  these  air-castles 
had  been  built.     The  dream  had  now  become  a  reality; 

Of  Bayard  Taylor  it  has  been  said  that  no  man 
ever  travelled  so  far  and  saw  so  little ;  but  in  the  case 
of  Irving  Scott  this  statement  must  be  reversed. 
While  in  Europe  he  made  a  close  study  of  the  indus- 
tries and  industrial  establishments  of  the  several 
countries  through  which  he  journeyed,  noting  espe- 


j-^    E 


lUl    -li- 


i!,?h 


\u4 


H: 


mm 


462 


AGENCY   OP  INDUSTRY. 


tmt^ 


,1 

/ 


cially  their  methods  of  ship-building.  He  observed, 
moreover,  and  that  with  the  deepest  interest,  the 
habits  and  customs  of  the  people,  and  their  various 
religions ;  in  India  studying  that  of  the  Parsees  and 
idol  worshippers,  and  inquiring  as  to  the  ground- work 
of  their  faith.  The  results  of  all  these  observations 
he  preserved  in  his  private  journal.  The  information 
which  he  thus  acquired  was  of  far-reaching  value,  and 
among  the  improvements  and  facilities  of  the  Union 
Iron-works  are  many  suggested  during  this  tour. 
But  for  that  tour  it  is  indeed  probable  that  the 
foundry  would  never  have  attained  to  the  rank  which 
it  now  enjoys,  as  second  to  none  of  its  class  in  all  the 
United  States.  Many,  also,  are  the  lectures  which  he 
has  delivered  for  charitable  purposes  from  data  ob- 
tained during  this  period. 

Returning  to  San  Francisco  toward  the  close  of 
1880,  Mr  Scott  found  the  affairs  of  the  firm  in  a  most 
unsatisfactory  condition.  So  long  as  the  yield  of  the 
Comstock  was  counted  by  monthly  millions,  machin- 
ery of  such  proportions  as  had  never  before  beOn  at- 
tempted was  built  at  the  Union  Iron-works,  and  that 
in  one  sixth  of  the  time  that  would  have  been  re- 
quired elsewhere,  if  elsewhere  it  could  have  been  built 
at  all.  For  this  the  most  powerful  engines  were  re- 
quired, with  the  investment  of  a  large  amount  of  cap- 
ital in  plant,  which,  apart  from  that  purpose,  was  of 
little  value.  Railroad  development  was  for  the  time 
almost  at  a  stand-still,  and  the  demand  for  agricultural 
machinery  was  largely  supplied  by  the  foundries  of 
the  mid-continent  states.  In  one  direction  only  did 
there  appear  to  be  an  outlet  for  the  iron  industries  of 
San  Francisco,  and  that  was  in  the  unoccupied  fields 
of  ocean,  especially  in  the  building  of  steel  and  iron 
steamers. 

To  such  an  addition  to  their  other  branches  of 
business,  and  that  at  a  time  when  half  their  machinery 
was  idle,  the  other  members  of  the  firm  were  strongly 
opposed,  for  both  were  strictly  conservative  men.     So 


ha 


ill 


IRVING   M.  SCOTT. 


463 


cap- 
was  of 
time 
Itural 
ies  of 
y  did 
ies  of 
fields 
U  iron 


great,  moreover,  was  the  competition  in  the  building 
of  steamers,  that  they  would  have  to  work  at  cheaper 
rates  than  ever  before;  they  must  transfer  their 
foundry  to  deep-water  front,  must  build  much  larger 
and  more  expensive  works,  must  provide  them  with 
additional  machinery,  and  connect  them  with  the 
railroad  cars.  But  all  these  objections  were  com- 
bated by  Mr  Scott,  who  at  length  convinced  his 
colleagues  of  the  boundless  possibilities  that  lay  before 
them.  The  result  has  fully  justified  the  soundness  of 
his  judgment,  and  displayed  the  clearness  of  his  fore- 
sight. 

Long  before  this  date  it  had  been  the  intention  of 
H.  J.  Booth  and  company,  the  predecessors  of  the 
present  firm,  to  erect  such  works  on  the  water-front, 
and  with  this  view  they  had  taken  in  partial  payment 
for  machinery  constructed  for  the  Guadalupe  mine  at 
Santa  Clara,  six  blocks  of  land  at  the  Potrero,  origi- 
nally known  as  the  Owens  ship-yard.  To  these,  three 
others  were  added,  by  purchase,  in  1883,  making  in 
all  some  twenty-five  acres  as  the  site  now  occupied  by 
the  Union  Iron-works,  with  a  frontage  on  Central 
basin  of  more  than  a  thousand  feet,  connected  by  rail 
with  the  Central  and  Southern  Pacific,  and  thus  with 
the  railroad  systems  of  the  continent,  and  with  an 
outlet  to  the  Pacific  ocean  and  the  inland  waters  of 
California.  The  buildings,  which  are  mainly  of  brick, 
include,  among  others,  an  iron-foundry,  a  brass- foundry, 
machine,  boiler,  and  pattern  shops,  together  with  a 
ship-yard  and  dry-dock.  The  works  are  pi^'^'^ui-nced 
by  competent  judges  to  be  the  most  comp]."^e  of  any 
of  their  class  in  the  United  States,  and  ir  their  ar- 
rangement and  equipment  not  excelled  even  by  the 
best  and  largest  of  European  ship-yards.  And  yet 
this  enterprise  is  but  the  germ  of  what  iiay  be  ex- 
pected in  the  future,  when,  with  additional  capital  and 
with  yet  greater  facilities,  fleets  of  steel  and  iron 
steamers  may  be  added  to  the  naval  and  commercial 
marine  of  the  Pacific  coast. 


I  i''- 


'fi 


fi 


SI 


H 


'4M 


AGENCY  OF  INDUSTRY. 


j 

/ 

'  ^' 

J 

y 

'i    ■ 

/ 

1  I 

f 

i  ' 

] 

,. 

\  ^!^ 

?i 

1  ;:■■ 

li 

The  machine  and  construction  shops  are  enclosed 
within  a  building  200  by  215  foet,  with  a  gallery  150 
feet  in  length  and  50  in  width ;  the  floor  and  gallery 
surface,  the  former  traversed  by  car-tracks,  covering 
an  area  of  more  than  4G,000  square  feet.  The  several 
shops  are  divided  by  rows  of  cast-iron  pillars,  two  ♦' 
them  being  provided  with  hydrauHc  cranes,  with  a  r 
of  200  feet,  each  with  a  capacity  of  60  tons,  and 
operated  by  compressed-air  engines.  In  the  shop  is 
an  instrument  that  will  plane  a  surface  12  feet  wide 
and  26  in  length,  supplied  with  cutters  suited  for 
any  kind  of  machinery.  Other  planers  are  of  smaller 
size,  according  to  the  dimensions  required.  In  the 
lathe  department  are  special  lathes  for  ship-work,  one 
of  them  capable  of  turning  a  shaft  50  feet  in  length, 
or  even  a  crank-shaft  such  as  is  used  in  compound- 
engines.  This  implement  is  said  to  be  the  most  com- 
plete of  its  kind  on  this  continent,  and  equalled  only 
by  the  one  manufactured  for  the  navy-yard  at  Chat 
ham,  England. 

In  the  boring-mill,  which  occupies  a  space  about  50 
feet  square,  is  a  machine  which  is  used  not  only  for 
boring,  but  for  planing,  drilling,  slotting,  and  key-seat- 
ing, combining  all  the  most  recent  improvements.  In 
addition  to  other  boring-machines  is  one,  that  while 
boring  through  a  cylinder  ten  feet  in  diameter  will, 
without  moving  it,  face  off  and  drill  holes  in  its  ends. 
In  this  department  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  hydrau- 
lic presses  in  existence,  used  for  driving  home  crank- 
pins  and  pressing  on  crank-plates.  But  perhaps  the 
most  remarkable  feature  is.  that,  by  means  of  an  over- 
head travelling  crane,  marine  engines  of  all  sizes  and 
patterns  can  be  put  together  complete,  and  conveyed 
on  a  car  to  the  wharf,  where,  by  steam-shearsi?  with  a 
capacity  of  100  tons,  they  are  placed  in  position  on 
board  the  vessel.  By  thus  avoiding  the  necessity  of 
taking  the  machines  apart  and  hauling  them  piece- 
meal to  the  steamer,  their  cost  is  materially  reduced, 
and  in  this,  as  in  other  respects,  the  Union  Iron-works 


IRVING   M.  SCOTT. 


are  not  excelled  by  any  among  eastern  or  European 
establishments. 

Adjoining  the  machine-shops  is  the  engine-room, 
in  which  is  a  compound-engine  with  cojidensitig  ap- 
paratus and  all  the  latest  of  modern  appliances. 
Here,  also,  is  the  air-compressor,  by  which  is  furnished 
the  motive-power  for  the  travelling  cranes  and  hy- 
draulic pumps,  with  pumps  for  the  accumulator,  the 
weight  on  the  ram  of  which  is  supplied  by  a  single 
block  of  concrete,  in  the  form  of  a  cube,  10  feet  on 
each  face,  and  with  a  weight  of  70  tons.  In  the  boiler- 
house  is  a  pair  of  tube-boilers  of  the  latest  pattern, 
furnishing  steam  to  an  engine  of  250  horse-power, 
with  space  for  another  of  like  capacity,  so  that  in  case 
of  accident  there  would  be  little  cessation  of  work. 
Connected  with  the  machine-shops  is  the  tool-room, 
where  are  all  the  most  recent  appliances  for  the  manu- 
facture of  tools.  Adjoining  tlic  latter  are  the  brass 
and  copper  shops,  where  is  a  full  assortment  of  imple- 
ments used  for  this  class  of  work,  with  hvdraulic 
cranes,  and  hardening,  tempering,  and  other  fur- 
naces. 

[Next  to  them  is  the  iron-foundry,  a  brick  building 
200  by  100  feet,  and  with  a  floor  surface  of  20,000 
feet.  Here,  as  in  the  machine  and  boiler  shops,  are 
contrivances  by  which  a  man  can  move  from  point  to 
point,  as  required,  and  that  with  little  effort,  a  weight 
of  100  tons.  In  the  cupolas  castings  of  60  tons  can 
be  made  within  three  hours,  and  by  means  of  a  trav- 
elling crane  of  the  same  capacity,  removed  to  or  from 
any  point  on  the  floor.  They  are  built  after  the  best 
and  latest  models,  with  an  iron  floor,  and  hydraulic 
lift  for  the  fuel  and  material  delivered  on  the  car- 
track,  by  which  the  castings  are  also  removed,  with- 
out additional  cost  for  handling.  The  blower  has  its 
separate  engine,  permitting  the  pressure  of  the  blast 
to  be  regulated  according  to  the  condition  of  the  fur- 
nace. Of  the  core-ovens  the  largest  is  18  feet  square, 
and  can  dry  in  the  shortest  space  of  time  a  core  of  20 

C.  B.— I.    30 


i^ 


\% 


tip'"' 


m 


mi 


liy  I 


m^  I- 
w  \ 


U 


./ 


il   >: 

/ 

H  '^'^'^ 

If 

Ml  ';     i; 

%    ■  ■     ^ 

1  1'     ' 

;  :4;:  |     1 

i    . 

H  '   - 

nil'' , 

j 

466 


AOENCV   OF  INDUSTRY. 


tons,  with  others  in  which  cores  are  dried,  down  to  a 
few  ounces  in  weight. 

Opposite  to  the  foundry  is  the  pattern-shop,  a  brick 
building  150  by  50  feet,  and  with  four  stories,  the 
lowest  of  which  is  used  for  the  running  machinery 
and  for  the  making  of  patterns,  with  a  separate  table 
and  window  for  each  of  the  workmen.  The  extent  of 
its  operations  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  all 
the  three  remaining  floors  are  required  for  the  storage 
of  patterns,  and  yet  so  perfect  is  the  method  of  regis- 
tering that  any  one  of  them  can  be  found  at  a  moment's 
notice.  Adjacent  to  this  is  the  store-room,  with  a 
complete  system  of  fire-alarms  and  other  appliances, 
insuriiig  the  safety  of  the  materials  which  it  contains. 
Here  are  iron  racks  for  boiler-tubes,  boiler-plates,  and 
boiler-heads,  with  bar-iron  of  every  shape  and  dimen- 
sion. For  everything  that  is  delivered  a  receipt  is 
signed,  and  an  entry  made  of  the  purpose  for  which 
it  is  to  be  used,  and  the  name  of  the  person  to  whom 
it  is  handed,  an  order  being  first  required  from  the 
foreman  of  his  department. 

In  the  boiler-shops  are  three  hydraulic  machines 
capable  of  placing  rivets  from  two  inches  down  to 
three  eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  In  the  hydrau- 
lic shears,  which  it  contains,  is  one  of  the  most  complete 
of  modern  implements — one  that  can  shear  a  steel  plate 
an  inch  and  a  half  in  thickness,  can  flange  a  boiler- 
head,  or  shape  a  given  surface  to  the  pattern  desired. 
There  is  a  bending-machine  ft)r  fashioning  a  given 
surface  into  any  form  required.  There  are  planing- 
machines  capable  of  cutting  armor-plates  eighteen 
inches  thick,  the  plate  being  held  in  position  by  an  in- 
genious hydraulic  device.  There  are  rollers  for  steel 
or  iron  plates  uj)  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  thickness, 
and  of  any  length,  and  there  are  .sumller  implements 
of  the  very  best  description,  hydraulic  j)o\v(;r  being 
used  wlierever  that  is  possible.  At  these  shops  one 
of  the  first  large  orders  executed  was  in  1884,  for  the 
boilers  of  the  IState  of  CaHfornia,  14  feet  in  diameter, 


'-'^ffv'Vl 


IRVING  M.  scorr. 


with  plates  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  sustaining  a 
pressure  of  100  pounds  of  steam.  The  weight  of  each 
one  was  nearly  80  tons,  and  up  to  that  date  they  were 
the  largest  ever  manufactured  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  blacksmith-shop,  contiguous  to  the  boiler-shop, 
is  supplied  with  steam-^iammers,  with  hydraulic  cranes, 
and  all  the  best  designs  in  the  shape  of  tools  and  ap- 
pliances required  for  forging  and  other  work.  A  fea- 
ture in  the  entire  establishment  is  the  use  of  hydraulic 
power,  employed  as  far  as  is  practicable  in  all  mechan- 
ical processes,  even  to  the  opening  and  closing  of  doors 
and  gates.  The  sanitary  arrangements  are  of  the 
best,  and  the  buildings  are  well  lighted,  most  of  them 
by  windows  of  corrugated  glass  fifteen  feet  by  twelve, 
and  at  night  by  the  electric  dynamos  contained  in  the 
engine-room. 

North  of  the  workshops  is  the  ship-yard,  with  four 
building-slips  of  an  aggregate  area  of  120,000  square 
feet,  three  of  them    fitted  with  overhead  travelling 
cranes,  for  lifting  plates  and  placing  them  in  any  posi- 
tion while  vessels  are  under  construction.     The  build- 
ings include  a  machine-shed,  with  draughting-room,  a 
mould-loft,  above  which  is  a  dining-room,  frame-bend- 
ing sheds,  blacksmith,  coppersmith,  joiner,  polishing, 
galvanizing,   pipe -fitting,    and    marine  repair    shops, 
boiler  and  engine  houses,  and  several  store-rooms  and 
offices,  with  a  total  floor  area  of  75,000  square  feet, 
the  open  storage  room  of  the  yard  being  250,000  feet. 
To  this  must  be  added  1 15,000  feet  of  wharves,  with  a 
water  frontage  of  2,100  linear  feet.     The  main  wharf 
will  sustain  on  its  car- track  a  load  of  100  tons,  and 
is  supplied  with  the  iron  shears  already  mentioned, 
110  feet  in  height,  capable  of  hoisting  machinery  of 
the  heaviest  description  into  tlio  largest  ship  afloat. 
On  the  outer  wharf  is  another  pair  of  shears,  80  feet 
high,  and  with  a  lifting  capacity  of  30   tons.     The 
hydraulic  dry-dock,  435  feet  long  and  66  in  width,  is 
capable  of  lifting  a  dead  weight  of  4,500  tons,  and  is 
supplied  with  all  the  best  appliances  for  handling  ves- 


(vm 


tl! 


AGENCY  OF  INDUSTRY. 


r> 


i: 


i»w 


ill 


^  i  ^! 


sels  of  the  heaviest  tonnage.  Here,  since  1887,  ships 
have  been  docked  with  an  aggregate  of  nearly  500,000 
tons  displacement. 

Among  the  tools  and  appliances  in  the  ship-yard 
are  punches  that  will  punch  through  plates  an  inch 
and  a  quarter  in  thickness ;  drilling-machines  ;  plate- 
planers,  of  which  thti  largest  will  plane  a  plate  thirty 
feet  long  and  eight  in  width;  a  large  hydraulic  press, 
that  will  bend,  without  heating,  steel  plates  three 
inches  in  thickness  into  any  shapa  reqi"»"^d;  a  plate- 
furnace  and  slabs;  a  frame-bending  .  aace,  and  a 
scrieve-board  one  hundred  by  forty-five  feet.  In  the 
blacksmith,  joiner,  and  other  shops  are  all  the  neces- 
sary implements,  and  those  of  most  recent  pattern, 
the  first  being  supplied  with  steam-hammers,  and  the 
second  with  all  the  machinery  requisite  for  working 
in  wood.  In  the  moulding-loft  and  drawing-room, 
where  the  lines  of  ships  are  planned  and  traced,  are 
also  the  best  of  modern  conveniences. 

Such  in  the  spring  of  1891  were  the  Union  Iron- 
works, with  their  25  acres  of  ground,  one  third  of  it 
under  roof,  with  1,400  workmen,  with  $2,000,000  of 
invested  capital,  and  with  tools,  machinery,  and 
facilities  as  large  and  powerful  as  any  in  the  United 
States ;  all  this  the  outcome  of  the  blacksmith-snop 
on  Montgomery  street,  with  a  roofless  tent  for  its 
only  edifice,  and  for  appliances  the  funnel  of  f,  dis- 
mantled steamer,  and  a  pair  of  wheez}^  ( Id-fashionec! 
bellows.  And  yet  these  works,  though  far  in  advance 
of  all  others  on  this  coast,  arc  by  no  means  in  advance 
of  the  demands  of  the  time,  have  by  no  means  reached, 
as  yet,  their  fullest  development.  With  a  larger 
capital,  with  labor  at  cheaper  rates  and  of  more  reli- 
able character,  with  a  revival  in  the  ship-building 
trade,  and  with  more  liberal  legislation  in  this  direc- 
tion, there  is  no  practical  limit  to  their  future  growth. 
The  possibilities  of  that  future  can  only  be  gauged  by 
the  ability  and  enterprise  of  their  owners,  and  by  the 
funds  at  their  disposal.     Of  the  former  we  have  al- 


-snop 

its 

dls- 


reli 


IRVING  M.  SCOTT. 


469 


ready  had  sufficient  proof,  and  erelong  the  latter  will 
doubtless  be  at  their  command.  Here,  should  Mr 
Scott  be  spared  to  work  out  his  life's  ideal,  may  be 
found  such  works  as  will  more  largely  compete  with 
the  shipping-yards  of  Philadelphia  and  the  Clyde. 
Here  may  be  steel  and  forging  departments,  where 
the  most  ponderous  shafts  and  the  heaviest  guns  can 
be  manufactured,  such  guns  as  those  of  Bethlehem  in 
Pennsylvania,  Cruesot  in  France,  of  Krupp  in  Ger- 
many, and  of  Whitworth  in  England.  All  these  re- 
sults are  more  than  possible,  are  more  than  probable, 
considering  what  has  already  been  accomplished ;  for 
liere  have  been  worked  out  some  of  the  greatest  ex- 
periments ever  attempted  by  mankind — experiments 
that  would  surely  have  resulted  in  failure,  except  in 
the  hands  of  one  who  knows  no  such  word  as  fail. 

And  now  let  us  hear  what  has  already  been  achieved 
in  the  way  of  ship-building  on  the  Pacific  coast,  more 
especially  at  the  Union  Iron- works.  With  a  large 
extent  of  soa-coast  containing  many  safe  and  commo- 
dious harbors,  with  an  extensive  maritime  commerce, 
and  an  abundance  of  material  and  of  skilled  mechanics, 
ship-building  was  among  the  first  of  our  manufactur- 
ing industries.  Within  a  few  years  after  the  gold 
discovery  there  were  several  ship-yards  on  the  shores 
of  San  Francisco  harbor,  with  others  at  Oakland, 
Vallejo,  and  Humboldt  bay,  on  Puget  sound,  and  on 
the  banks  of  the  Columbia  river.  Nevertheless  it  was 
not  until  1865  tliat  the  first  vessel  was  produced  of 
more  than  500  tons  register,  and  for  many  years  later 
most  of  them  were  coasting  craft,  or  steamboats  and 
schooners  intended  only  for  harbor  and  river  naviga- 
tion. To  the  building  of  larger  vessels  there  were 
several  obstacles,  most  of  which  are  in  existence  to- 
day. Chief  among  them  was  that  iron  was  rapidly 
superseding  wood,  as  in  the  end  a  more  economical 
material,  and  on  shipping  iron  the  tariff  imposed  a 
duty  of  $43  a  ton,  against  only  $7.50  on  railroad  iron. 


,1 

7 

if  i 
ill 

Ml 

^iljil     ■ 

1 

1  ^  ■''1 

bH' 

:    ■  ■•  -  : 

!  ■          ■ 

1     ; 

h 

'  ' 

1: 

! 

1  ■.  .i-  . 

470 


AUENCY  OIJ   INDUSTRY. 


Another  drawback  was  the  cost  of  labor,  ship-cAr- 
penters  receiving  from  $4  to  $5  a  day — much  higher 
rates  than  were  paid  in  eastern  yards  and  nearly 
double  those  paid  in  Europe.  Thus  even  in  the  case 
of  wooden  ships,  the  cost  of  building  and  equipment 
for  a  vessel  of  1,000  tons  would  be  in  California  at  the 
rate  of  $75  per  ton,  against  $65  in  the  eastern  states 
and  $55  in  England.  As  to  iron  ships,  except  for  a 
few  small  steamers,  it  was  not  until  recent  years  that 
they  were  even  attempted,  and  in  this,  as  in  other  di- 
rections, it  remained  for  the  Union  Iron-works  to  lead 
the  way. 

In  1860,  when  Mr  Scott  first  joined  the  Donahue 
foundry,  engines  and  boilers  were  being  manufactured 
for  the  sloop-of-war  Saginaw,  with  others  constructed 
before  and  after  that  date  for  high-pressure  river 
boats  and  stern-wheel  steamers.  As  yet  no  hulls  had 
been  built,  though  in  1863  the  monitor  Comanche, 
fashioned  in  the  eastern  states,  was  shipped  in  pieces 
to  San  Francisco  on  board  the  Aquila,  and  after  being 
put  together,  was  launched  by  Peter  Donahue  with 
the  aid  of  the  builder  and  James  T.  Rynan.  For 
several  years  thereafter  the  only  important  work  of 
this  description  was  the  manufacture  of  the  engines 
for  the  steamboat  Capitol. 

It  was  not  until  1882,  after  the  present  firm  had 
been  incorporated  as  the  Union  Iron-works,  that  its 
first  contract  was  made  with  the  government,  and 
that  only  for  the  caisson  of  the  dry-docks  at  the  Mare 
Island  navy-yards.  Even  this  small  favor  was  ob- 
tained with  the  greatest  difficulty,  and  would  probably 
never  have  been  granted  but  for  the  persistent  efforts 
of  Mr  Scott,  who  laid  his  case  in  person  before  the  sec- 
retary of  the  navy,  W.  E.  Chandler.  True,  his  bid 
was  the  lowest;  but  could  the  future  artificer  of  the 
Charleston  and  San  Francisco,  the  Monterey  and  Oregon, 
give  proof  of  his  ability  to  perform  this  stupendous  task 
— of  building  a  caisson  ?  Then  there  was  the  jealousy 
of  eastern  firms,  with  all  the  adverse  influences  which 


IRVING   M.  SCOTT. 


4tl 


they  brought  to  bear,  asking  in  sneering  tones,  as  did 
the  Pharisees  of  old,  "Can  any  good  thing  come  out 
of  San  Francisco?"  At  length,  after  more  delay  than 
would  be  required  for  negotiating  a  national  loan,  the 
contract  was  awarded,  and  the  caisson  built  and  de- 
livered, without  the  first  dispute  or  discrepancy  as  to 
any  portion  of  the  work. 

Early  in  the  Cleveland  administration,  bids  were 
invited  for  the  cruiser  Charleston,  and  again  that  of 
the  Union  Iron- works  was  the  lowest  one  received. 
After  a  careful  examination  of  their  facilities,  together 
with  the  financial  condition  of  the  company,  and  the 
reputation  of  its  members  for  skill  and  business  in- 
tegrity, the  contract  was  awarded  to  Mr  Scott  and 
his  colleagues.  In  1889  the  launch  of  the  Charleston, 
a  vessel  of  3,750  tons  displacement,  of  7,000  horse- 
power, and  with  a  speed  of  19  knots  an  hour,  opened 
a  new  era  in  the  annals  of  San  Frcncisco  ship-build- 
ing, proving,  as  it  did,  beyond  a  peradventure,  the 
ability  of  the  Union  works  to  compete  with  eastern 
foundries  in  the  building  of  steel  cruisers  of  the  larger 
class. 

But  as  the  bids  were  then  being  made  for  other 
vessels,  to  obtain  any  further  contracts  at  the  lowest 
figures  would  leave  the  company  no  margin  of  profit. 
Through  the  efforts  of  Mr  Scott,  with  the  aid  of  cer- 
tain congressmen,  whose  support  was  readily  granted, 
and  especially  of  Senator  Morgan  of  Alabama,  the 
act  which  authorized  the  building  of  cruisers  was  so 
amended  in  1885  as  to  provide  that  one  of  them  should 
be  built  on  Pacific  waters,  though  authorizing  the  pres- 
ident and  the  secretary  of  the  navy,  if  unable  to  con- 
tract at  reasonable  prices,  to  order  their  construction 
in  such  navy-yards  as  they  might  designate.  Under 
this  amended  act  the  steel  cruiser  San  Francisco  was 
awarded  to  the  Union  Iron-works  at  a  price  only 
$18,000  higher  than  the  lowest  bid  of  eastern  ship- 
builders. The  performance  of  this  vessel,  which  was 
launched  in  the  spring  of  1890,  was  of  4,130  tons 


m 


1 1 


ii| 

m 


m 


II 


ii.tei 


472 


AGENCY  OF  INDUSTRY. 


displacement,  of  10,000  horse-power,  and  with  a  speed 
of  20  knots,  surpassed  even  that  of  the  Charleston. 
Under  a  forced  blast,  during  the  four  hours'  run  at 
her  official  trial  in  the  Santa  Bdrbara  channel,  she 
exceeded  by  nearly  two  knots  the  required  limit, 
making  the  fastest  time  that  had  ever  been  recorded 
for  a  cruiser  of  her  class. 

In  a  subsequent  act  of  congress,  permitting  the  con- 
struction of  additional  war-ships,  the  clause  referred 
to  w"s  omitted  ;  but  on  account  of  some  irregularity, 
the  bids  of  eastern  ship-builders  for  the  coast-defence 
vessel  Monterey  were  thrown  out,  and  the  contract  was 
awarded  to  the  Union  works. 

The  28th  of  April,  1891,  was  a  day  that  will  not  be 
readily  forgotten  by  Irving  M.  Scott,  for  then  it  was 
that  the  Monterey,  his  latest  triumph  in  naval  architec- 
ture, was  launched  in  the  presence  of  President  Har- 
rison, of  the  postmaster-general,  and  an  assemblage  of 
more  than  20,000  citizens,  among  them  being  many  of 
our  state  and  local  officials,  our  leading  men  in  the  pro- 
fessions and  business.  The  success  of  the  launch  was 
perfect,  so  perfect,  indeed,  as  to  call  forth  the  warm- 
est encomiums  of  the  nation's  chief  executive,  enco- 
miums more  than  once  repeated  as  arm  in  arm  with 
Mr  Scott  he  made  the  tour  of  the  Union  Iron- works. 

Then  came  the  contracts  for  cruisers  number  two  and 
number  six,  the  latter,  a  vessel  of  5,800  tons,  13,500 
horse-power,  and  a  speed  of  20  knots,  being  assigned 
to  the  Union  works  as  the  only  responsible  bidder. 
For  the  former  their  bid  was  $50,000  lower  than  those 
of  eastern  ship-builders  on  the  plan  proposed  by  the 
government,  but  $14,000  more  than  what  was  asked  on 
the  plans  proposed  by  the  bidders  themselves.  After 
a  spirited  contest,  attended  with  no  small  degree  of 
popular  excitement,  public  sentiment  being  strongly  in 
favor  of  the  Pacific  coast,  the  contract  was  awarded  to 
an  eastern  firm. 

A  year  or  two  later,  when  the  building  of  other 
vessels  was  authorized,  the  amendment  was  again  in- 
troduced, providing,  on  this  occasion,  tlmt  one  or  more 


IRVING  M.  SCOIT. 


m 


ly  m 
dto 


of  them  be  built  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Under  its  pro- 
visions the  Union  works  secured  the  contract  for  the 
line-of-battle  ship  Oregon,  an  iron-clad,  with  the  heavi- 
est battery  ever  carried  under  such  conditions  of  speed 
and  coal  endurance,  one  of  the  very  highest  type,  and 
never  before  attempted  in  the  history  of  naval  archi- 
tecture. Her  length  on  the  water  line  will  be  348 
feet,  with  an  extreme  breadth  of  69 J  feet,  and  a  mean 
draught  of  24  feet;  displacement,  10,200  tons;  indi- 
cated horse-power,  9,000;  and  estimated  speed,  15 
knots  an  hour.  Her  armament  will  consist  of  16 
breech-loading  rifle-guns,  four  of  them  of  13-inch, 
eight  of  8-inch,  and  four  of  6-inch  bore ;  four  Hotch- 
kiss  revolving  cannon;  six  Howell  torpedo-boats,  and 
28  rapid-firing  rifle-guns.  Thus  we  have  five  large 
men-of-war  already  constructed  or  to  be  constructed 
at  the  Union  Iron-works,  and  as  the  results  obtained 
have  far  surpassed  all  expectation,  surpassed  even  the 
efforts  of  the  foremost  of  eastern  firms,  such  firms  as 
Cramp  and  sons  of  Philadelphia,  further  contracts  will 
doubtless  be  awarded  to  them  as  additions  are  made 
to  our  naval  marine. 

Before  the  outbreak  of  the  rebellion,  the  construc- 
tion of  war-ships  had  been  restricted  to  single  and 
double  turreted  monitors,  with  corvettes  for  revenue 
and  other  service,  most  of  them  built  of  wood.  Then 
came  Ericsson's  iron  monitors  mounted  with  nmooth- 
bore  guns,  working  a  complete  revolution  in  naval 
architecture.  In  later  years,  we  have  in  the  Dolphin^ 
Atlanta,  Boston,  and  Chicago,  some  of  the  highest  types 
of  vessels  built  or  ordered  by  the  government ;  but  all 
of  them  have  been  excelled  by  the  Union  Iron-  works. 
As  in  the  Charleston  we  have  the  highest  evolution  of 
a  single- turreted  monitor  attained  at  the  time  of  her 
contract,  so  in  the  San  Francisci  we  have  the  highest 
type  of  a  swift  and  powerful  cruiser,  and  in  the  Mon- 
terey, an  armor-plated  and  double-turreted  monitor  of 
stronger  offensive  and  defensive  armor  than  any  that 
has  yet  been  produced.     In  design  and  workmanship, 


«m 


^.'!ii 


m 


AG£NCY  OF  INDUSTRY. 


Ik*,* 


I  ■' 

id  ! 


I)   r 


these  vessels,  all  of  them  built  under  the  personal 
superintendence  of  Mr  Scott,  have  never  been  ex- 
celled by  any  ship-yard  in  the  United  States,  and  in 
performance  they  have  never  as  yet   been  equalled. 

Many  additions  the  Union  works  have  made  to  our 
commercial  marine  since  first,  in  1884,  they  added 
ship-building  to  the  other  branches  of  their  business. 
In  the  following  year  was  launched  the  screw  steamer 
Arago,  of  1,450  tons,  the  first  all-steel  merchant  vessel 
built  in  the  United  States.  In  1886  were  completed 
the  steam-yacht  Adeline,  the  government  harbor-boat 
General  McDowell,  and  the  steamer  Balboa;  in  1887, 
the  steel  lake- steamer  Meteor,  the  steel  passenger- 
stf«»mer  Premier,  of  850  tons,  the  steel  passenger  and 
freight  steamer  Pomona,  of  1,750  tons,  and  the  steel 
tug  Active;  in  1888,  the  steel  tug  Collis,  and  the  steel 
launch  Romola;  and  in  1890,  the  steel  yacht  Whisper; 
or  a  total,  from  1884  to  the  close  of  1890,  including  the 
war-ships  already  mentioned,  of  17,274  tons,  nearly 
all  consisting  of  steel-clad  vessels. 

While  during  the  construction  of  the  Charleston, 
San  Francisco,  and  Monterey  there  were  but  few  or- 
ders for  merchant  or  passenger  steamers,  many  orders 
were  filled  for  boilers  and  machinery,  for  repairs,  and 
other  classes  of  work.  For  several  large  ocean-going 
craft  boilers  were  supplied,  with  such  repairs  as  the 
fitting  of  bulk-heads,  keelsons,  reverse-frames,  and 
floor-plates.  Others  were  refitted  with  masts  and 
spars,  or  repaired  in  the  hull,  and  on  still  others  ad- 
ditions were  made  to  their  passenger  accommodation. 
The  Walla  Walla,  San  Pablo,  and  Umatilla  were  con- 
verted from  freight  into  passenger  boats,  each  with  a 
hurricane-deck,  with  saloons  handsomely  finished  in 
hard  wood  and  furnished  with  electric  lights.  Sev- 
eral vessels  which  hs^d  been  sunk,  or  had  suffered 
from  collision,  were  partially  rebuilt,  as  the  Umatilla, 
the  Queen  of  the  Pacific,  the  Arago,  the  Walla  Walla, 
and  the  Earl  of  Dalhonsie.  The  Keriilworth,  which 
took  fire  at  the  Port  Costa  wharf,  while  loading  with 


IRVING  M.  SCOTT. 


476 


con- 
ith  a 
id  in 
Sev- 
ered 
tilla, 
alia, 
hich 
with 


wheat,  was  reconstructed  from  the  'tween  decks  up 
ward,  and  on  others,  too  numerous  here  to  be  men- 
tioned, extensive  repairs  and  additions  were  made. 

While  thus  building  and  repairing  vessels  of  every 
size,  from  a  10-ton  yacht  to  a  10,000-ton  line-of-battle 
ship,  the  Union  Iron-works  furnished  employment,  as 
I  have  said,  to  some  1,400  workmen,  and  indirectly  to 
several  thousands  more.  As  their  supplies  and  material 
were  largely  purchased  in  San  Francisco,  they  swelled 
the  business  volume  of  the  metropolis,  while  their  im- 
ports and  exports  added  to  the  business  of  railroads  and 
ship-owners.  Since  the  works  were  removed  to  the 
Potrero,  hundreds  of  dwellings  and  stores  have  been 
erected  in  their  neighborhood,  and  real  estate  has  in- 
creased enormously  in  value.  All  these  and  other 
benefits  have  been  wrought  by  the  young  draughts- 
man who,  some  thirty  years  ago,  entered  the  foundry 
of  Peter  Donahue  at  a  salary  of  less  than  $100  a 
month.  In  the  truest  sense  of  the  word  has  Irving 
M.  Scott  been  a  builder  of  this  our  western  common- 
wealth; for  his  it  has  ever  been  to  build  up,  and  not  to 
destroy.  The  work  that  he  has  done  has  been  for  the 
benefit  of  state  and  nation,  far  more  than  for  his  own; 
and  for  every  dollar  that  he  has  earned  for  himself,  his 
inventions  alone  have  added  at  least  a  hundred  to  t!ie 
sum  of  that  nation's  wealth. 

To  the  visitor  who  may  be  accorded  the  privilege 
of  spending  a  few  hours  at  the  Union  Iron-works,  the 
first  thing  that  will  occur  is  the  perfect  order  and 
system  that  prevail  in  every  department,  and  the  next 
is  the  ubiquitous  presence  of  Irving  M.  Scott.  In 
the  drawing-room  he  will  be  found  perfecting  some 
new  design,  or  testing  the  accuracy  of  the  draughts- 
men's plans;  in  the  ship-yard,  making  a  close  and  crit- 
ical inspection  of  the  work,  and  especially  that  on  the 
war-vessel  which  may  at  the  time  be  on  hand.  Ex- 
cept for  a  second  tour  of  the  works  before  the  time  of 
closing,  the  afternoon  hours  are  passed  for  the  most 
part  at  his  office,  attending  to  a  multiplicity  of  duties. 


41 


476 


AOBNOY  OF  INDUSTRY. 


WW: 


W 


m 


If  time  permit,  he  may  enter  into  conversation,  espe- 
cially as  to  the  projects  which  he  has  nearest  at  heart. ' 
Like  other  self-made  and  successful  men,  he  feels  that 
he  has  still  a  destiny  before  him;  that  he  has  still  a 
great  work  to  accomplish,  not  for  his  own  advance- 
ment, but  for  the  benefit  of  his  fellow-man.  On 
money  for  i>ts  own  sake  he  places  but  little  value,  re- 
garding it  only  as  a  means  to  an  end,  and  to  him  no 
task  could  be  more  distasteful  than  that  of  adding 
dollar  to  dollar  as  a  raiser  accumulates  his  hoard. 
If  he  has  gathered  for  himself  a  moderate  fortune, 
moderate,  at  least,  as  fortunes  are  now  computed,  he 
has  added  infinitely  more  to  the  possessions  of  others. 
He  considers  it  almost  as  a  duty  to  provide  at  remu- 
nerative wages  every  possible  source  of  employment 
for  the  greatest  possible  number,  and  partly  with  this 
view  it  is  rimong  his  projects  to  establish  at  the  Union 
Iron-works  a  department  for  the  manufacture  of  steel 
in  all  its  modern  forms.  Should  he  speak  of  his 
ov/n  personal  efforts  in  securing  the  contracts  for  the 
Charleston  and  other  war-ships,  he  would  mention  this 
as  among  the  most  trying  experience  of  his  life;  for 
then  he  fought  single-handed,  and  in  the  face  of  the 
keenest  competition,  against  the  prejudice  and  igno- 
rance of  officials  and  the  enmity  of  rivals,  fought 
against  sectional  jealousies  and  combinations,  social, 
financial,  and  political. 

Many  were  the  congratulations  extended  to  Mr 
Scott  on  returning  from  his  several  visits  to  Washing- 
ton, and  especially  when  he  brought  with  him  the 
contract  for  the  Monterey.  The  press  did  justice  to 
the  occasion,  and  from  bankers,  nierchants,  and  me- 
chanics came  memorials  that  betokened  their  esteem. 
But  the  one  which  he  valued  most  was  a  memorial 
tVom  his  own  workmen,  presented  on  the  10th  of 
June,  1890,  and  of  which  the  following  is  a  copy: 

**  We,  the  workingmon  of  the  Union  Iron- works, 
conjpintly  with  your  friends,  desire  on  this  occasion 
to  give  expression  of  our  ap[)reciation  of  the  sterling 


IRVING  M.  SCOTT. 


m 


no- 


Mr 
ling- 

the 
je  to 

me- 
lee m. 
lorial 
Ih  of 

)rks, 
Islon 


lin 


tr 


ability,  untiring  energy,  and  devotion  displayed  by  you 
in  the  interest  and  welfare  of  California. 

"  You  have  labored  hard  and  steadfastly  for  the  ini- 
provenibnt  of  our  state,  a  state  scarcely  forty  years  of 
age,  but  made,  by  the  earnest  endeavors  of  yourself 
and  others,  one  of  the  brightest  stars  in  the  galaxy  of 
states. 

"  Through  your  efforts  California  has  been  recog- 
nized as  capable  of  building  a  portion  of  our  new  navy; 
and  the  Charleston  rides  the  sea  to-day,  a  monument 
of  your  ability  and  skill. 

"  You  return  to  us  laden  with  other  contracts,  which 
will  again  test  the  ability  and  resources  of  California, 
and  again  prove  the  confidence  reposed  in  you  by  our 
government. 

"  We  welcome  you  to  your  home,  we  welcome  you 
to  our  hearts,  and  bid  you  God-speed  in  your  efforts 
to  enlarge  the  sphere  of  usefulness  of  your  fellow-men. 

"  As  citizens  of  California,  we  share  with  you  the 
honor  you  have  so  nobly  won,  and  claim  the  right  to 
say:  'God  bless  you,  Irving  M.  Scott."* 

In  the  chamber  of  commerce,  of  which,  as  of  the 
manufacturers'  association,  Mr  Scott  is  a  member,  a 
motion  was  introduced  to  tender  its  congratulations 
o'/i  the  success  of  the  Charleston  in  passing  her  official 
test.  "  But,"  said  one  of  the  wise  men  of  that  honor- 
able association,  "  we  cannot  commit  the  chamber  of 
coramerce  ;  for  they  might  have  made  a  failure."  To 
this  another  member  replied  :  "  It  is  of  great  benefit 
to  the  coast,  even  if  they  had  never  succeeded."  In 
truth  Mr  Scott  was  not  without  his  detractors,  and 
among  them  were  many  who  predicted  not  only  his 
failure  in  the  building  of  armored  cruisers,  but  the 
utter  collapse  of  the  entire  establishment,  to  which, 
when  half-finished,  they  had  given  the  name  of  the 
Scott  cathedral.  But  those  laugh  best  who  lauijh 
last,  and  long  ago  he  had  schooled  himself  to  regard 
the  world's  opinion  with  philosophical  indifference. 
Certain  it  is  that  never,  in  the  darkest  hour  of  his 


m 

■i   'Mi 


i     .  !    I 


mi :  ^ ' 


Ai.iiii 


\m 


•J  t 


^i 


;''^  I 


AGENCY  OF  INDUSTRY. 


trial,  did  the  artificer  of  the  Union  Iron- works  lose 
faith  in  their  success. 

Before  taking  leave  of  these  works  it  may  be  men- 
tioned that  here  was  constructed  the  largest  quartz- 
mill  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  with  one  exception,  the 
heaviest  pumping  machinery,  the  latter  erected,  at  a 
cost  of  $500,000,  for  the  Union  Consolidated  mine, 
and  capable  of  hoisting  from  a  depth  of  4,000  feet 
106,000  gallons  an  hour.  Here  also  was  built  the 
huge  dome  of  the  Lick  observatory,  declared  by  Lord 
Rosse  to  be  the  greatest  mechanical  feat  of  the  age. 

In  other  directions,  apart  from  ihc  L^nion  Iron- 
works, with  its  manifold  and  far-reaching  oporationo, 
the  skill  and  enterprise  of  Irving  M.  Scott  have  left 
their  impress  on  the  industries  and  institutions  of  the 
Pacific  coast.  To  him  was  largely  due,  as  one  of  vhe 
promoters  and  largest  shareholders,  the  development 
of  the  Clipper  Gap  iron  mine,  probably  the  richest  in 
California.  As  a  director  in  the  Donahue-Kelly  bank- 
ing incorporation,  the  successor  to  one  of  the  oldest  and 
most  successful  private  banks  in  the  state,  he  has  given 
proof  of  his  ability  as  a  financier.  As  president  of  the 
San  Francisco  Art  association,  of  the  Mechanics'  insti- 
tute, and  the  Young  Men's  Republican  club,  as  a  regent 
of  the  university  of  California,  as  a  trustee  of  the  Le- 
land  Stanford  university,  of  the  San  Francisco  academy 
of  sciences,  and  of  the  Free  library,  his  influence  has 
also  made  itself  felt.  Nor  should  his  services  be  for- 
gotten when,  in  1877,  as  a  member  of  the  executive 
committee,  he  assisted  in  quelling,  without  bloodshed, 
the  riots  of  a  ruffian  mob.  He  was  also  one  of  those 
appointed  to  receive  the  Japanese  embassy  in  1879,  to 
extend  to  General  Grant,  at  his  arrival  in  thiw  Ky  onv 
his  world-embracing  tour,  the  welcome  of  h(  .zens, 
and  to  preside  as  chairman  of  the  literary  rcise- 
which  all  too  soon  were  lield  in  honor  of  his  mc  uior  . 
He  was  chosen  one  of  the  judges  for  the  centennial 
exhibition  at  Philadelphia,  and  finally,  in  April  1891, 
he  was  elected  by  a  unanimous  vote  president  of  the 


those 
'9     o 


Icise 


inial 

1891, 

the 


IKVINIJ   M.  SCOTT. 


479 


Qajifornia  commission  to  represent  that  state  at  the 
world's  fair  in  Chicago  in  1893,  representing  also,  in 
coniunction  with  James  D.  Phelan,  her  commercial 
ana  manufacturing  intnrests ;  also  appointed  one  of  the 
reception  committee  to  receive  President  Harrison. 

Though  a  native  of  Maryland,  and  reared  under 
southern  influences,  in  his  political  creed  Mr  Scott  is 
a  thorough  republican,  always  regarding  slavery  as 
an  evil,  and  one  in  conflict  with  the  principles  laid 
down  in  the  declaration  of  independence.  So  long  as 
it  existed  as  a  state  right,  and  as  such  was  recognized 
by  the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  he  held  that 
the  provisions  relating  thereto,  as  expounded  by 
Daniel  Webster,  should  be  maintained  in  their  integ- 
rity. But  when  the  south  rose  in  arms,  attempting 
by  force  to  fasten  this  institution  on  the  American 
people,  his  very  soul  revolted,  and  striving  with  all  his 
might  against  the  iniquity,  he  never  ceased  his  efforts 
until  the  shackles  fell  from  every  slave,  and  the  foul 
stain  of  compulsory  servitude  disappeared  from  the 
face  of  the  land. 

In  local  politics  he  has  taken  an  active  part,  re- 
ceiving in  1872  the  republican  nomination  for  the 
state  senatorsliip,  on  which  occasion  he  led  his  ticket, 
thoqgh  the  so-called  Dolly  Vardens  carried  the  day. 
In  casting  his  ballot  he  votes  fo '  the  man,  and  not  for 
the  party,  serving  for  twelve  years  as  a  member  of 
the  tax-payers'  convention,  whose  object  was  to  nom- 
inate for  office  honest  and  capable  men,  irrespective 
of  creed  or  sect. 

As  to  his  political  opinions.  '^  'rtzy,  iirst  of  all,  be 
stated  that  Mr  Scott  is  a  strong  protectionist,  pointing, 
in  support  of  his  theory,  to  the  eflect  on  the  industries 
of  the  country  of  the  alternating  policy  of  the  several 
parties  in  power.  Without  exception,  as  he  remarks, 
adversity  has  attended  the  adoption  of  free  trade,  and 
prosperity  followed  in  the  wake  of  protection.  Thus 
under  the  former  regime,  the  periods  between  1816 
ap4  1824.  1832  and  1842,  ittid   1846  and   1861,  were 


I      i 


fpf 

w 

IM*:';-!- 

■   rfj 

'  ■*:.■ 

'■•'i 

\»^ : 

n 

y,. 

'i . 

480 


AGENCY  OF  INDUSTRY. 


marked  by  business  depression,  while  during  the  in- 
tervening eras  the  United  States  gradually  attained 
to  their  present  rank  as  the  greatest  of  commercial 
and  wealth-producing  nations,  the  increase  of  national 
wealth  oince  1860  exceeding  $40,000,000,000.  He  is 
also  st'x'ongly  in  favor  of  amendments  to  our  immigra- 
tion laws,  believing  that  unrestricted  immigration, 
whether  Asiatic  or  European,  is  fraught  with  serious 
peril  to  the  commonwealth.  For  his  views  on  these 
and  kindred  pubjects  I  refer  the  reader  to  one  of  his 
magazine  articles  published  in  the  Ch^erland  Monthly 
for  October  1886,  and  from  which  I  will  here  give 
a  few  brief  extracts. 

Quoting  from  a  speech  of  Henry  Clay  in  which 
the  great  orator  remarks:  "The  great  battle  of  the 
world  is  between  freedom  and  despotism ;  between 
European  capital  and  labor  on  one  side,  and  Ameri- 
can labor  and  capital  on  the  other.  On  this  point 
turns  the  destiny  of  nations,"  Mr  Scott  continues : 
"Since  the  utterance  of  this  great  truth  fifty  years 
ago,  despotism  has  immensely  increased  its  forces,  has 
enlisted  Asiatic  labor,  and  multiplied  the  machine  la- 
bor of  Europe  indefinitely,  so  that  now,  in  this  ag- 
gression of  despotism,  American  labor  is  besieged  on 
the  west  by  an  army  of*  Chinese  labor  four  hundred 
million  strong,  and  on  the  east  by  the  still  more  pow- 
erful forces  of  European  capital  and  European  pauper 
labor,  on  the  north  by  French  Canadian  labor,  and  on 
the  south  by  that  of  Mexican  peonage.  The  conflict 
between  these  allied  forces  and  free  American  labor 
is  irrepressible.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  peace  be- 
tween them.  I  appeal  to  the  evidence,  the  facts  in 
the  case.  The  civilization  of  the  Asiatic  division  is  in 
deadly  hostility  to  the  civilization  of  progress.  The 
vices  of  seventy  centuries  of  uniform  despotism  and 
slavery  seem  to  be  infused  into  the  mind  and  consti- 
tution of  the  Chinese,  and  so  far  our  experience  with 
this  foreign  foe  indicates  that  seventy  centuries  more 
will  be  required  to  eliminate  these  inherited  or  con- 
stitutional vices. 


IRVING  M.  SCOTT. 


481 


has 
I  la- 
ag- 
d  on 
idred 

)OW- 

luper 
d  on 

nflict 
abor 

e  be- 
ts in 
is  in 
Tho 
and 
nsti  - 
with 
■nore 
con- 


"Who  so  blind  as  not  to  perceive  that  unrestricted 
Chinese  immigration  into  this  country — in  other 
words,  Asiatic  slavery — means  war,  war  to  the  hilt, 
between  servile  and  free  labor,  war  whose  consuming 
flames  will  far  exceed  in  intensity  of  heat  and  in  scope 
those  that  a  few  years  ago,  in  consequence  of  African 
slavery,  seriously  threatened  the  destruction  of  the 
American  union?  African  slavery  was  involuntary, 
and  limited ;  Chinese  slavery  is  the  normal  condition 
of  the  mass  of  that  people,  and  is  virtually  unlimited  ; 
hence  its  greater  menace  to  free  labor. 

"The  restriction  of  such  foreign  immigration  and 
foreign  imports  as  are  injurious  to  our  domestic  affairs 
should  be  written  on  the  title-page  of  every  American 
work  on  political  economy,  taught  in  our  public  schools 
and  at  the  home  fireside,  proclaimed  from  the  Ameri- 
can pulpit,  and  made  the  fundamental  law  of  the  land. 
I  have  already  stated  that  Chinese  immigration  and 
European  pauper  immigration  are  injurious — are  a 
curse  to  our  domestic  affairs.  They  should  therefore 
be  restricted  to  the  extent  of  utter  prohibition.  For 
the  determination  of  what  foreign  imports  are  injuri- 
ous, Joshua  Gee,  a  British  writer  of  great  force  and 
clearness,  furnishes  us  with  the  proper  standard,  in 
these  words:  *  The  surest  way  for  a  nation  to  increase 
in  riches  is  to  prevent  the  i:  jportation  of  such  foreign 
commodities  as  may  be  raised  at  home.' 

"  *  The  law  of  nations,'  it  has  been  remarked,  *  en- 
joins upon  every  nation  the  due  observance  of  benevo- 
lence and  good-will,  as  well  as  justice,  toward  its 
neighbors.'  This  iy  the  true  policy  of  a  nation  that 
would  prosper,  be  happy,  and  long  endure.  It  beats 
swords  into  plough -shares,  spears  into  pruning-hooks, 
and  converts  impoverishing  armies  of  war  into  those 
of  peaceful  industry,  by  which  innumerable  homes  are 
cheered  with  the  objects  of  comfort  and  luxury,  and 
the  state  enriched.  This  policy,  pursued  by  the 
United  States  and  Mexico,  will  secure  the  monopoly 
of  their  markets  for  the  products  of  American  labor. 


ii 


■■If' 'I 


C.  B.— 1.    81 


in^i 


Ij.;  ': 


m 

r 

ii'H; 

f     ■-        ;  -; 

i    ''' 

I 

1-1 

t 
1 

j 

( 

1  :; 

j 

i  i'  ■ 

1 

s 

1  ,1'J 

1 

^ 

:     ,;    1 

lii^ 

uL 

182 


AGENCY  OF  INDUSTRY. 


The  aggregate  area  of  these  countries  exceeds  twice 
that  of  Europe,  including  proximate  islands.  Their 
natural  resources  equally  surpass  those  of  that  grand 
division  of  the  globe,  indeed,  their  exuberant  fertil- 
ity yields  an  abundant  harvest,  with  but  little  exer- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  cultivators. 

"  Now  progress  does  not  loiter.  The  immense  re- 
sources of  these  countries  are  to  be  developed;  the 
broad,  fertile  fields  are  to  be  tilled;  the  rich,  exhaust- 
less  mines  worked;  the  extensive  forests  of  timber 
and  choice  woods  are  to  be  felled,  and  their  material 
reared  and  fashioned  into  objects  of  usefulness  and 
beauty ;  the  rare  products  that  minister  to  man's  com- 
forts or  delight  his  senses  are  to  be  gathered  for  his 
uses;  and  the  endless  herds  of  cattle  are  to  be  utilized 
as  food  for  millions  of  the  human  race.  Shall  these 
developments  be  made  under  the  guidance  of  Euro- 
pean nations,  and  to  the  advantage  of  European  labor? 
or  shall  they  be  made  under  the  guidance  of  the  United 
States,  and  to  the  advantage  of  American  labor?  To 
effect  these  developments,  manufactures  to  the  value 
of  billions  of  dollars  will  be  required.  Shall  they  be 
the  manufactures  of  European  labor,  or  of  American 
labor  ? 

"  Our  geographical  position  defies  competition.  Seas 
roll  between  Europe  and  this  matchless  prize,  while 
to  us  it  is  at  hand.  The  locomotive,  the  most  effi- 
cient agent  of  commerce,  practically  annihilates  dis- 
tance. Indeed,  from  that  noble  eminence  whither  the 
firm  steps  of  reason,  not  the  airy  wings  of  fancy,  bear 
us,  are  seen  looming  the  bright  possibilities  of  no  dis- 
tant future;  the  divisions  and  subdivisions  of  the 
American  continent  joined  with  links  of  steel;  and 
the  locomotive,  that  great  apostle  of  progress  and  civ- 
ilization, going  forth,  deiDonstrating  that  the  necessa- 
ries, comforts,  and  luxuries  indigenous  to  the  different 
climes,  are  for  the  enjoymetit  of  the  whole  American 
family,  from  the  frozen  north  to  the  frozen  south,  and 
from  ocean  to  ocean." 


IRVING  M.  scxyrr. 


IPW 


Thus  clearly  and  forcibly  does  Mr  Scott  express 
his  well-considered  and  far-reaching  views  on  the  so- 
cial and  industrial  problems  of  the  day.  As  to  the 
future  of  his  country,  it  will  be  seen  that  he  is  some- 
what of  an  optimist,  and  especially  is  this  the  case 
with  regard  to  the  Pacific  states.  Here,  he  believes, 
can  be  maintained,  with  a  proper  distribution  of  labor, 
and  with  an  equitable  distribution  of  the  earnings  of 
labor,  a  larger  population  to  the  square  mile  than  in 
any  other  portion  of  the  world.  Here,  he  considers, 
they  can  be  better  fed  and  clad  and  housed,  can  be 
better  educated,  and  can  enjoy  in  greater  measure  the 
comforts  and  amenities  of  life.  Nor  is  he  alone  in 
this  opinion,  as  elsewhere  in  this  work  will  be  seen  in 
the  views  expressed  by  others  of  our  leading  citizens. 

And  now  let  us  hear  the  opinions  of  Mr  Scott  as 
to  the  labor  question,  as  to  labor  combinations,  strikes, 
and  trades-unions,  together  with  something  of  their 
history;  for  on  such  topics  his  long  and  varied  expe- 
rience entitles  him  to  rank  as  an  authority.  First  of 
all,  he  believes  that  the  best  results  have  thus  far  been 
obtained  through  the  unfettered  freedom  of  the  individ- 
ual ;  that  the  highest  wages  and  the  most  beneficial 
employment  have  been  given  to  the  greatest  number; 
that  the  sources  of  employment  have  been  most  en- 
larged when  under  no  restraint  from  the  rules  and 
restrictions  of  trades-unions.  Such  organizations, 
when  directed  to  other  than  their  legitimate  purpose 
of  improving  the  social  condition  of  the  v/orkman,  he 
considers  as  among  the  most  demoralizing  that  were 
ever  instituted  for  the  degradation  of  mankind.  In 
the  Overland  Monthly  for  March  1891  we  have  from 
his  own  pen  a  most  able  and  exhaustive  article  in  this 
connection,  one  specially  directed  against  the  consti- 
tution of  t.'io  Iron  Moulders'  union,  and  the  regulations 
of  its  local  branch  in  San  Francisco. 

"An  inspection  of  these  rules  and  laws,"  says  Mr 
Scott,  "shows  that  a  man,  in  becoming  a  member  of 
the  Iron  Moulders'  union,  surrenders  his  individuality 


1*1: 


ill  iii^''' 

III} J  <■  p  "f 


M^#i 


484 


AGENCY  OF  INDUSTRY. 


and  manhood  to  the  organization ;  renounces  his  right 
to  'sign  contracts  with  his  employer';  pledges  himself 
'to  be  governed  by  the  constitution,  rules,  and  usages 
of  the  Iron  Moulders'  union  of  America';  makes 
oath  that  he  will  not  disconnect  himself  from  this 
organization  by  resignation  or  otherwise ;  subjects  him 
to  such  penalties  as  the  union  may  see  fit  to  impose 
upon  him  for  his  failure  on  written  notice  to  attend 
any  regular  or  special  meeting  of  the  union ;  subjects 
him  in  case  of  being  a  foreman,  and  using  his  position 
to  the  detriment  of  the  union  or  any  member  thereof, 
to  be  mulcted  in  a  fine  of  from  $50  to  $200  for  the 
first  offence,  and  for  the  second  offence  to  be  expelled 
from  the  union,  a  penalty  synonymous  with  that  of 
banishment  from  the  country  on  pain  of  social  and 
industrial  death  within  the  arrogated  jurisdiction  of 
the  union;  pledges  himself  not  to  divulge  any  of  the 
secret  work  of  the  union  under  the  penalty  of  expul- 
sion, thus  precluding  redress  through  the  established 
courts  of  justice  for  any  wrong  perpetrated  upon  him 
by  the  union."  But  even  worse  than  all  this  was  the 
unwritten  law  of  the  union,  the  intent  and  application 
of  which  is  determined  solely  by  its  managers — "  a 
law,"  says  Mr  Scott,  "  as  variable  in  its  operation  as 
the  chameleon  in  its  colors."  His  position  and  stand 
for  California  boys,  taken  23  years  ago,  may  be  shown 
by  a  quotation  from  his  statement  published  in  the 
Morning  Call,  July  10,  1869  :  "There  can  be  no  com- 
promise ?  Compromise  what  ?  We  have  invaded  no 
rights  of  theirs  ;  no  rules  of  their  union.  We  placed  a 
California  boy  in  the  core-room,  there  to  remain  until 
a  vacancy  occurred  on  the  moulding-floor  according 
to  the  moulders'  union ;  not  according  to  our  judg- 
ment. They  demand  his  discharge,  or  strike ;  asked 
nothing  else — but  demanded  his  discharge  under  pen- 
alty of  a  strike.  They  did  strike ;  arc  now  on  a 
strike ;  and  as  far  as  we  are  concerned,  may  remain 
on  a  strike  forever.  We  do  not  intend  to  discharge 
the  boy."     That  boy  never  was  discharged. 


IRVING  M.  SCOTT. 


486 


1 


tiie 


a 


It  was  in  June  1869  that  the  first  serious  trouble 
occurred  with  the  union,  and  that  from  a  trivial 
matter  which  need  not  here  be  related,  though  one 
that  clearly  revealed  the  intention  of  its  managers  to 
control  the  Union  Iron-works.  After  an  ineffectual 
remonstrance,  the  proprietors  thus  replied  to  their  de- 
mands: "If  you  order  a  strike  on  this  account,  we 
will  spend  what  means  we  can  command  to  run  this 
foundry  outside  of  the  Moulders'  union,  and  if  we  can- 
not succeed,  we  will  sell  out  to  some  one  who  can." 
The  very  next  day  the  strike  began,  and  was  contin- 
ued for  several  months,  causing  to  the  firm  only  a 
slight  inconvenience,  for  under  the  training  and 
direction  of  Mr  Scott,  non-union  workmen  were  pres- 
ently executing  work  of  excellent  quality  and  at  rates 
from  thirty  to  fifty  per  cent  below  their  former  aver- 
age. Before  the  strike,  for  instance,  the  cost  for 
labor  on  a  quartz  mortar-mould  was  $23;  after  the 
strike  it  was  $12.50.  As  for  the  strikers  themselves, 
within  a  few  months  they  were  only  too  glad  to  re- 
turn to  the  foundry,  with  wages  reduced  from  $4.50 
to  $3  a  day. 

But  here  the  line  was  sharply  drawn,  and  with 
moulders  who  were  also  members  of  the  union  the  firm 
would  have  nothing  more  to  do.  In  answer  to  an  ar- 
ticle in  the  San  Francisco  Chronicle,  the  firm  replied 
that  they  did  not  employ,  and  did  not  intend  to  em- 
ploy, union  men  in  any  capacity.  **  It  is  our  inten- 
tion," they  said,  "to  meet  any  and  all  competition 
from  abroad  or  at  home,  and  pay  such  wages  as  will 
enable  us  to  meet  our  obligations,  always  recognizing 
the  right  of  every  man  to  accept  or  reject  our  terms, 
and  we  never  intend  to  allow  atiy  dictation  as  to  how 
we  shall  conduct  our  business,  whom  we  shall  employ, 
or  what  wages  we  shall  pay." 

Thus,  as  Mr  Soott  remarks,  the  union,  instead  of 
placing  its  feet  on  the  necks  of  its  employers,  itself  bit 
the  dust;  soon,  however,  to  be  resuscitated,  and  with 
pretensions  more  insufferable  than  ever   before.     In 


![m\ 


1 


'kM 


ft 

!  ,1'    1 

•1 

i 

:;|f 

M6 


AGENCY   OP  INDUSTRY. 


February  1885,  another  strike  was  ordered,  cauised 
by  a  proposed  reduction  of  fifteen  per  cent  in  wages 
in  the  Union,  Risdon,  and  Fulton  foundries,  one  due 
to  extreme  depression  in  business,  and  an  abatement 
of  more  than  twenty-five  per  cent  in  the  prices  of 
eastern  machinery.  Although,  as  stated  in  their 
notice,  the  only  alternative  was  the  discharge  of  the 
greater  portion  of  their  employes,  or  perhaps  an  entire 
suspension  of  work,  the  company  conceded  the  point; 
but  with  the  result  that  the  market  was  flooded  with 
eastern  machinery,  and  with  the  diminished  home  de- 
mand, hundreds  of  workmen  lost  their  only  source  of 
employment. 

And  now  there  was  no  limit  to  the  arrogance  of 
the  union  managers.  They  forbade  the  employment, 
not  only  of  non-union  moulders,  but  even  of  appren- 
tices, except  in  the  ratio  of  one  to  eight.  They  for- 
bade employes  to  accept  less  than  $3.50  a  day,  no 
matter  if  their  services  were  dear  at  half  that  rate. 
They  forbade  that  the  hours  of  work  should  be  cur- 
tailed, even  during  the  short  winter  days,  or  when  dull- 
ness of  trade  required  it.  They  sought  to  limit  the 
daily  task  that  each  workman  should  perform,  placing 
that  task  at  less  than  half  the  equivalent  of  a  fair  day's 
work.  They  denied  the  right  of  the  company  to  dis- 
charge any  moulder  who  was  also  a  member  of  the 
union,  no  matter  how  good  and  sufficient  the  reasons. 
They  established  a  system  of  espionage  in  the  sev- 
eral foundries,  with  orders  to  report  all  infringements 
of  their  rules,  appointing  for  that  purpose  a  so-called 
committee,  and  over  that  committee  a  spy,  on  the 
principle,  it  is  presumed,  of  "setting  a  tliief  to  catch 
a  thief"  Chief  among  their  duties  was  to  see  that 
none  of  the  operatives  should  exceed  the  prescribed 
limit  of  work,  to  threaten  those  who  did  so  with  a 
fine  for  the  first  offence,  and  for  the  second,  expulsion 
from  the  union,  a  penalty  more  dreaded  by  the  union 
man  than  was  ostracism  by  the  Athenian.  If  this  be 
not  despotism,  a   despotism  such    as  was  never  at- 


I  A 


IKVma  M.  SCOTT. 


Ml 


no 


a 

siou 

nion 

,  be 

at- 


tempted even  by  the  autocrat  of  all  the  Bussias,  then 
have  we  yet  to  learn  the  meaning  of  thd  word. 

Early  in  1890  matters  came  to  a  crisis.  In  Janu- 
ary of  that  year  the  members  of  the  union,  repre- 
sented by  a  committee,  were  invited  to  a  conference, 
at  which  the  following  most  reasonable  terms  were 
proposed :  That  the  union  should  consent  to  the  ad- 
mission of  a  larger  proportion  of  apprentices,  who,  on 
the  expiration  of  their  term,  should  be  required  to 
work  for  a  year  under  the  foreman's  instruction,  be- 
fore receiving  the  minimum  rate  of  wages ;  that  this 
minimum  be  fixed  at  $3  a  day,  and  that  all  limitation 
on  work  should  cease.  Although  it  was  proved  to 
the  satisfaction  of  the  committee  that  the  wages  paid 
at  the  Union  works  were  fully  75  per  cent  above  the 
eastern  standard,  these  conditions  were  refused,  nor 
was  there  even  the  offer  of  a  compromise,  the  union 
still  persisting  in  a  policy  which  wrought  intolerable 
hardship  to  the  members  of  the  Founders'  association. 

At  length  their  patience  was  exhausted,  and  fore- 
seeing, as  Mr  Scott  remarks,  that  the  managers  of 
the  Moulders'  union  were  intent  on  "rule  or  ruin," 
foreseeing  that  should  they  rule,  inevitable  ruin  must 
result,  they  now  resolved  on  decisive  measures.  On 
the  21st  of  February,  1890,  the  union  was  notified 
that  within  some  twenty  days  from  that  date  the  fol- 
lowing resolutions  would  take  effect:  The  Founders' 
association  would  not  recognize  the  right  of  the  union 
to  forbid  the  employment  of  non-union  men,  to  limit 
the  number  of  apprentices  employed,  or  to  regulate 
the  amount  of  work  that  the  men  should  perform. 
No  restriction  would  be  tolerated  as  to  the  minimum 
of  wages,  all  wages  to  be  paid  at  a  certain  rate  per 
hour,  and  ten  hours  to  constitute  a  day's  work,  unless 
shorter  hours  should  be  adopted  by  eastern  foundries; 
but  fifty  per  cent  additional  would  be  paid  for  over- 
time, v/ith  double  rates  for  work  performed  on  Sun- 
ilays  and  holidays. 

To  this  notification  the  union  returned  no  answer. 


488 


AGENCY  OF  INDUSTRY. 


m 

m 

II 


and  a  week  before  the  time  specified  in  the  resolutions, 
entered  on  a  strike  against  all  the  iron-works  under 
the  control  of  the  Founders*  association.  The  time 
selected  was  most  inopportune,  and,  as  it  would  seem, 
intended  as  a  surprise  to  employers,  who,  left  with 
contracts  on  their  hands,  would  be  subjected  to  con- 
siderable loss.  But  whatever  loss  and  inconvenience 
were  at  the  time  sustained  have  since  been  more  than 
compensated  by  the  greater  quantity  of  work  pro- 
duced by  non-union  moulders,  stated  by  Mr  Scott 
and  other  credible  witnesses  at  fifty  per  cent  more 
than  was  accomplished  under  what  he  justly  terms 
"the  drone  system." 

In  the  middle  of  June  a  communication  was  for- 
warded to  the  Founders'  association,  stating  that 
whereas  the  contracts  for  naval  work — cruisers  num- 
ber two  and  number  six — soon  to  be  awarded,  would 
not  be  given  to  firms  where  labor  troubles  existed, 
with  a  view  to  prevent  such  contracts  being  assigned 
to  eastern  foundries,  the  union  proposed  that  a  con- 
ference should  be  held  with  a  view  to  adjust  the 
strike.  To  this  the  association  replied  that  the  mem- 
bers of  the  union,  though  granted  all  the  just  privi- 
leges of  American  citizens,  had  left  their  employment 
without  notice;  that  others  had  taken  their  places, 
whose  services  were  satisfactory;  therefore  the  asso- 
ciation knew  of  nothing  to  adjust,  and  for  that  reason 
saw  no  occasion  for  a  meeting.  In  due  time,  as  we 
have  seen,  the  contract  for  cruiser  number  six  was 
awarded  to  the  Union  works,  and  for  the  other  they 
were  slightly  underbid  in  fair  and  honorable  competi- 
tion. 

But  the  end  was  not  yet.  No  sooner  was  the  strike 
inaugurated  than,  in  open  defiance  of  tlie  law  of  the 
land,  the  association  foundries  were  surrounded  by 
union  pickets.  Non-union  moulders  were  assaulted  and 
beaten,  were  stabbed  and  shot  at  by  this  lawless  gang; 
"  were  assaulted,"  says  Mr  Scott,  "  for  simply  exer- 
cising their  legal  and   moral  right  of  earning  their 


h 


IRVING  M.  SOOTT. 


brikc 
the 

by 

land 


bread  in  the  places  vacated  by  the  union  moulders  of 
their  own  volition,  or  in  abject  servitude  to  the  bid- 
ding of  their  tyrant  masters,  the  managers  of  the 
union.  These  assaults  have  occurred  by  day  and  by 
night,  in  darkened  alleys,  on  the  public  streets,  on 
cars  and  cabs,  and  even  in  the  sleeping  apartments  of 
the  pursued — wherever  an  unprotected  non-union 
moulder  could  be  found  or  reached."  And  not  only 
did  the  union  fail  to  expel  the  guilty  members ;  it  even 
defended  them  ;  defended  them  to  the  last,  and  with 
all  the  weight  of  its  influence,  thus  converting  what- 
ever there  had  been  of  misguided  public  sympathy 
into  a  feeling  of  abhorrence  and  disgust. 

Such,  in  brief,  is  a  summary  of  this  most  vigorous 
and  interesting  article,  one  that  has  been  more  widely 
read  than  any  published  within  recent  years  in  the 
pages  of  the  Overland  Monthly.  With  trades-unions 
and  kindred  organizations  Mr  Scott  was  never  in 
sympathy ;  nor  does  he  heed  the  oft-repeated  cry  of 
demagogues  that  through  their  operations  the  stan- 
dard of  wages  is  maintained.  Among  European  and 
perhaps  among  eastern  communities,  such  associations 
may  be  of  benefit;  but  here  it  is  not  so.  Here,  he 
considers,  better  wages  have  been  paid,  better  results 
obtained,  and  a  better  feeling  has  prevailed  between 
employer  and  employed,  when  each  one  was  left  to  go 
and  to  come,  to  pay  and  to  be  paid,  as  his  needs  or  in- 
terests dictated.  To  him  that  system  is  most  obnoxious 
which  would  dictate  to  a  workman  for  wliom  he  shall 
work,  for  how  many  hours  in  the  day,  the  amount  of 
work  he  shall  do  in  those  hours,  and  the  lowest  wages 
he  shall  accept.  If  his  services  are  worth  ten  dollars 
a  day,  he  should  receive  that  rate,  and  if  they  are 
worth  but  a  single  dollar,  he  should  have  no  more. 
But  the  main  object  of  labor  unions  is  to  establish 
uniform  rates  of  wages,  and  so  to  limit  the  daily  task 
that  the  least  skilful  of  their  members,  or  the  veriest 
drone  among  them,  can  accomplish  it.  The  effect  is  to 
destroy  the  ambition  of  the  more  expert  and  indus- 


: 


rm 


r 


!  i 


n 


|;.|; 

. 

,'     iV  ■ 

|J     'i 

'i 

; 

1 

j 

1': 

!:      : 

1 ;  ' ! 

|:t  5 

i 

i 

i. 

■   ■  1 

■  i 
> 

AGENCY   OF  INDUSTRY. 


trious  operatives,  who,  seeing  that  they  earn  no  more 
than  the  rest,  either  follow  their  example,  or  find  em- 
ployment elsewhere.  Such  a  system,  moreover,  pre- 
vents either  kindness  or  liberality  ;  prevents  consider- 
ation for  age,  or  encouragement  to  the  young,  reducing 
all  to  the  hard  and  soulless  level  of  a  trade,  and  leav- 
ing nothing  to  generosity,  friendship,  or  association. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  must  not  be  inferred 
that  Mr  Scott  is  wanting  in  sympathy  for  his  em- 
ployes or  for  the  working  classes  in  general ;  on  the 
contrary,  they  have  no  more  generous  advocate.  To 
trades-unions  he  is  only  opposed  when  they  exceed 
their  legitimate  functions,  interfering  with  the  rights 
of  the  employer,  and  by  a  system  of  tyraimy,  terror- 
ism, and  espionage  abasing  instead  of  improving  the 
condition  of  the  employed.  In  a  foundry,  factory, 
or  other  establishment  where  labor  is  largely  em- 
ployed, he  believes  that  we  should  have  a  mutual  aid 
society,  in  which  tlie  accidents  and  misfortunes  of  lift; 
should  be  shared  and  relieved,  and  where  the  work- 
man's remuneration  should  be  at  the  highest  rates 
that  the  nature  of  the  enterprise  will  permit.  In  an 
article  entitled  the  Mission  of  the  Knights  of  Labor, 
published  in  the  Overland  Monthly  for  May  1887,  he 
says:  "  I  am  in  favor  of  the  highest  wages  consistent 
with  maximum  industry,  and  the  greatest  good  to  the 
greatest  number.  I  am  in  favor  of  every  American, 
whether  native-born  or  naturalized,  being  free  and 
independent,  well  fed,  well  clothed,  well  sheltered, 
well  educated  in  practical,  scientific  learning,  and  thor- 
oughly imbued  with  the  principles  of  moral  right." 

In  other  articles  from  the  pen  of  Irving  M.  Scott, 
we  have  some  of  the  most  valuable  contributions  to 
the  current  literature  of  the  day,  and  especially  in 
those  which  have  appeared  at  intervals  in  the  Over- 
land Monthly.  To  him  was  largely  due  the  resuscita- 
tion of  that  magazine,  languishing,  as  it  did,  in  a  mori- 
bund condition,  when  Bret  Harte  withdrew  from  the 
editorship,  and  his  idyls  no  longer  enriched  its  pages. 


iff 


IRVING  M.  SCOTT. 


m 


For  the  most  part  its  contributors  were  utter  stran- 
gers to  each  other,  and  with  a  view  to  make  them 
acquainted,  Mr  Scott  invited  them  to  a  dinner  party, 
at  which  were  present  all  the  most  celebrated  amon|( 
our  local  writers.  The  result  was  soon  apparent  in 
the  improvement  noticed  in  its  tone,  no  less  than  in 
its  circulation. 

But  it  is  rather  as  a  lecturer  and  speaker,  even  than 
as  a  writer,  that  Mr  Scott  is  esteemed  among  the 
more  cultured  circles  of  the  metropolis.  Though 
never  putting  himself  forward,  when  the  occasion  de- 
mands it,  his  voice  is  always  heard  at  public  gather- 
ings, and  to  him  there  is  no  more  pleasant  task  than 
thus  to  pass  an  hour  in  communion  with  his  fellow- 
man.  In  boyhood  he  practised  the  art  of  speaking, 
addressing  the  trees,  the  rocks,  and  the  running 
waters,  during  his  lonely  hours  at  the  Hebron 
mills.  On  making  his  home  in  San  Francisco,  he 
became  a  member  and  was  afterward  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  Addisonian  debating  society,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Howard  street  church,  receiving  there, 
as  he  relates,  some  of  the  most  valuable  lessons  of  his 
life.  Those  who  would  judge  as  to  his  oratory  may 
be  referred  to  the  address  which  he  delivered  at  the 
opening  of  the  Mechanics'  fair  in  1869,  and  for  which 
he  received  the  personal  congratulations  of  William  H. 
Seward;  to  one  on  the  Spirit  of  the  Age  and  its 
Requirements,  at  the  annual  fair  of  the  state  board 
of  agriculture,  in  September  1883;  to  one  on  the 
Development  of  Science,  in  July  1889,  the  occa- 
sion being  the  laying  of  the  corner-stone  of  the  Cali- 
fornia academy  of  sciences,  and  to  one  delivered  on 
the  national  birthday  of  the  same  year,  when  was  un- 
veiled the  monument  of  Francis  Scott  Key,  erected 
at  Golden  Gate  park,  according  to  the  provisions  of 
the  Lick  trust. 

As  to  the  private  life  of  Mr  Scott,  it  may,  first  of 
all,  be  said  that  he  was  never  given  to  any  form  of 


l!l 


m 


h 


-!    Ir 


If.         } 

IPV*^^^HB^* 

¥  J 


L 


l-i 


;■»' 


492 


AGENCY  OP  INDUSTRY. 


dissipation  or  extravagance,  or  if  so,  it  was  in  the 
shape  of  an  extravagant  fondness  for  works  of  art. 
At  liis  residence,  on  Harrison  street,  maybe  seen  the 
choicest  productions  of  such  artists  as  Virgil  Wil- 
liams and  Travernier,  of  Hill  and  Rix,  of  Bouvey  and 
Brown,  of  Guy  and  Brooks,  of  Humphry  Moore  and 
Matilda  Lotz.  But  of  all  his  pictures,  the  owe  that 
he  values  most  is  from  the  brush  of  Toby  Rosenthal, 
representing  the  trial  scene  of  Constance  de  Beverley, 
the  subject  of  v/hich  was  selected  by  himself  and  the 
members  of  his  family.  This  he  regards  as  among 
the  greatest  of  modern  paintings,  one  that  when  com- 
pared even  with  the  finest  works  of  the  old  mas- 
ters will  :^ot  suffer  by  the  comparison.  Here  it  may 
be  mentioned  that,  under  the  auspices  of  Mr  Scott, 
an  exhibition  was  held  of  the  Rosenthal  collection, 
and  the  proceeds,  exceeding  $10,000,  applied  to  char- 
itable purposes.  Many  are  those  for  whose  canvasses 
he  has  found  a  purchaser,  or  purchased  himself,  as 
the  only  means  of  relieving  their  distress ;  for  this  he 
considers  as  in  the  nature  of  an  obligation. 

In  literature  his  tastes  aro  catholic,  inclining  rather 
to  history,  but  including  all  that  is  best  among  the 
culled  treasures  of  ancient  and  modern  times.  In 
standard  poetry  he  is  also  thoroughly  versed,  and 
among  his  favorite  poets  are  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes 
and  Sir  Edwin  Arnold.  With  the  author  of  The  Light 
of  Asia  he  is  personally  acquainted,  reading  that 
matchless  epic  while  at  Benares,  during  his  tour 
around  the  world.  At  the  time  when  this  memoir 
was  written,  he  was  engaged  in  the  study  of  the  bible, 
of  bible  history  and  bible  characteristics,  not  as  a  re- 
ligious exercise,  but  simply  as  a  study,  and  to  him  a 
source  of  enjoyment.  A  member  of  the  First  congre- 
gational church,  he  looks  upon  church  organizations 
and  creeds  as  instruments  for  good,  believing  that 
with  the  progress  of  moral  and  intellectual  culture 
men  will  do  right  for  its  own  sake,  and  not  through 
fear  of  future  punishment,  or  hope  of  future  reward. 


^^m 


IRVING  M-  SCOTT. 


40S 


In  October  1863,  Mr  Scott  was  married  to  Laura, 
the  daughter  of  John  R.  Horde,  of  Covington,  Ken- 
tucky. Descended  from  one  of  the  oldest  of  southern 
families,  her  own  intrinsic  worth,  her  culture  and  re- 
finement, the  graces  of  her  womanhood,  as  wife  and 
mother,  as  friend  and  benefactress,  are  in  perfect  keep- 
ing with  her  ancient  and  honorable  lineage.  Of  their 
four  children,  Murray  D.  and  Bessy  died  in  infancy. 
Alice  W.,  their  only  surviving  daughter,  bids  fair  to 
rival  her  mother  in  the  qualities  that  most  adorn  her 
sex,  and  Laurance  Irving,  their  only  son,  who  inherits 
most  of  his  father's  characteristics,  has  already  given 
proof  of  his  ability  to  take  up  the  burden  which  pres- 
ently his  sire  will  lay  down. 

And  now  I  have  rolated  the  career  of  the  great  naval 
artificer,  of  one  of  tl  .e  greatest  of  modern  engineers — 
related  it  at  least  30  far  as  it  has  been  fulfilled ;  for 
verging  only  toward  the  autumn  of  life,  with  faculties 
still  unimpaired,  and  a  worthy  ambition  still  unsat- 
isfied, he  has  before  him  many  years  of  usefulness. 
It  is  not  through  the  mere  casting  of  facts  and  prin- 
ciples into  iron  and  steel  that  the  fame  of  Irving  M. 
Scott  will  long  outlive  his  achiovenients ;  his  life  and 
labors  have  an  ethical  and  an  intellectual  as  well  as 
a  material  significance.    So  long  as  such  men  live  and 
work,  there  is  less  danger  of  moral  decadence  in  our 
midst;  for  one  such  mind  will  quicken  a  multitude  of 
others,  will  purify  the  streams  of  human  thought,  of 
human  action,  of  human  existence,  as  they  flow  ever 
onward  to  the  unknown  sea.     Such  men  come  not  in 
throngs,  not  many,  perchance  not  one,  in  a  generation ; 
but  by  such  examples  alone  is  the  way  prepared  for 
that  higher  development  which  erelong  shall  here  be 
witnessed,  when  the  moral  and  intellectual  status  of 
California  shall  rise  to  a  level  with  her  material  great- 
ness. 


!i  ■ 


:   i 


i  1' 


I J 


E 


mi'^ 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 

A  Region  of  Wealth  and  Fascinations — Power  of  Religion  in  Diysas 
Parts — Achievements  of  Science  in  the  Colorado  Country— Life 
OF  William  Gilpin— Ancestry  and  Early  Environment — Visit  to 
England— In  Oregon  and  Colorado — Mexican  and  Indian  Wabs— 
Governor  and  Federal  Agent — Cosmopolitan  Railway. 

Elsewhere  in  this  work  I  speak  of  the  effect  upon 
government  finances  of  the  Comstock  lode  output  of 
precious  metal  during  the  civil  war,  and  the  reflex 
influence  of  patriotism  in  the  evolution  of  a  state.  I 
speak  also  of  the  power  of  religion,  as  displayed  along 
the  seaboard  of  California,  in  the  valleys  of  Oregon, 
and  in  tlie  deserts  of  Utah,  in  subduing  the  wilder- 
ness arifl  planting  the  flowers  of  civilization.  But 
passing  for  the  pr«isent  this  fascinating  region,  we  will 
come  at  once  to  the  scene  of  labors  of  him  whose  biosf- 
raphy  illustrates  development  here. 

Colorado  is  a  monumental  state.  Situated  midway 
between  the  parental  Atlantic  districts  and  the  rising 
Pacific  commonwealths,  it  lies  also  half-way  between 
the  north  and  south  borders  of  the  republic,  and 
on  the  dividing  point  on  the  continent  between 
the  two  occ-ans,  on  either  side  of  the  central  Cor- 
dillera. It  is  a  phenomenal  state.  Founded  on  a 
base  of  ricli  gold,  rises  the  paler  substructure  of  the 
silver  era,  to  su|)port  in  time  the  stable  edifice  fash- 
ioned from  the  more  beneficial  material  of  the  coal  and 

(494) 


SCENIC  WONDERS. 


496 


iron  periods,  surrounded  by  the  irrigation  oanals  as- 
sockited  with  a  high  type  of  agriculture.  It  is  a  red- 
letter  state  in  name  as  well  as  in  birth  and  exceptional 
progress. 

It  is  remarkable  for  covering  the  oldest  land  in 
this  part  of  the  continent.  In  the  gradual  upheaval 
from  deep  sea  soundings,  the  San  Juan  range  first 
divided  the  waters,  followed  at  intervals  far  apart  by 
the  Sangre  de  Cristo,  th<3  Mojada,  and  the  Colorado 
or  Front  ranges.  The  (Jctritus  washed  on  the  east 
into  shallow  water  formed  a  long  slope  while  yet  the 
ocean  thundered  at  the  more  abrupt  western  base  of 
ths  mother  range. 

It  is  essentially  a  mountain  country,  crossed  by 
several  ranges  and  countless  peaks  ranghig  from  9,000 
to  14,500  feet  above  the  sea,  and  walling  in  with 
majestic  cliffs  and  inclines  the  large  elevated  valleys 
known  as  parks,  covered  with  luxuriant  grasses, 
threaded  by  the  purest  of  streams,  beautified  by  lakes 
and  dotted  with  groves.  TLey  lie  at  an  altitude  of 
from  7,500  to  8,800  feet,  and  vary  from  cosy  hollows 
to  the  thirty  mile  diameter  of  the  North  park,  the 
(55  by  45  mile  of  the  Middle  and  South  parks,  and 
the  vastncss  of  the  San  Luis  park,  which  is  nearly  as 
large  an  all  the  rest  combined.  Below,  narrow  fertile 
vales  skii  t  the  numerous  rivers,  fringed  with  cotton- 
wood  and  willow. 

The  waters  from  the  springs  and  banks  of  eternal 
snow  flow  into  several  mighty  streams.  The  South 
Platte,  with  its  forty  tributaries,  rises  among  the  peaks 
of  the  Colorado  range,  the  North  Phtte  in  the  Park 
range.  The  royal  Arkansas  interlaces  in  the  Saguache 
range  with  the  Grand  rivt^r,  and  collects  in  its  descent 
three  score  of  affluents.  The  Republican  and  Smoky 
Hill  fork  constitute  the  main  branches  of  the  Kansas. 
In  the  south  the  Rio  Grande  receives  somewhat  from 
the  waters  of  San  Luis  park  before  starting  on  its 
long  journey  to  the  '^ulf  of  Mexico.  The  western 
slope  is  drained  entirely  by  tributaries  to  the  Rio 


«;« 


t  ti 


ni 


k 

l: 


I.' 


% 


I. 


D 


496    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES   IN  THE   WESTERN  INTERIOR. 

Colorado,  as  the  West,  the  Grand,  Gunnison,  Rio 
Dolores,  and  Rio  San  Juan,  which,  as  the  names  indi- 
cate, were  discovered  some  by  Spanish  and  some  by 
American  explorers. 

The  west  side  if  less  attractive  to  the  settler  is 
more  so  to  the  tourist,  in  its  scenic  wonders,  amon*^ 
which  rank  foremost  a  series  of  canons,  where  noble 
rivers  rushing  through  rents  in  the  solid  mountains, 
thousands  of  feet  in  depth,  have  united  with  time 
and  weather  in  producing  carvings  beyond  the  agency 
of  human  power,  their  wild  imagery  softened  by 
blended  tones  of  color  in  harmony  with  the  sky,  the 
purple-gray  shadows,  and  the  clinging  moss  and 
herbage.  The  grandest  of  these  clefts  is  Black  canon, 
on  Gunnison  river,  whose  walls  rise  in  places  to  a  per- 
pendicular height  of  3,000  feet,  through  a  table-land 
9,800  feet  above  the  sea.  The  gorge  narrows  at 
times  to  the  width  of  the  river,  in  gloomy  grandeur, 
and  broadens  again  into  a  park,  marked  by  chutes  and 
waterfalls,  by  fantastic  rocks  and  needles  of  highly 
colored  sandstone. 

Although  rivers  are  numerous  the  soil  is  arid. 
Many  creeks  run  dry;  others  run  in  narrow  beds, 
fringed  with  grass  and  bushes.  Sloping  up  from 
them  are  stretches  of  roHing  country  sparsely  covered 
with  red  spreading  cedars,  or  a  table-land  with  colo- 
nies of  prairie  dogs,  and  herds  of  buffalo  and  deer. 
In  tlie  mountains  are  meadows,  with  brooks  covered 
by  aspens,  and  marked  by  beaver  dams.  Trout  streams 
exist  and  game  is  abundant,  from  elks  and  mountain 
sheep  to  bears  and  wild-cats.  Forests  of  pine  and  fir, 
spruce  and  other  trees,  cover  the  ranges  to  a  height 
of  twelve  tliousand  feet.  At  the  western  base  of  the 
Sierra  Blanca  are  wastes  of  sand,  and  on  the  arid 
mesas  of  the  snutli-eaat  nothing  but  enormous  cacti. 
Northward,  and  to  the  east  and  west,  are  grassy 
plains,  gay  with  indigenous  flora  during  their  season. 

In  this  altitude  the  rarified  air  draws  up  the  moist 
are,  while  on  the  plains  the  excessive  heat  does  its 


COLORADO. 


497 


share  in  bearing  oflf  liumidity.  Yet  the  nights  are 
cool,  so  that  the  mean  temperature  in  summer  is 
about  67°,  although  the  thermometer  ranges  often 
above  90°.  In  winter  the  mean  is  32°,  with  occa- 
sional descents  below  zero.  Then  come  at  times 
fierce,  driving  snow-storms,  corresponding  to  the  suf- 
focating sand  gales  of  the  plains  during  summer. 

The  rainfall  averages  about  nineteen  inches.  The 
snow-banks  of  the  ranges  remain  until  late  in  the 
spring  to  feed  the  streams.  Water  is  alone  needed 
to  transform  the  dry  tracts  into  blooming  fields,  for 
the  soil  is  deep  and  rich,  and  grazing  lands  abound 
on  either  slope. 

The  chief  wealth  of  the  country  lies  in  its  rocks, 
hidden  in  a  confused  geological  structure.  The 
younger  world  in  Colorado  has  been  resentfully 
pushed  aside,  and  overflowed  by  the  older  in  so  rude 
and  violent  a  manner  as  to  dislocate  all  strata.  Gold 
gave  the  clue  to  find  silver,  with  which  vie  the  more 
substantial  coal  and  iron,  pregnant  with  great  possi- 
bilities. 

Here,  on  the  shore  of  a  primeval  lake,  on  the  west 
of  the  San  Juan  mountains,  lived  an  aborigmal  race, 
in  hive-like  dwellings  of  unhewn  stone,  w^herein  water- 
jars,  arrow-hoads,  and  other  implements  testify  to  a 
certain  advance  in  useful  arts.  These  dwellings  are 
situated  in  the  face  of  the  clifls,  far  above  the  present 
valley  bottom;  yet  the  waters  may  at  that  period 
have  reached  close  to  their  foundation.  Another 
supposition  is  that  the  houses  were  so  located  for 
safety. 

Like  the  pueblos  of  New  Mexico,  these  peaceful 
house-dwellers  were  perchance  the  prey  of  the  roam- 
ing Indians  who  have  so  long  been  the  terror  of  the 
plains.  The  Utes  extend  in  several  divisions  over 
this  region,  from  New  Mexico  along  the  west  slope  of 
Colorado  into  Utah,  and  to  the  foot  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada.  The  tribes  of  the  northwest  part,  always 
wild  and  shy,  though  warlike,  were  in  frequent  con- 


1 


C.  H.  -T.     S2 


m 

1^  :■•  ■ 


11 


I*    '1 

it:  ': 


1'^ .' 

.V.  i 


|l    tf      .    r 

4l        .i 


408     DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 

flict  with  their  hereditary  enemies  on  the  Platte. 
On  the  other  side  of  San  Juan,  below  the  Arkansas, 
roam  still  the  dreaded  robbers  of  the  plains,  the 
Comanches  and  Apaches. 

The  aridity  and  barrenness  of  the  soil,  and  the 
abundance  of  game,  particularly  buffaloes,  naturally 
directed  the  aborigines  to  a  nomad  life ;  hence  grew 
here  a  love  for  hunting,  adventure,  and  warlike  deeds. 
Tribal  raids  and  contests  were  frequent.  The  advent 
of  white  men  added  fresh  objects  for  predatory  expe- 
ditions, and  for  the  tomahawk. 

Their  inhospitable  attitude,  together  with  the  moun- 
tain barriers  and  remoteness  of  the  land,  tended  to 
check  the  advance  of  the  Spaniards,  who,  in  1540, 
penetrated  to  this  border.  The  chief  deterrent  was 
the  failure  to  find  in  New  Mexico  the  rumored  gilded 
cities,  or  the  clue  which  later  opened  the  golden  moun- 
tains of  Colorado.  And  so  for  over  two  centuries 
they  were  left  to  their  isolation,  vaguely  embraced  in 
the  domain  now  of  Spain,  anon  of  France,  to  be  finally 
surrendered,  in  1819,  to  the  United  States,  as  far  as 
the  Arkansas.  The  portion  south  of  this  river  fell  to 
Mexico  when  she  wrested  independence  from  Spain. 
Her  settlers  iu  New  Mexico  gradually  crept  up  into 
San  Luis  park,  and  westward.  Above  them  entered 
trappers  from  the  states,  to  tempt  the  redman  to  a 
conciliatory  attitude,  and  even  to  cooperation  in  the 
chase,  by  insidious  offers  of  fire-water,  tobacco,  and 
other  amenities  of  Caucasian  culture.  The  game  pre- 
serve was  soon  exhausted,  however,  and  in  the  forties 
the  forts,  which  had  risen  during  the  preceding  decade, 
declined  to  mere  breastworks  for  the  defence  of  hun- 
ters, now  transformed  into  colonists,  under  the  potent 
influence  of  Mexican  and  Indian  wives,  and  half-breed 
families. 

Precautions  for  defence  were  necessary,  for  the 
luxuries  and  trinkets  of  white  men  had  by  this  time 
becotne  doubly  endeared  to  the  native.  With  less 
desirable  means  than  of  yore  to  buy  them,  he  conceived 


COLORADO. 


499 


th( 


ivocl 


the  simpler  method  of  taking  them  by  force.  To  this 
end,  he  scrupled  not  to  swoop  down  on  peaceful  set- 
tlers, quieting  his  conscience  with  the  plea  of  their  un- 
authorized intrusion  and  his  own  ancestral  rights  to  the 
soil  and  its  products.  Hence,  also,  he  hovered  like  a 
carrion  bird  along  the  path  of  the  broadening  column 
of  migration  westward,  intimidating  the  caravans  into 
payment  of  tolls,  and  cutting  off  incautious  stragglers 
to  feed  his  thirst  for  spoils  and  blood. 

The  United  States  had  acquired  the  mountain  region 
chiefly  as  a  pathway  to  her  prospective  Pacific  empire; 
for  the  reports  of  explorers  had  condemned  it  as  an 
arid  waste,  and  inscribed  it  on  the  maps  as  the  Great 
American  desert.  The  California  currents  of  migra- 
tion, which  skirted  the  northern  border  of  Colorado, 
and  crossed  the  southeastern  corner,  began  to  dispel 
this  erroneous  idea  on  testing  the  nutritious  herbage 
of  the  plains,  and  revelling  in  the  grassy  bottoms  of 
the  Platte  and  parallel  streams ;  but  remoteness,  and 
the  attitude  of  the  aborigines  served  as  a  bar  to  occu- 
pation. 

The  revelations  of  El  i^orado  directed  the  search 
for  gold  to  other  territories ;  and  stimulat(Hl  by  the 
revived  rumors  of  former  discoveries,  prospectors 
found  in  Colorado  indications  which,  in  IH'i'?.  led  to 
opening  of  regular  placers.  Although  these  were  still 
of  small  importance,  traders  and  town -lot  speculators, 
excited  by  the  turn  of  events  on  tiie  Pacific,  availed 
tliemselvea  of  every  trifle  to  spread  exaggerated 
notices  in  the  cast.  A  fever  set  in,  and  Colorado 
received  an  influx  of  fortune-hunters  exceeding  in 
macrnitude  that  of  California.  The  natural  result  of 
inflated  hojies  was  bitter  d'iHap])ointiuent  to  the  lari:fer 
portion,  and  back  they  rush»*<l.  laum'hing  hot  in- 
vectives alike  on  the  country  and  on  its  oulogizers. 

Nearly  forty  thousand  remained,  however,  to  W 
rewarded  after  diliccent  search  1^^  the  unfol^amej  of 
diggings  which,  in  many  localitie^^,  '^^  jalUd  the  mhest 
spots  in  California.     This  brought  a  reflux  of  the  cur- 


mU\> 


500    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 


m^ 


In 


rent,  under  whose  influence  the  production  of  gold 
was  gradually  raised  to  over  seven  millions  a  year., , 
Camps  rose  in  every  direction,  especially  along  the 
headwaters  of  the  Platte,  centring  round  the  town 
founded  by  observant  real  estate  men. 

Traffic  grew  to  large  proportions,  with  thousands 
of  wagons  lining  the  highways  from  the  east,  along 
the  Platte,  the  Smoky  Hill  fork,  and  the  Arkansas, 
tended  by  a  freighting  force  which  in  time  numbered 
ten  thousand  men.  This  intermediate  stage  of  progress 
was  soon  supplanted  on  its  main  avenues  by  railways, 
which,  entering  from  the  plains,  climbed  the  cloud- 
enfolded  passes  to  camps  and  towns  situated  over  ten 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  Leadville,  which  lies  at 
an  elevation  of  10,025  feet,  is  one  of  the  loftiest  towns 
of  importance  in  the  world.  Alma,  Kokomo,  Monte- 
zuma, Oro,  and  St  John  are  still  higher.  The  Pres- 
ent Help  mine,  on  Mount  Lincoln,  is  placed  at  14,000 
feet. 

Coal-mines,  saw-mills,  iron-works,  and  other  manu- 
facturing enterprises,  felt  the  impulse  of  the  demand, 
and  rapidly  developed,  feeding  thousands  of  busy 
workers,  while  contributing  their  quota  of  aid  to  the 
parental  trunk.  The  largest  of  its  branches  repre- 
sented agriculture.  Farmers  entered  with  such  zeal 
into  competition  with  importers  to  provide  food  staples, 
that  the  country  was  made  self-sustaining  in  this  di- 
rection by  1866.  It  would  have  become  so  earlier 
but  for  its  extreme  dryness.  Irrigation  was  now 
employed,  whicli  doul)led,  as  well  as  assured,  crops. 
Thus  was  gradually  obliterated  the  repelling  term  of 
desert;  soil  onoe  assuiniid  to  bn  sterile  blossomed  into 
fields  and  gardens,  and  farming  became  one  of  the  most 
thriving  industries.  Although  the  long  and  costly 
transportation  to  outside  markets  restricted  traffic 
almost  exclusively  to  lionie  consumption,  a  profitable 
outlet  presented  itself  to  stock-raisers,  who  found  in 
the  plains  and  slopes,  with  their  initritious  jiastures 
Aad  numerous  streams,  the  finest  range  for  cattle  and 


COLORADO. 


501 


sheep,  so  much  so  that  their  industry  came  to  occupy 
the  second  rank  in  the  state,  with  about  1,000,000 
head  of  cattle,  and  1,500,000  sheep,  which  sustain 
not  alone  a  steady  export  of  live-stock,  but  furnish 
material  for  packing  and  canning  meat  for  reserve 
shipments.  Thus  was  the  wilderness  transformed  as 
the  white  man  supplanted  the  red,  and  as  domestic 
animals  fed  in  the  pastures  occupied  by  the  bufifalo. 
Miners  for  the  first  years  worked  at  random.  The 
placers  were  not  lasting.  By  1867  the  yield  had 
fallen  to  less  than  two  million  dollars,  a  large  number 
of  miners  going  away  to  the  more  promising  fields 
of  Montana,  Idaho,  and  Nevada,  leaving  Colorado  in 
a  most  depressed  condition,  to  which  the  civil  war 
with  attendant  fear  of  confederate  invasion  and  Indian 
hostility  added  their  quota.  The  gold  was  but  the 
frothing  of  the  silver  beds  beneath,  and  these  were 
ignorant]  V  passed  over  until  the  experience  of  Nevada 
and  the  commendations  of  experts  disclosed  the 
secret.  A  fresh  rush  ensued,  partly  to  relocate  re- 
jected claims.  A  difficulty  intervened,  however,  in 
the  refractory  character  of  the  ore  for  which  ordi- 
nary methods  of  reduction  proved  unavailing.  After 
long,  costly,  and  mostly  fruitless  experiments,  recourse 
was  had  to  Europe,  and  thence  were  brought  processes 
which  achieved  success.  Now  followed  rapid  devel- 
opment. By  1870  the  production  had  once  more 
risen  to  $5,000,000,  and  this  iirproved,  particularly 
after  the  unfolding  of  Leadville,  until  the  maximum 
was  readied  in  1882.  The  subsequent  decline  was 
arrested  iu  1886,  when  the  yield  again  began  to  rise, 
with  a  total  of  nearly  $126,000,000.  To  the  output 
in  1882  Lake  county  alone  contributed  $16,000,000. 
Gilpin  county  had  for  several  years  averaged  $2,000,- 
000,  and  Ouray  figured  in  1884  with  $4,000,000,  the 
assay  from  select  ores  reaching  as  mucli  as  ft4,000 
and  $7,000  per  ton,  according  to  the   adniixtun'  of 

Each  step   in   advance  by  the  pioneer  mirn^r  in- 


:|1 


wm 


W 


■  t 


I 'I  ,■' 


502    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 


i;  < 


I*«  i! 


h     I 


P 

[ti 


1 

r 

;: 

v^ 

L-              1 

i        * 

1 

1       ■: 

11 

V                       '     ' 

volved  an  inroad  upon  the  aborigines,  to  whom  congress 
had  in  the  fifties,  prior  to  the  disclosure  of  mineral 
wealth,  granted  the  best  part  of  the  slopes  for  reserva- 
tions. The  consequent  ill-feeling  found  alarming  vent 
during  the  civil  war,  when  the  Indians  thought  the 
moment  opportune  to  conspire  and  drive  out  the  intrud- 
ers. The  uprising  began  with  a  series  of  outrages,  so 
alarming  as  to  prompt  the  settlers  to  energetic  steps. 
This  served  to  check  the  danger,  and  after  1868  Col- 
orado was  relieved  from  further  attack  on  the  east 
side.  On  the  west  slope  one  additional  outbreak  took 
place,  which  resulted  in  the  despatch  of  several 
tribes  to  reservations  in  the  adjoining  territories,  and 
the  distribution  of  land  in  severalty,  together  with 
aid  for  establishing  farms  and  annuities  until  they 
should  have  been  taught  to  become  self-supporting. 

Thus  was  overcome  one  obstacle  after  another,  in 
wringhig  their  secrets  from  the  rocks,  in  reclaiming 
deserts,  and  in  supjiresslng  the  lords  aboriginal. 
Meanwhile  the  new  masters  fell  to  quarreling  among 
themselves.  Colorado  was  situated  on  a  strip  wherein 
met  the  borders  of  five  territories,  each  of  which 
might  have  entered  to  claim  jurisdiction.  The  earliest 
important  settlements  lay  within  the  lines  of  Kansas, 
and  to  her  a  immber  of  occupants  appealed,  moved 
by  the  sympathy  of  recent  connection.  Kansas  was 
herself  torn  at  this  time  by  the  agitation  of  slave 
and  free-soil  advocates,  and  legislature  and  governor 
issued  conflicting  orders  for  the  administration  of  the 
ni'W  section.  Tliis  encouraged  a  more  ambitious  por- 
tion of  the  comnmnity,  intent  on  the  spoils  of  office, 
and  on  power,  to  petition  congress  for  independent 
territorial  rights.  Although  no  attention  was  paid 
to  the  request,  the  politicians  presumed  in  1860  to 
organize  a  territory,  and  aj)point  a  governor  and  officials. 
Absorbed  in  accjuiring  wealth  the  self-reliant  miners 
gave  little  heed  to  these  political  efforts,  but  framed 
rules  among  themselves  for  the  regulation  of  mine 
and  camp. 


COLORADO. 


803 


Thus  existed  three  political  parties  and  govern- 
ments, each  ignoring  the  other,  and  contributing  only 
for  the  maintenance  of  their  respective  authorities. 
This  chaotic  condition,  due  partly  to  the  instability  of 
the  population,  and  the  objection  to  tax  collectors, 
brought  forward  a  fourth  power,  in  vigilance  com- 
mittees. Presuming  on  the  absence  of  formal  au- 
thorities, robbers  and  squatters  had  raised  their  hands 
so  menacingly  as  to  oblige  citizens  in  self-defence  to 
resort  to  severe  measures. 

In  1861  congress  lifted  them  out  of  the  dilemma 
by  creating  Colorado  a  territory.  The  harmony  thus 
introduced  among  the  wrangling  parties  was  oppor- 
tune; for  now,  with  the  beginning  of  civil  war,  an 
aggressive  faction  arose,  hesitating  at  no  act  that 
might  promote  its  cause.  While  the  solid  citizens  in 
general  sought  to  conciliate  the  lukewarm  majority  of 
their  opponents  by  prudent  and  liberal  enactments, 
the  governor  quietly  enrolled  a  force  with  which  he 
swooped  down  upon  the  disaffected,  and  dispersed 
them.  The  stroke  secured  peace  to  the  territory  and 
control  to  the  victors,  while  the  enlisted  troops 
served  to  check  the  uprising  of  the  Indians. 

A  friendly  struggle  then  arose  between  the  leading 
cities  for  the  coveted  dignitj^  of  capital.  The  south 
assisted  Pueblo  in  wresting  it  from  the  north,  and 
interior  towns  here  made  a  stand  against  conceding  it 
to  Denver,  which  to  them  seemed  an  all-absorbing 
ogre.  The  energy  and  enterprise  of  the  latter,  how- 
ever, in  securing  traffic,  and  in  becoming  the  railway 
centre,  sustained  its  influence,  and  gave  it  such  as- 
cendancy as  to  finally  win  back  the  prize  which  for  a 
time  had  passed  away  to  rivals. 

The  agitation  for  statehood  had  been  early  mooted 
by  interested  aspirants,  and  in  1865  they  framed  a 
constitution  and  elected  a  governor  and  senators,  pre- 
vailing on  congress  to  recognize  the  step;  but  the 
president  interposed  a  veto,  and  not  till  1876  was  the 
privilege  accorded,  timed  for  the  centennial  celebra- 


'"T|Hm|i|| 

Wm 

"e  mI 

•  i'ii^l 

n|- 

"■-^A      I 


M«    DOMINATINO  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 


K'-  '    i 


llr      I; 


!«!.. 


(;>; 


I'  ii 


I'M 


(^ 

! 

. 

j      ,■          ; 

;  '■ 

.  ■' 

.^ 

.j.^iiJi 

tion.  The  state  entered  on  its  new  existence  with  a 
population  of  one  hundred  and  thirty -five  thousand, 
free  from  debt,  and  with  a  wise  and  honest  manage- 
ment of  its  interests ;  the  land  grants  being  especially 
cared  for,  in  a  manner  worthy  of  wide  imitation,  and 
institutions  being  sustained  by  a  direct  tax  so  as 
to  lessen  the  jobbery  connected  with  appropriations. 

Notwithstanding  the  strife  for  office,  the  rulers  and 
principal  officials  have  generally  been  men  of  superior 
character  and  ability,  whose  administration  stands 
marked  by  prudence  and  integrity.  The  state  has 
been  represented  in  the  United  States  senate  by 
men  of  wealth,  which  fact,  however,  has  been  rather 
to  her  advantage  than  otherwise,  as  they  have  gener- 
ally been  men  of  strong  individuality.  There  has 
been  sharp  and  sometimes  severe  criticisms  regard- 
ing the  use  of  money  in  politics,  monopoly  of  land, 
irrigating  canals,  railways,  and  other  important  in- 
dustries, but  I  fail  to  find  greater  ground  for  adverse 
criticism  here  than  elsewhere.  The  much-abused  cry 
of  monopoly  has  caused  the  concentration  of  the  work- 
ing classes,  who  through  the  channel  of  trades  unions 
have  sought  to  force  a  compliance  with  their  wishes. 
Strikes  have  been  not  infrequent  here  as  in  other 
states,  involving  the  calling  out  of  the  militia. 

The  silver  era  may  have  entered  upon  its  decline, 
but  other  more  substantial  resources  are  fast  unfold- 
ing to  create  another  glorious  era  for  the  state,  as 
foreshadowed  in  the  vast  coal  and  iron  deposits  of  a 
high  grade.  The  beautiful  valleys  and  fertilized 
plains  beckon  immigrants  to  Arcadian  repose,  and 
invite  to  their  balmy  mountain  air  the  sufferers  of  the 
malarial  lowlands.  Colonies  are  forming  to  further 
develop  the  scientific  agriculture  fostered  by  irriga- 
tion, and  sustained  by  ever  growing  home  consump- 
tion. Eailways  are  expanding  to  bring  additional 
markets  to  miners,  as  well  as  farmers,  and  manufac- 
turers. Enterprise  pervades  all  classes,  associated  with 
a  general  and  high  intelligence,  upheld  by  an  excep- 


WILUAM  OILPIN. 


WO 


tionally  large  proportion  of  college-bred  men,  who 
set  an  example  in  a  liberal  patronage  of  literature  and 
arts.  Without  blemish  this  young  commonwealth 
stands  forth  a  bright  illustration  of  mental,  moral, 
and  physical  progress  remarkable  for  so  brief  a  period 
of  growth. 

In  glancing  over  the  pages  of  Colorado's  history,  I 
find  it  not  altogether  easy,  where  there  are  so  many 
notable  and  worthy  participants  in  her  progress,  to 
select  such  as  may  best  embody  the  ideas  and  char- 
acteristics of  the  others  as  a  whole.  There  are  cer- 
tain individuals,  however,  whose  lives  are  destined 
forever  to  stand  conspicuous  over  all,  because  their 
life  is  the  life  of  the  nation  which  they  have  made, 
their  spirit  the  spirit  of  the  mountains  and  plains 
which  through  their  aid  and  direction  are  alive  with 
intelligence  and  industry. 

There  are  men  who,  in  the  universality  of  their 
genius,  appear  to  every  age  and  every  individual  as  of 
their  own  time  and  place.  Such  a  man,  for  instance, 
was  Plato,  who  had  so  absorbed  all  knowledge  that  in 
the  annals  of  mankind  one  epoch  was  the  same  to  him 
as  another.  All  that  the  world  before  him  had  known 
he  knew.  He  went  to  Italy  to  hear  Pythagoras,  but 
left  more  than  he  brought  away;  and  but  for  the 
premature  hemlock  he  would  have  been  teaching  his 
master  Socrates.  His  genius  swept  over  all  the  earth, 
penetrated  the  eternal  hills,  and  played  with  the  stars. 
All  science,  all  philosophy,  all  history,  were  his. 

We  have  as  yet  no  American  Athens,  though  there 
have  been  pretensions  advanced  in  that  direction ; 
among  other  cities,  Denver,  located,  as  she  is,  almost  in 
the  heart  of  the  continent,  might  present  strong  claims 
to  that  distinction. 

High  in  the  heavens  she  stands,  with  many  an 
Olympus  near ;  there  are  men  of  taste  and  learning 
within  her  borders,  and  her  temples  and  schools  are 
surpassed  by  none.     Moreover,  among  her  builders. 


I  i 

\  I  ! 


<^w  \ 


•?     V"^ 


I 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


A 


4^ 


1.0 


I.I 


U£  Mii   |22 

£f  La  12.0 


u& 


IIII^IIM|J4 

^ 

6"     

► 

p% 


HiotDgraphic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


r<\^ 


\ 


^^^ 


<^ 


^ 


..'>« 

'  *» 

^^\ 


33  WI&T   .^AIN  STRUT 

WMSTH.N.Y.  I4SS0 

(716)  •73-4903 


^1^'^^ 
^   ^ 
"-^ 


6^ 


,k^ 


f 


;V 


■«?■ 


■f- 


506    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 

she  is  not  without  philosophers,  who,  if  they  need 
religion,  make  one,  or  if  a  governiQpnt,  formulate  one ; 
who,  if  they  lack  incident,  fall  back  on  inspiration, 
having  always  at  hand  that  philosophy  of  philosophies 
which  make  men  and  nature  its  own. 


'S    I 


Few  of  those  whose  forefathers  came  to  America 
can  boast  of  a  more  worshipful  ancestry  than  William 
Gilpin,  scholar,  soldier,  and  sometime  governor  of 
Colorado. 

For  his  devotion  to  Kichard  Coeur  de  Leon,  whom 
at  Austria  on  returning  from  his  first  crusade  King 
John  would  have  caused  to  be  murdered,  and  for  slay- 
ing a  wild  boar  which  infested  the  forests  of  West- 
moreland and  Cumberland,  the  baron  of  Kendal,  in 
1206,  gave  the  manor  of  Kentmere  to  Kichard  do 
Guylpyn,  a  substantial  commoner,  whose  original  had 
come  in  with  William  the  Conquerer.  The  earl  of 
Kendal,  who  commanded  at  this  most  highly  devel- 
oped part  of  the  old  Roman  colony,  could  not  read  or 
wriie ;  wherefore,  on  attending  the  convention  which 
on  the  little  island  of  Runymede  in  the  Thames  wrung 
from  King  John  the  magna  charta,  he  took  with  him 
Guylpyn  as  his  scholar,  for  which  service,  as  well  as 
for  his  other  achievements,  he  was  knighted. 

Several  Richards  follow;  and  to  the  grandson  of 
Sir  Richard  de  Guylpyn,  in  1268,  in  the  time  of 
Henry  III.,  Peter  de  Bruys,  who  married  a  co-heiress 
of  William  de  Lancaster,  gave  the  manor  of  Ulwith- 
waite,  so  that  the  family  had  indeed  vast  possessions. 
Many  have  taken  the  grandson  of  Richard  de  Guylpyn 
of  1268,  who  was  owner  of  the  manors  of  Kentmere 
and  Ulwithwaite,  to  be  the  first  of  the  name.  In  the 
reign  of  Richard  III.  comes  another  Richard  Gilpin, 
whose  son  William  was  slain  in  the  battle  of  Bos- 
worthfield,  in  1485,  during  the  civil  wars  of  the  houses 
of  York  and  Lancaster,  his  brother  Edwin  thus  becom- 
ing heir.  George,  the  son  of  Edwin,  was  minister 
{denipotentiary  for  Queen  Elizabeth  at  the  Hague, 


i  • 


".'■  i 


■hyKaHaHa 


/^ 


^'^tciaynt/^ 


^^f , 


B 


/■ 


WILLIAM    (iUJ'rN. 


M7 


and  was  also  ormu(3iit  in  letu-i^,  Auoth<^i'  son  '»l  Ed- 
win, Bernard  <*i!pin,  calio*!  tti..  A|K>.Hti«»  <jl  iJn^  JNi^ith, 
was  a  very  di?iit!ii>4uj?»ht'.*i  n>aij.  H»j  wnfj  V^-m  %i  ICtmt- 
jaere  in  1 5 1 7,  tin<l  iit««d  in  1583.  Hro^mht  v«p  i*  Hotnan 
i-atholic,  he  was  tuadt  rvct<i|  oi"  IHo  t  (t^%,i>,  but  Uvf'ore 
tlie  death  of  Qu<  eu  Mary  h'.  '=  i  ^  oatidied  with 
r he  doctrines  of  the  Fieft>iniAi.i<>u 

Armored  in  the  faith,  uiids^t  f:kie,  uicemsiiit  ataif**  f^f 
tiio  time,  he  passed  scathiesb.  One*-  on  entifiw^^ 
llothbury  church,  in  Northumberland,  h<  oi>hor\<jd 
a  jajlovc  suspended  in  a  conspicuous  phice  as  a  chal- 
lenge from  some  luirs^-trooper  of  the  district.  Taking 
it  down  h^e  entered  tlie  pulpit  and  begau  to  jtroach. 
During  the  course  of  liis  sermon  he  paused,  and,  lift- 
ing tliO  glove  i^i  his  fingers,  said :  "  I  hear  theru  is  ttne 
.itnong  you  who  has  oven  in  tliis  sacred  plac**  htmp  uj» 
h  glove  in  defiance."  Then  flinging  it  to  the  th'or.  he 
<o?)tinued,  "I  challenge  him  I. •  compete  \mU'  me  m 
«M-ts  of  Christian  charity.' 

A  charge  of  thirteen  articles  was  drawn  up  against 
liim,  and  complaiiit  laid  before  the  bishop  of  l4<  ndon, 
whereupon  he  prepared  for  mart\'rd  'in.  One  dottiine 
which  he  preached  was  tiiat  w)    .    ,    r  |u4j:;p«.ii<  :l  ^\'ss 

'  the  best.      On  his  way  to  .|>>i.-mij.  r-^   fell  from  his 

Th»    guard  snttji'/.glv  in- 

'*a»  taken  to  the  Tower,  there  to  await  rwoverv  ti«>i»< 
tin*  accident.  Mary  meanwhile  died,  and  1  •  wn  * 
.*t  liberty,  whereupon  he  returned  to  Jhlouiihttin,  Jl. 
was  then  ofteied  by  Elizabeth  the  St»..  of  (  arlc  le,  whiv-h 
b«;  declined,  preferring  to  pr*-,i»h  the  Kt'tonnalioj!  au'j 
»'ntlow  schools.  Whenevc'r  \w  met  a  ptM>r  boy  on  tht 
%i-,v<\  lie  would  put  questions  to  him  U^  test  liis  iiatuial 
V')it\.  and  if  pleased  therewith  would  provide  for  hia 
-S'u^tion.  A  life  of  Hrnard  (Jril|:in,  by  William  Ciil- 
-->.^-k.  piobendary  ()f  Sahnbury,  wa«  laiblished,  first  in 
\''y^,  ,.nd  again  a<-  Olasgow  'n  '  -  M  in  which  ar»j 
«Minuated  his  virtues  and  })*'rwta^  ms*.. 


i.ijrse  and   broke  his  -Icm 


uuired    of  him,   "Call   you    thi«    \\>\    the    best  r' 
loubt   not  it  will  so   turn  out,"  was   the  reply 


i '' ' 

iri 


/ 


r 


/<^t: 


WILLIAM   GILPIN. 


507 


and  was  also  eminent  in  letters.  Another  son  of  Ed- 
win, Bernard  Gilpin,  called  the  Apostle  of  the  North, 
was  a  very  distinguished  man.  He  was  born  at  Kent- 
mere  in  1517,  and  died  in  1583.  Brought  up  a  Boman 
catholic,  he  was  made  rector  of  Houghton ;  but  before 
the  death  of  Queen  Mary  he  became  satisfied  with 
tlie  doctrines  of  the  Reformation. 

Armored  in  the  faith,  midst  the  incessant  strife  of 
the  time,  he  passed  scathless.  Once  on  entering 
Rothbury  church,  in  Northumberland,  he  observed 
a  glove  suspended  in  a  conspicuous  place  as  a  chal- 
lenge from  some  horse-trooper  of  the  district.  Taking 
it  down  he  entered  the  pulpit  and  began  to  preach. 
During  the  course  of  his  sermon  he  paused,  and,  lift- 
ing the  glove  in  his  fingers,  said :  "  T  hear  there  is  one 
among  you  who  has  even  in  this  sacred  place  hung  up 
a  glove  in  defiance."  Then  flinging  it  to  the  floor,  he 
continued,  "  I  challenge  him  to  compete  with  me  in 
acts  of  Christian  charity." 

A  charge  of  thirteen  articles  was  drawn  up  against 
him,  and  complaint  laid  before  the  bishop  of  London, 
whereupon  he  prepared  for  martyrdom.  One  doctrine 
which  he  preached  was  that  whatever  happened  was 
for  the  best.  On  his  way  to  London  he  fell  from  his 
horse  and  broke  his  leg.  The  guard  sneeringly  in- 
quired of  him,  "Call  you  this  for  the  best?"  "I 
doubt  not  it  will  so  turn  out,"  was  the  reply.  He 
was  taken  to  the  Tower,  there  to  await  recovery  from 
the  accident.  Mary  meanwhile  died,  and  he  was  set 
at  liberty,  whereupon  he  returned  to  Houghton.  He 
was  then  offered  by  Elizabeth  the  See  of  Carlisle,  which 
he  declined,  preferring  to  preach  the  Reformation  and 
endow  schools.  Whenever  he  met  a  poor  boy  on  the 
road  he  would  put  questions  to  him  to  test  his  natural 
ability,  and  if  pleased  therewith  would  provide  for  his 
education.  A  life  of  Bernard  Gilpin,  by  William  Gil- 
pin, prebendary  of  Salisbury,  was  published,  first  in 
1753,  and  again  at  Glasgow  in  1824,  in  which  are 
delineated  his  virtues  and  persecutions. 


608    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 

The  Gilpin  family  had  frequently  to  suffer  on  ac- 
count of  their  religion. 

"The  race  that  once  went  bravely  forth 
To  alay  the  wild  boar  in  his  den, 
Now  meets  the  bigots  in  their  wrath. 
And  boldly  claims  the  righ<»  of  men." 

Next  we  have  a  William  Gilpin  who  married  Eliza 
Washington,  sister  to  our  American  Washington's 
great  grandmother.  They  had  a  son  George  who 
inherited  the  manor  of  Kentmere,  two  generations 
after  whom  the  estate  was  lost  during  the  parliamen- 
tary civil  wars.  Sawry  Gilpin  was  a  celebrated 
painter  of  horses,  giving  them  a  very  fierce  expression; 
he  was  born  in  1733. 

When  Cromwell  established  the  commonwealth  of 
England  and  became  the  protector,  Thomas  Gilpin 
commanded  the  first  regiment  of  Ironsides  at  the 
crowning  victory  at  Worcester,  which  battle  van- 
quished all  opposition  to  Cromwell.  The  Gilpins 
were  amongst  the  first  to  enlist  with  Cromwell,  and 
they  remained  faithful  to  him  until  he  died.  During 
a  visit  to  England  our  present  William  Gilpin  found 
Charles  Gilpin,  a  representative  of  Northampton  in 
parliament  for  eighteen  years,  a  member  of  the  board 
of  trade,  and  a  commissioner  of  the  public  works  in 
London. 

Thomas  Gilpin  of  Warborough,  born  in  1620,  mar- 
ried Joan  Bartholomew  and  had  three  sons,  Joseph, 
Isaac,  and  Thomas.  He  was  an  officer  in  the  army, 
and  after  the  battle  of  Worcester  in  1651,  joined  the 
society  of  friends.  Persecutions  followed.  Meetings 
were  held  at  his  house,  for  which  offence  he  was 
stripped  of  his  household  effects  and  thrown  into 
prison.  Joseph  Gilpin,  born  in  1664,  married  Han- 
nah Glover  in  1691.  They  were  quakers;  and  seeing 
how  badly  their  people  were  treated  by  the  govern 
ment,  emigrated  with  their  two  small  children,  in 
1696,  to  America,  having  for  their  companions  de  voy- 
age the  ancestors  of  the  Coats  and  Morris  families, 


WILLIAM   GILPIN. 


609 


and  settling  at 


Birmingham 

M^hat  is  now  Delaware 


eeting-house  on  the 


Brandy  wi 
sylvania. 

It  was  a  frontier  settlement,  and  the  forest  yet 
waved  over  the  spot  which  was  to  be  his  future  home. 
Each  settler  had  his  own  work  to  do;  wherefore  for 
the  shelter  of  his  family  Joseph  Gilpin  hollowed  out  a 
cave  by  the  side  of  a  rock,  in  some  dry  white  clay, 
which  for  warmth  and  healthfulness  was  superior  to 
many  of  the  houses  of  his  neighbors  built  above 
ground;  and  there  he  lived  and  reared  his  family  of 
fifteen  children.  From  Joseph  Gilpin's  second  son, 
Samuel,  sprang  Thomas,  born  in  1728,  whose  first  son, 
Joshua,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1765,  was  father  of 
our  William  Gilpin,  who  was  the  eighth  and  youngest 
child. 

Before  coming  to  America  the  Gilpins  and  others 
had  built  the  little  meeting-house  in  which  William 
Penn  preached,  and  their  families  intermarried  after- 
ward. When  the  Mason  and  Dixon  line  was  later 
marked  off,  three  states  cornered  in  the  Gilpin  or- 
chard. In  generations  following  the  first  in  Amer- 
ica, log,  frame,  and  brick  houses  were  respectively 
built  for  the  occupation  of  the  Gilpins,  and  a  residence 
in  Philadelphia  established. 

Thomas  Gilpin,  the  grandfather  of  our  William 
Gilpin,  engaged  in  farming  and  manufacturing;  he 
was  interested  in  science,  and  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  American  philosophical  society. 

Joshua  Gilpin,  the  father  of  William,  was  a  man  of 
no  ordinary  culture  and  ability,  inheriting  all  the 
finish  possessed  by  the  quakers  of  Philadelphia  during 
the  era  of  their  prosperity,  when  the  whole  power 
of  the  American  people  was  centred  there.  Asso- 
ciating on  equal  terms  with  the  most  polished  and 
learned  men  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  his  society 
was  sought  by  every  one.  It  was  his  house  that  was 
Lafayette's  headquarters  at  the  battle  of  Branywine. 
Between  the  years  1795  and  1801  he  lived  in  Eng- 


■■  K 


ill,  ^:| 


■  s 


*f'i^ 


' 


\i 
11 


,1 1 


610    DOMINATING   INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 

land  and  married  an  Englishwoman.  Under  many 
discouragements  he  urged  to  completion  the  canal 
which  his  father  had  projected.  He  was  very  fond 
of  historical  investigations,  and  of  poetry,  publishing 
in  1799,  Verses  Written  at  the  Fountain  of  Vaucliise; 
in  1821,  Memoir  on  a  Canal  from  the  Chesapeake  to  the 
Delaware;  and  in  1839,  Farm  of  Virgil  and  other  Poems. 
He  died  in  Philadelphia  in  1840. 

His  wife,  Mary  Dilworth,  and  William's  mother, 
was  the  fit  consort  of  such  a  man,  beautiful,  amiable, 
and  accomplished.  She  was  of  quaker  stock,  her 
father,  John  Dilworth,  being  a  banker  at  Lancaster. 
She  was  a  conspicuous  figure  in  the  best  society,  in 
which  were  many  charming  men  and  women  of  good 
breeding,  polish,  and  education;  the  JefFersons,  the 
Handolphs,  the  Franklins,  the  Washingtons,  and 
others.  Within  their  immediate  neighborhood  were 
nine   signers   of  the   Declaration   of   Independence. 

The  sympathies  of  the  Gilpins  were  of  course  all 
with  Washington,  but  being  quakers  they  were 
non-combatants  during  the  Revolutionary  war.  A 
flouring  mill  built  by  Thomas  Gilpin,  William's  grand- 
father, is  now  called  the  Washington  mill,  having 
supplied  Washington  with  flour  while  at  Valley 
Forge.  Of  the  large  landed  interest,  consisting  of 
several  hundred  thousands  of  acres,  which  the  family 
possessed,  five  thousand  acres  finally  fell  to  William, 
which  he  sold  at  five  dollars  an  acre,  investirag  the 
money  in  westeni  Missouri,  the  rest  having  been  cut 
up  and  scattered  by  sales  and  intermarriages. 

It  was  into  such  an  atmosphere  as  this  that  William 
Gilpin  was  born,  on  the  4th  of  October,  1822.  Among 
his  earliest  recollections  was  the  visit  of  Lafayette  to 
his  father's  house  on  the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of 
Brandy  wine,  he  being  at  that  time  just  old  enough 
to  be  carried  on  a  horse  behind  his  father.  During 
his  earlier  childhood  he  was  not  sent  to  school,  but 
was  the  pupil  of  his  father.    Among  those  from  whom 


WILLIAM    OJLPIN. 


SlI 


he  learned  much  was  Lawrence  Washington,  whose 
home  was  at  Mt  Vernon.  There  was  quite  a  French 
settlement  on  the  Brandy  wine,  among  them  the  Du- 
pont  family,  the  famous  powd<5r  manufacturers,  Ad- 
miral Dupont  being  one. 

William  was  very  fond  of  history,  poetry,  and 
physical  geography ;  he  spoko  French  fluently  at  an 
early  age.  He  was  indeed  a  favored  child  of  fortune, 
with  his  elegant  surroundings  and  happy  home,  which 
overlooked  the  Delaware  and  the  Brandywine,  where 
the  boats  were  constantly  passing,  and  having  Penn- 
sylvania, Delaware,  Maryland,  and  New  Jersey  in 
si^ht.  Being  the  youngest  he  was  made  much  of  by 
all.  It  was  the  custom  of  the  Gilpins  to  make  occa- 
sional visits  among  the  prominent  people,  travelling 
in  the  family  carriage,  and  on  these  trips  they  would 
always  take  William.  And  around  their  table  all 
these  friends  would  meet  to  eat  Christmas  dinner 
with  Joshua  Gilpin. 

To  complete  their  education  and  see  more  of  the 
world,  the  Gilpin  children  were  sent  to  Europe  on 
arriving  at  proper  age.  So  when  he  was  twelve 
years  old  William's  father  took  him  over  to  Newcastle, 
and  put  him  on  board  the  ship  Montezuma,  bound  for 
Liverpool,  whose  captain  Joshua  Gilpin  well  knew, 
the  boy  being  consigned  to  the  care  of  an  elder 
brother,  who  was  clerk  in  the  quaker  American 
house  of  Cropper  and  Benson.  At  Settle,  in  York- 
shire, was  a  foundation  school,  like  Rugby,  where  but 
sixty  pupils  were  admitted,  and  there  William  was 
placed,  and  remained  two  years.  He  studied  mathe- 
matics and  the  languages,  and  had  additional  masters 
in  Liverpool. 

His  purpose  here  being  accomplished,  after  a  visit 
to  a  brother  who  had  been  appointed  by  President 
Jackson  American  consul  at  Belfast,  he  returned  to 
Philadelphia,  where  his  father  and  brother  Henry 
had  a  house  and  spent  much  of  their  time.  He  at 
once  applied  for  admission  to  the  junior  class  of  the 


m 


'11 


I'i 


;'4 


r'    i  M 


m' 


If. 


m\. 


Ift.  • ' 


4" 

•I 


I. 


\\i' 


I    - 

■ 

>'- 

: 

i 

I 

i. 

!t. 

612    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN   INTERIOR, 

university  of  Pennsylvania,  among  whose  founders  was 
his  grandfather,  and  where  three  of  his  brothers  had 
graduated.  It  was  against  the  rules  of  the  institu- 
tion to  admit  advanced  students  without  their  taking 
the  usual  course,  and  the  faculty  at  first  refused  him. 
"  If  they  will  not  admit  you  tell  them  you  shall  go  to 
Princeton,"  his  father  said.  The  faculty  yielded;  but 
the  boy  had  to  undergo  his  examination ;  and  to  this 
end  he  employed  a  tutor,  who  was  the  author  Haw- 
thorne, and  studied  night  and  day  through  the  inter- 
vening ten  weeks  of  vacation.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  term  he  presented  himself,  was  examined  for  three 
days,  was  admitted,  and  in  two  years  graduated. 

President  Jackson,  who  was  on  intimate  terms  with 
the  Gilpin  family,  had  always  taken  a  paternal  inter- 
est in  Joshua's  boys,  following  them  in  their  studies, 
and  securing  them  places  after  their  education  was  fin- 
ished. On  one  occasion,  in  making  a  journey  into 
New  England,  Jackson  came  to  Newcastle  in  a 
steamer,  and  Joshua  Gilpin  went  over  to  receive  him 
there.  When  he  entered  the  cabin  Old  Hickory  im- 
mediately stepped  forward,  threw  his  arms  around 
him,  and  said:  "Here  is  a  face  I  am  delighted  to 
see.  Where  is  your  son?"  referring  to  William's 
eldest  brother,  Henry.  "You  should  have  brought 
him  along;  he  is  my  son  too."  Henry  was  United 
States  district  attorney  at  Phi^'  lelphia,  and  was  af- 
terward appointed  United  States  attorney  general. 

They  were  having  much  trouble  about  that  time 
with  the  affairs  of  the  United  States  bank,  to  which 
Henry  had  to  give  attention,  and  William  was  fre- 
quently sent  to  Washington  with  messages  from  the 
directors  to  General  Jackson,  who  always  greeted  the 
youth  most  kindly  with  the  endearing  epithet  "my 
son."  Thus  William  had  almost  free  access  to  the 
president's  apartments,  and  when  the  youth  made 
bold  to  ask  a  favor  it  was  usually  granted.  There- 
fore when  he  expressed  a  desire  to  go  to  West  Point, 
his  wish  being  backed  by  the  influence  of  his  father 


WHJJAM   GILPIN. 


ais 


(( . 


and  brother,  he  had  no  difficulty  in  having  his  name 
placed  in  advance  of  the  hundreds  of  other  applicants. 

At  West  Point  William  studied  very  hard.  Meade 
and  Montgomery  Blair  were  his  tutors.  He  spent 
much  of  his  time  in  the  library,  and  gave  special 
attention  to  French  and  mathematics.  On  complet- 
ing his  course  at  West  Point  he  went  to  Philadelphia. 
He  was  now  eager  for  action.  He  had  been  educated 
almost  to  death  bv  the  brightest  intellects  in  the  world, 
and  now  he  would  try  the  metal  of  bis  own  mind.  For 
some  time  past  he  had  read  and  thougi.'  much  regard- 
ing the  great  unoccupied  West,  never  losing  an  oppor- 
tunity to  converse  with  those  familiar  with  the  sv.bject. 
Already  military  forces  were  on  t*io  frontier,  stationed 
at  v.srious  forts,  at  once  to  restrain  and  protect  the 
Indians  and  prevent  white  men  froui  Illegally  enter- 
ing their  territory.  All  ihis  was  thrilling  romance 
to  the  young  cadet.  Some  day  he  would  go  there; 
some  day  he  would  mingle  with  those  scenes,  and 
would  stir  up  events  which  in  their  turn  should  yet 
more  stir  him  up,  and  help  him  on  to  high  emprise. 

As  there  was  no  fighting  at  present  to  bo  done  at 
home,  it  occurred  to  William  to  try  his  fortune 
abroad,  and  he  accordingly  slipped  over  to  London. 
At  that  time  a  legion  of  ten  thousand  was  forming  in 
England  for  service  in  Spain,  to  fight  against  Don 
Cdrlos  and  in  favor  of  Isabella,  and  it  was  his  idea  to 
join  this  army,  learn  something  of  the  Spanish  lan- 
guage, and  the  mode  of  warfare  practised  there.  His 
third  brother  was  in  London  at  the  time,  learning 
engineering,  but  was  about  ready  to  return  home. 
He  made  application  to  Colonel  Witherell,  the  re- 
cruiting agent  for  the  army  in  London,  and  was  told 
he  could  not  get  a  commission;  that  the  young  nobil- 
ity were  applying  for  positions  constantly,  and  that 
a  mere  youth,  especially  an  Americcn,  had  no  chance. 
His  father  sustained  agreeable  personal  relations  with 
Lord  Brougham,  and  he  was  making  arrangements 

0.  B.— I.    33 


i 


hill 


'ml' 

m 


i.i       1',  El 


:■;!  ! 


^^^Rl" 


6U    DOMINATOIO  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 


to  secure  his  indorsement  and  that  of  other  friends  in 
London,  when  the  ship  Toronto  came  into  Southamp- 
ton port  from  New  York,  after  a  thirteen  days'  voy- 
age, the  quickest  sailing  that  had  yet  been  made. 
This  vessel  brought  news  of  the  great  fire  in  New 
York,  and  what  was  of  greater  importance,  the  out- 
break of  the  Seminoles  in  Florida,  and  the  massacre 
of  Dade's  command  at  Withlachooche.  Plantations 
were  being  robbed  right  and  left,  and  the  negroes 
driven  into  the  everglades  in  the  interior.  Here,  in- 
deed, was  opportunity;  the  lad  might  now  have  some 
fighting.  In  company  with  his  brother  Richard  he 
at  once  returned  home,  arriving  in  New  York  on  the 
4th  of  March,  1836.  Without  stopping  to  visit  his 
parents  in  Philadelphia,  lest  they  should  endeavor  to 
prevent  his  purposes,  young  Gilpin  started  for  Wash- 
ington. Having  to  remain  over  one  night  at  Balti- 
more, he  went  on  the  railroad,  which  had  just  been 
opened,  to  see  the  president.  On  board  the  train  was 
Blackhawk,  the  Indian  chief  who  had  been  captured 
a  short  time  previous,  and  was  being  taken  as  a  pres- 
ent to  Jackson.  In  riding  over  the  bleak  and  sterile 
country  between  Baltimore  and  Washington,  some 
one  asked  Blackhawk  how  he  liked  railroads.  He 
had  come  from  the  Rock  River  country,  a  fertile  and 
beautiful  section,  and  the  contrast  was  appalling  to 
him.  He  replied,  with  an  Indian  grunt,  "The  Great 
Spirit  give  machine  to  these  people  to  get  'um  over 
this  country  quick." 

Jackson  had  raised  one  regiment  of  dragoons, 
which  W9J8  stationed  at  Leavenworth,  and  employed 
to  protect  the  frontier,  particularly  to  keep  the  whites 
out  of  the  Indian  country  along  the  line  of  the  Mis- 
souri and  Arkansas  rivers,  and  down  to  the  gulf. 
The  Oregon  question  and  other  matters  began  to  be 
agitated,  and  the  president  was  getting  well  through 
his  struggle  with  the  United  States  bank,  and  saw 
victory  near  at  hand;  so  he  raised  a  second  regiment 
to  go  out  into  the   Indian  country  where  the   first 


WILLIAM   GILPIN. 


515 


regiment  was  stationed.  The  third  regiment,  organ- 
ized later,  took  the  name  of  the  Oregon  regiment,  and 
these  three  regiments  of  cavalry,  and  two  others, 
formed  the  government  corps  of  our  army.  Another 
regiment  of  negroes  has  been  added  to  it.  The  cur- 
rent of  matters  was  so  intense  and  impetuous  then 
that  it  got  the  American  people  to  thinking,  and 
broke  down  the  line  of  despotism-  It  was  while  this 
regiment  was  being  formed  by  Harney  in  the  west, 
that  the  Florida  war  commenced.  Harney  was  at 
St  Louis  as  paymaster,  and  Wharton  Rector  was  in 
the  army,  and  as  each  so  desired,  they  exchanged, 
and  Harney  was  put  into  William's  regiment  as 
major.  Young  Gilpin  without  difficulty  obtained 
from  the  president  a  commission  as  2d  lieutenant  in 
the  2d  Dragoons,  and  was  sent  among  the  miners  of 
Missouri  to  gather  recruits. 

This  was  in  July  1836.  The  stalwart  sons  of 
Missouri  regarded  it  as  a  joke  that  a  boy  like  this 
should  be  sent  to  enlist  them  to  fight  the  battles  of 
their  country.  Nevertheless  he  continued  his  course, 
and  after  reporting  himself  at  St  Louis,  he  went  up 
the  Mississippi  under  Harney's  direction.  He  was 
full  of  fire  and  life,  and  had  dashed  recklessly  into  the 
west.  He  liked  Harney,  and  Harney  was  pleased  with 
him.  He  remained  recruiting  until  autumn  of  this 
year,  when  he  received  a  letter  at  Louisville  from 
Harney,  containing  an  order  from  the  president  to 
collect  all  the  recruits  obtainable  in  the  valley  of  the 
Mississippi,  take  them  down  to  New  Orleans,  and  get 
ready  to  join  Jessup  in  Florida.  This  he  did,  remain- 
ing !it  New  Orleans  all  winter  in  command  of  recruits, 
drilling  and  preparing  them  for  service.  The  men 
were  part  of  the  force  originally  intended  for  the 
frontier,  but  while  recruiting  they  were  ordered  to 
Florida,  and  thus  all  came  together  at  New  Orleans. 

Albert  Sidney  Johnston  was  there  on  his  way  to 
join  Sam  Houston  in  Texas  as  his  adjutant-general, 
and  he  afterward  became  general  of  the  standing  army 


''*.m ' 


m 


iif- 


I  if' 


-I 


516    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 

of  Texas  when  Houston  was  made  president.  Twiggs 
came  on  from  Washington  and  took  Gilpin  to  St 
Louis,  all  in  preparation  for  the  Florida  campaign. 
He  was  now  assigned  the  position  of  first  lieutenant 
in  the  Cv>nipany,  and  he  asked  General  Gaines  and 
General  Atchison,  who  were  there,  to  be  sent  to  Flor- 
ida to  join  his  company,  which  had  been  sent  forward 
from  New  York.  This  was  done  early  in  the  summer 
of  1838. 

There  was  a  post  within  twelve  miles  of  St  Augus- 
tine, in  the  woods,  and  General  Hernandez,  a  Mexican, 
under  whom  Gilpin  found  himself,  kept  him  constantly 
scouting.  During  these  scouts  Osceola,  Coacooche, 
Blue  Snake,  and  other  prominent  Seminole  chiefs 
were  captured.  They  had  been  scattered  about  with 
their  families,  and  had  swept  a  vast  number  of  negroes 
down  into  their  country,  and  these  black  men  were 
constantly  escaping  and  giving  information  as  to  where 
a  certain  notorious  family  or  band  of  savages  could  be 
found.  Presently  General  Jessup  came  up  with  the 
main  army ;  likewise  Belknap,  the  general  of  artillery ; 
and  Twiggs  came  down  by  land  through  Nashville. 
In  the  mean  time  Gilpin  had  become  master  of  the 
situation,  owing  to  the  scouting  expeditions  he  had 
made,  and  during  which  he  had  studied  the  country 
very  carefully.  There  were  skirmishes  every  week, 
and  sometimes  every  day.  It  was  in  the  region  of  cy- 
press swamps,  grass  lakes,  alligators,  and  all  kinds  of 
things  curious  to  the  young  northerner.  When  Jes- 
sup arrived  and  took  command  of  the  army,  and  the 
weather  became  cold  enough  to  open  the  winter  cam- 
paign, he  placed  Gilpin  and  his  men  near  him,  and  the 
result  was  that  during  all  the  rest  of  the  war  the  young 
man  was  in  active  service  day  and  night  under  Jessup's 
orders.  Finally  Taylor  appeared  on  the  gulf  side,  and 
fought  the  Indians  below  the  Okechobee,  while  Jessup 
pressed  them  from  the  north  and  scattered  them  into 
the  everglades.  The  few  that  could  not  get  out  were 
allowed  to  remain  on  condition  that  they  would  never 


WILLIAM    GILPIN. 


617 


cross  a  line  drawn  from  Charlotte's  harbor  to  Indian 
river. 

Steamers  then  came  for  the  troops,  and  Gilpin  was 
sent  with  five  or  six  hundred  horses  over  to  Fort 
Melon,  where  supplies  had  accumulated.  Meanwhile 
Van  Buren  had  come  into  power  and  Mr  Calhoun  now 
looked  after  these  matters;  and  his  object  had  been 
accomplished  when  money  enough  had  been  spent  to 
secure  a  southern  state  to  counteract  the  admission  of 
Michigan,  a  non-slaveholding  state.  And  even  now. 
instead  of  being  sent  to  renew  exploration  in  the  west, 
the  whole  force  was  dismounted  and  turned  into  a 
rifle  regiment,  and  sent  to  Jessup  to  watch  negroes 
for  Calhoun.  Not  caring  for  such  occupaticm,  and 
unwilling  to  have  his  hopes  thus  blasted,  Gilpin  pro- 
ceeded to  Washington  and  requested  Mr  Van  Buren 
to  either  give  him  a  company  of  explorers,  that  he 
might  undertake  investigations  throughout  the  conti- 
nent to  the  Columbia  river,  which  region  the  United 
States  laid  claim  to,  or  to  give  him  leave  of  absence 
for  two  or  three  years  that  he  might  make  a  journey 
on  his  own  responsibility.  Moreover  he  did  not  like 
Twiggs.  But  Van  Buren  refused,  saying  it  was 
against  the  policy  of  his  administration  to  have  any 
outbreak  or  agitation  toward  the  central  west.  There 
was  filibustering  in  Cuba  and  in  Central  America; 
there  had  been  trouble  in  Florida,  and  he  wanted  no 
excitement  among  the  savages  in  the  direction  of  the 
Pacific.  He  informed  Gilpin  that  if  he  did  not  like 
the  officers  of  his  regiment,  there  was  forming  the  8th 
regiment  of  infantry,  to  which  he  could  be  transferred 
and  promoted.  Gilpin  had  brought  with  him  his 
commission  in  his  breast  pocket,  knowing  beforehand 
that  nothing  could  be  done  with  Van  Buren,  and  he 
now  asked  the  president  to  accept  his  resignation, 
which  was  done.  Nevertheless  he  was  greatly  dis- 
appointed, and  said :  "  This  breaks  my  life  in  two ;  what 
is  left  of  it  I  will  take  into  my  own  hands." 


!  1 


1    i 


1  ! 


•  ! 


r     3," 


IP 
I 


13  ■ 


618    DOMINATING   INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN   INTERIOR. 

He  returned  to  Missouri  and  resumed  civil  life, 
locating  himself  at  St  Louis,  where  he  took  charge  ^ 
of  the  Missouri  Argus,  conducting'  it  for  twelve  months 
during  an  election  campaign.  The  reelection  of  Ben- 
ton and  Lynn  to  the  senate  was  the  issue  of  the  hour, 
and  their  interests  were  regarded  as  in  jeopardy. 
Under  its  former  management  the  Argus  had  broken 
down,  and  as  Gilpin  was  a  young  man,  and  mentally  i 
and  physically  vigorous,  he  was  deemed  a  proper  per- 
son to  place  in  charge  of  the  paper.  The  opposition 
brought  Webster  to  St  Louis,  and  he  made  a  telling 
speech,  saying  that  in  his  opinion  the  vote  of  the 
coming  presidential  campaign  turned  on  the  election 
in  Missouri,  and  that  it  was  essential  to  get  Benton 
out  of  the  way.  It  was  a  desperate  fight.  St  Louis 
was  the  focal  point  where  all  the  political  rabble  from 
New  Orleans  and  elsewhere  gathered  themselves,  and 
they  were  now  holding  here  violent  conventions. 
This  inflammable  element  went  up  the  river  to  Keokuk, 
Rocheport,  Cincinnati,  and  Nashville,  lighting  the 
fires  of  spurious  patriotism.  But  the  party  fought 
its  way  through,  and  carried  the  state  legislature  by 
139  votes  for  the  reelection  of  Benton  and  Lynn. 

Gilpin  was  thereupon  made  secretary  of  the  general 
assembly  of  the  state  of  Missouri.  Sterling  Price 
was  speaker.  In  their  measures  they  put  a  saving 
clause  which  prevented  any  eflbrt  toward  reconstruct- 
ing the  United  States  bank,  and  the  independent 
treasury  system  was  brought  forward  and  established 
by  Van  Buren.  Yet  Gilpin  saw  that  nothing  could 
be  done  in  the  direction  he  desired,  in  view  of  the 
change  of  politics;  so  that  after  his  duties  as  secretary 
of  the  general  assembly  were  over  he  determined  to 
give  his  time  to  exploration,  as  there  existed  every- 
where a  lamentable  ignorance  of  the  western  country. 
What  shall  we  say  when  so  astute  a  statesman  as 
Daniel  Webster,  at  the  close  of  a  speech  on  the  floor 
of  the  United  States  senate,  denouncing  a  proposition 
to  establish  a  mail  route  from   Independence,  Mis- 


WILLIAM   GILPIN. 


619 


souri,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  breaks  forth : 
"What  do  we  want  with  this  vast,  worthless  area? 
This  region  of  savages  and  wild  beasts,  of  deserts,  of 
shifting  sands  and  whirlwinds  of  dust,  of  cactus  and 
prairie  dogs?  To  what  use  could  we  ever  hope  to 
put  these  great  deserts,  or  those  endless  mountain 
ranges,  impenetrable  and  covered  to  their  very  base 
with  eternal  snow?  What  can  we  ever  hope  to  do 
with  the  western  coast,  a  coast  of  3,000  miles,  rock- 
bound,  cheerless,  uninviting,  and  not  a  harbor  on  it? 
What  use  have  we  for  such  a  country  ?  Mr  Presi- 
dent, I  will  never  vote  one  cent  from  the  public 
treasury  to  place  the  Pacific  coast  one  inch  nearer  to 
Boston  than  it  now  is." 

Gilpin  knew  better  than  this,  and  he  would  know 
more.  But  first  he  would  settle  himself  somewhere 
and  declare  his  profession.  He  had  entered  his  name 
as  student  of  law,  with  his  brother,  in  Philadelphia, 
and  on  determining  to  make  his  home  in  the  west  he 
had  gone  before  Strong,  judge  of  the  eastern  district 
of  Pennsylvania,  where  he  was  examined  and  ad- 
mitted to  practice,  and  he  had  brought  with  him  his 
commission. 

During  his  editorship  of  the  Missouri  Argus  Gilpin 
made  many  hearty  enemies  in  St  Louis  and  elsewhere, 
owing  to  the  political  bitterness  which  prevailed  dur- 
ing the  campaign  which  resulted  in  the  election  of 
Benton  and  Lynn;  and  while  holding  the  office  of 
secretary  of  the  general  assembly  he  went  constantly 
armed  and  always  on  the  lookout  for  an  assault.  Two 
indictments  were  found  against  him  in  St  Louis,  but 
Governor  Reynolds  said,  "Give  yourself  no  uneasiness 
ou  that  score,  for  whatever  they  do  I  have  always 
your  pardon  written  out."  Gilpin  read  one  morning, 
at  Jefferson  City,  a  copy  of  a  notice  which  had  been 
posted  up  on  the  steps  of  the  court-house  at  St  Louis, 
to  the  effect  that  if  he  returned  to  St  Louis  he  would 
be  killed  at  sight.  It  was  signed  by  a  man  named 
Grimsey,  a  well-known  political   boss  and  a  bully. 


'f       i 


I '  I 


I'     'I 


'\ 

1' 

llr 

■{«' 

1« 

■ 

*l 

^jg^ 

I 

IM  " 

^    , 

y 

*                 ' 

H| ' 

'r. 

i 

H  '' 

1' 
1 

Hi'; 

[:ii 

'iSf 

¥\ 

ill 

K  '  ■ ': 

VrfyaM    f 

820    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 

The  session  having  closed,  it  became  Gilpin's  duty  to 
take  the  manuscript  of  the  laws,  which  had  been^ 
revised,  to  the  state  printer  at  Cape  Girardo.  He  at 
once  started  for  that  point  via  St  Louis.  He  arrived 
in  the  latter  city  at  midnight,  and  on  the  following 
morning,  while  passing  along  the  street,  he  was  ap- 
proached by  the  man  Grimsey,  a  large,  powerful  fellow, 
who  was  carrying  a  heavy  club.  Gilpin  at  that  time 
weighed  145  pounds,  but  he  was  lithe  and  active,  and 
his  physical  training  had  been  excellent.  He  carried  in 
his  hand  a  stout  hickory  stick  which  he  used  to  good 
advantage;  for  before  the  bully  could  strike,  Gilpin 
had,  with  a  blow  of  his  stick,  disarmed  his  antagonist, 
and  was  raining  down  blows  upon  his  head.  The 
stick  split,  but  Gilpin  kept  on,  each  blow  cutting  to 
the  bone,  until  the  bully  was  dripping  in  his  own 
blood.  The  combat  occupied  not  more  than  two 
minutes,  and  resulted  in  Grimsey  being  completely 
vanquished.  .After  this  Gilpin  proceeded  to  Cape 
Girardo  and  transacted  his  business  with  the  state 
printer.  Grimsey 's  chastisement  effected  a  total 
reformation  in  his  character,  and  he  lived  an  exem- 
plary life  for  the  rest  of  his  days. 

Jackson  and  Clay  counties  were  directly  opposite 
one  another,  and  abutting  against  the  Indian  territory; 
they  had  been  named  at  the  time  of  the  memorable 
battle  between  Clay  and  Jackson  for  the  presidency. 
Clay  county  on  the  north  had  been  settled  principally 
by  Kentuckians,  while  Jackson  county  on  the  south 
was  populated  by  Tennesseans.  Lieutenant  Gilpin 
finally  located  himself  at  Independence,  the  county 
seat  of  Jackson  county,  a  few  miles  below  where  Kan- 
sas City  now  is,  where  he  entered  into  the  practice  of 
the  law.  His  brother  had  presented  him  with  a  set 
of  United  States  supreme  court  reports  upon  his  de- 
parture for  the  west,  and  these  formed  the  nucleus  of 
his  library.  The  land  between  the  town-site  and  the 
river  he  secured,  and  built  thereon  a  cabin,  in  which 
he  at  times  lived.     Th"^  spot  was  isolated,  the  only 


WILLIAM   GILPIN. 

commerce  being  that  conducted  by  means  of  wagon- 
trains  which  passed  over  the  mountains  into  Mexican 
territory,  but  its  remoteness  from  the  civilized  east 
was  counterbalanced  by  its  proximity  to  that  vast  un- 
explored region  of  which  he  had  so  long  dreamed,  and 
he  was  content  to  remain  there  that  he  might  associ- 
ate with  those  adventurous  men  who  were  trading, 
hunting,  or  trapping  in  the  territory  he  was  deter- 
mined to  explore,  and  from  them  derive  information  as 
to  climate  and  topography  which  would  be  of  benefit  to 
him  on  his  projected  journey.  He  talked  with  Kit 
Carson  and  others  from  the  wilderness  who  came  in 
and  passed  through  Independence  almost  every  sum- 
mer. 


Neither  his  law  practice  nor  his  agricultural  pur- 
suits proved  remunerative.  He  managed  however  to 
earn  enough  to  live  upon,  but  that  was  all.  In  1842 
a  party  of  New  Mexican  traders  having  in  their  pos- 
session $60,000  in  silver  coin,  with  which  they  intended 
to  purchase  goods,  was  expected  to  arrive  in  Inde- 
pendence. A  few  of  their  number,  who  came  into 
town  in  advance  of  the  main  party,  brought  the  news 
that  a  band  of  robbers  had  gone  out  to  get  this  money, 
and  requested  that  assistance  should  be  sent.  Ten 
men  under  Lieutenant  Gilpin  were  furnished  provis- 
ions and  transportation,  and  they  started  off.  Un- 
fortunately the  robbers  were  successful  in  their  design. 
Only  the  hair  of  Manuel  Chaves,  the  chief  trader, 
who  had  charge  of  the  money,  was  found,  the  body 
having  been  devoured  by  wolves.  The  robbers  re- 
turned to  Indopendence  and  thence  to  Kansas  City, 
where  they  were  arrested,  taken  to  St  Louis,  and  four 
of  them  hanged.  Independence  remained  Lieutenant 
Gilpin's  nominal  residence  for  twenty  years,  from  1841 
to  1861,  though  he  was  at  various  times  absent  upon 
exploring  expeditions. 

His  next  expedition,  in  which  he  made  his  way  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  near  Astoria,  was  begun  in  June 


622    DOMINATINli   INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN   INTERIOR. 


W  ■ 


ill 


1843.  By  selling  his  library,  and  in  various  other 
ways,  he  secured  a  little  money  with  which  to  purchase 
an  outfit.  His  first  purchase  was  a  saddle-horse  for 
$95.  He  then  bought  a  yaager  rifle,  blankets,  and 
the  various  paraphernalia  requisite  to  an  extended  jour- 
ney through  the  wilderness.  Yet  he  needed  more 
money,  and  an  acquaintance,  who  was  soon  to  be  mar- 
ried to  an  intimate  friend  of  his,  loaned  him  a  hundred 
dollars.  He  was  now  ready  to  start,  having  as  an 
outfit,  and  in  addition  to  his  saddle-horse,  rifle,  and 
small-arms,  a  pack-mule  that  carried  his  camping 
utensils.  The  people  evinced  very  decided  opposition 
to  his  going  thus  alone  far  into  the  Indian  country, 
and  used  every  argument  to  dissuade  him  from  his 
purpose,  but  without  avail.  After  mounting  and 
starting  out  the  pack-mule  broke  away  from  him, 
lost  the  pack,  and  returned  to  town.  Again  he  had 
to  pass  through  the  ordeal  of  his  friends,  but  he  re- 
mained firm  of  purpose,  and  the  second  start  proved 
successful. 

Fremont  had  been  ordered,  about  this  time,  to  make 
a  summer  expedition  to  the  mountains  and  return,  and 
a  party  of  Scotchmen  were  also  intending  to  make  a 
hunting  trip  to  the  South  pass  and  return ;  but  Gilpin's 
objective  point  was  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia.  He 
"ent  into  camp  the  first  evening,  out  about  thirty 
miles,  at  a  spot  called  the  Lone  Elm,  David  Waldo, 
the  man  who  had  loaned  him  the  money,  accompany- 
ing him  thus  far.  He  found  encamped  in  this  vicin- 
ity a  few  men  whom  he  did  not  at  first  recognize, 
but  to  his  surprise  they  proved  to  be  the  party 
of  Fremont.  The  immortal  pathfinder  asked  Gilpin 
where  he  was  going,  and  was  told.  He  expressed 
astonishment,  and  said:  "Why,  even  with  my  whole 
force  I  do  not  consider  myself  safe  from  massacre 
to-morrow ;  now  if  you  are  determined  to  go  on,  throw 
your  pack  into  one  of  my  cJmrettes,  turn  your  mule 
into  my  band,  and  let  me  have  the  reenforcement  of 
your  horse  and  rifle."     This  arrangement  was  highly 


WILLIAM    GILPIN. 


088 


satisfactory  to  Gilpin,  as  it  afforded  him  companion- 
ship and  protection  for  a  long  distance. 

The  party  proceeded  up  the  Kansas  river,  from  the 
head  of  the  Kansas  over  to  the  Platte,  and  followed 
up  the  Platte  to  the  St  Vrain  fork.  That  being  the 
boundary  line  and  all  beyond  hostile,  they  remained 
there  for  some  time,  sending  to  Bent's  fort  for  some 
hunters  and  fresh  horses.  Fremont's  orders  from  the 
secretary  of  war  were  to  make  a  line  of  survey  to 
Walla  Walla;  and  this  he  did,  reaching  there  about 
the  middle  of  October.  Durmg  the  journey  Fremont 
would  occasionally  leave  the  party  and  make  little 
detours  for  the  purpose  of  investigation,  and  Lieuten- 
ant Gilpin  also  followed  this  practice,  thereby  adding 
much  to  his  knowledge  of  the  topography  of  the  coun- 
try. In  one  of  these  excursions  Fremont  arrived  at 
Walla  Walla  some  days  before  the  rest  of  the  party, 
and  at  once  proceeded  to  Vancouver  for  supplies  for 
his  return  journey. 

When  Gilpin  arrived  at  Walla  Walla,  he  learned  of 
Fremont's  departure  for  Vancouver,  and  also  that  he 
had  left  his  ?nen  in  camp  at  the  upper  Dalles.  From 
Walla  Walla  he  proceeded  to  the  upper  Dalles,  where 
he  met  an  Irishman  named  Dougherty,  a  Welshman 
named  Owen,  and  an  American  named  Campbell,  the 
latter  a  young  man  of  good  parts  and  pleasant  bear- 
ing. Archibald  McKinley  had  charge  of  the  fort  at 
that  point,  and  of  him  Gilpin  procured  some  horse 
meat,  potatoes,  and  some  green  tea  which  had  once 
been  used ;  also  exchanging  his  pack-mule,  Kitty,  tor 
a  log  canoe,  and  leaving  his  horse  with  McKinley. 
They  embarked  in  the  canoe,  which  was  guided  by  an 
Indian  pilot,  and  had  an  enjoyable  trip  down  the 
river,  though  at  times  being  in  danger  from  the  sav- 
ages who  were  fishing  along  the  bank,  until  they 
arrived  safely  at  the  lower  Dalles,  where  Fremont 
had  left  his  camp  in  charge  of  Kit  Carson.  Three 
days  later  Fremont  returned  with  five  canoes  loaded 
with  supplies  for  bis  homeward  journey.     During  the 


:  h 


i-M 


624    DOMINATINCr   INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN   INTERIOR. 


I 


I.    ,f; 


■ 


m 

I     - 

ii 


ii^ 


I 


■if! 


it     '■ 


m 


following  night  Gilpin's  canoe  was  stolen  by  the 
Indians.  Fremont  had  previously  exhausted  all  his  \ 
eloquence  in  endeavoring  to  induce  Gilpin  to  remain 
with  the  party,  but  without  avail.  Fremont  now 
turned  over  to  Gilpin  the  five  canoes  to  take  back  to 
McLoughlin  at  Vancouver. 

Arriving  at  that  point  he  was  welcomed  with  great 
hospitality  by  McLoughlin  and  the  factors  of  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company,  and  here  he  remained  some 
two  months,  one  of  a  congenial  party  that  gathered 
at  Vancouver,  consisting  of  McLoughlin,  Douglas, 
Ogden,  McTavish,  and  the  traders  who  happened  to 
come  in.  It  was  customarv  for  them  to  dine  to- 
gether, either  with  McLoughlin  or  Douglas,  and 
during  his  stay  there  Lieutenant  Gilpin  was  very 
assiduous  in  acquiring  as  much  knowledge  as  he  could 
regarding  the  country,  its  resources,  and  the  condition 
of  affairs,  and  from  his  unrestrained  intercourse  with 
these  people  he  learned  much  that  was  desirable  to 
know.  Often  he  would  sit  at  dinner  until  ten  o'clock 
at  night,  in  conversation  with  some  intelligent  trav- 
eller. 

Finally  the  fur  magnates  decided  that  Gilpin  knew 
too  much  for  the  interests  of  the  great  game  preserve, 
and  they  endeavored  to  get  him  out  of  the  country  by 
one  of  their  ships  then  lying  in  the  river,  and  bound 
for  the  Sandwich  islands.  Of  this  earthly  paradise 
they  gave  Gilpin  the  most  glowing  accounts,  putting 
before  him  the  advantage  such  a  voyage  would  be  to 
him,  and  offering  him  letters  of  introduction  to  Sir 
Hugh  Pellcy,  and  transportation  to  London,  all  at 
the  expense  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  Finally 
the  captain  of  this  vessel,  a  shrewd  Scotchman,  in- 
vited Gilpin,  and  his  most  agreeable  young  friend 
Campbell,  on  board  his  vessel  to  dine  with  him.  He 
introduced  to  them  his  best  cabin,  and  told  them  that 
this  should  be  their  home  as  long  as  they  desired. 
They  sat  down  to  dinner  and  enjoyed  the  appetizing 
efforts  of  an  excellent  cook,  and  also  drank  freely  of 


WILUAM   GILPIN. 


626 


wine  which  the  captain  generously  set  forth,  with 
occasional  potations  of  brandy.     During  the  evening 
the  captain  and  young  Campbell  succumbed  to  the 
influences  of  good  cheer,  and  made  themselves  com- 
fortable in  corners  of  the  cabin.     Gilpin,  but  little 
inconvenienced  by  the  fiery  potations,  after  breakfast- 
ing on  a  tender,  well-cooked  duck,  went  ashore  just 
after  daylight  and  was  met  by  Douglas,  who  seemed 
surprised  at  his  quick  return  from  the  ship.     The 
idea  of  these  whole- soul  and  hospitable  men  had  been 
to  detain  him  on  board  the  vessel  until  she  could  get 
to  sea,  and  then  rid  themselves  of  one  whose  pro- 
nounced views  and  aggressive  nature  presaged  dis- 
astrous antagonism.     But  in  this  they  signally  failed. 
From  Vancouver  Gilpin  proceeded  up  the  Willa- 
mette river  to  Oregon  City.    Scarcely  had  he  arrived 
there  when  three  Indians  came  into  town  and  shot 
and   killed    three   young   Americans   with   poisoned 
arrows.     Excitement  ran  high,  and  a  few  of  the  peo- 
ple gathered  to  see  what  measures  could  be  taken  to 
insure  self-protection.     There  were  various  matters 
needing  attention,  everything  political  being  at  loose 
ends.     It  was  decided  to  hold  a  convention  on  the 
succeeding  4th  of  March,  for  the  purpose  of  organiz- 
ing some  sort  of  a  provisional  government,  and  secur- 
ing  recognition   from   the   United    States.      Doctor 
White  was  appointed  to  represent  the  Americans, 
Douglas  to  represent  the  English,  and   Lieutenant 
Gilpin  to  represent  the  western  and  Rocky  mountain 
population,  and  these  men  were  to  bring  about  this 
convention.     Douglas  refused  to  serve,  as  it  would 
interfere  with  his  position  with  the  English  govern- 
ment.    White  refused  for  the  same  reason,  that  it 
would  compromise  him;   and  it  was  concluded  that 
Gilpin  should   do   what   he  could.     He  procured  a 
guide,  Joe  Meek,  and  together  they  proceeded  up  the 
Willamette    to   the   chief   settlement,   within   about 
twelve  miles  of  Salem,  where  there  was  a  catholic 
mission. 


'•i: 


I  ill;:', 


636    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN   INTERIOR. 


The  object  was  to  notify  the  settlers  of  the  pro- 
posed convention,  and  to  induce  every  one  to  be 
present.  Gilpin  then  went  to  Vancouver,  and  again 
endeavored  to  enlist  McLoughlin  and  Douglas  in  the 
movement;  after  much  discussion  it  was  agreed  that 
the  attendants  at  this  convention  should  unite  as  peo- 
ple of  the  Pacific  coast,  and  without  reference  to  any 
existing  government.  In  the  mean  time  a  brief 
schedule  of  a  provisional  government  was  drawn  up, 
which  provided  for  an  executive  committee  of  three, 
for  magistrates  who  should  hold  courts,  and  for  con- 
stables; and  finally  for  a  committee  in  charge  of  this 
executive  committee,  to  be  finally  chosen  by  them,  to 
be  ready  to  aflbrd  any  assistance  that  they  might  br* 
able  to  give,  should  any  difficulty  occur.  Blubber 
Smith  was  made  chairman,  and  two  Canadians  were 
vice-presidents.  The  schedule  was  adopted,  and  served 
its  purpose  until  the  territory  became  stronger.  Lieu- 
tenant Gilpin  drew  up  with  great  care  a  petition  to 
the  government  of  the  United  States,  requesting,  in 
the  same  vigorous  language  used  by  our  grandfathers 
in  the  declaration  of  independence,  that  notice  should 
be  taken  of  the  exposed  condition  of  the  people,  flanked 
by  the  open  sea  where  the  fleets  of  the  world  could 
come  in,  surrounded  by  savages,  with  nothing  to  live 
upon,  and  harassed  in  many  ways  by  reason  of  Brit- 
ish authority. 

When  the  nieeting  was  about  tc  adjourn  sine  die, 
Doctor  White  presented  the  petition  for  the  consid- 
eration of  the  assemblage.  The  chairman  at  first  ob- 
jected to  have  anything  to  do  with  foreign  afiairs,  but 
consented  that  it  should  be  ^ead,  and  after  hearing  its 
contents,  he  unhesitatingly  p  t  his  name  to  it;  the  two 
vice-presidents,  who  could  nov  ead  or  write,  then  made 
their  marks,  which  were  duly  .  'tnessed,  and  then  the 
others  signed.  Thus  was  Lieutt  ant  Gilpin  appointed 
an  agent  of  the  people  to  lay  th  petition  before  the 
president  of  the  United  States.  The  petition  further 
stated  that   though  Oregon  thus  far  had  produced 


WILLIAM    GILPIN. 


S27 


ibber   \ 
were    ' 
erved 
Lieu- 
on  to 


nothing  of  value  to  the  United  States,  yet  with  a 
little  help,  it  would  become  an  important  factor  in 
the  government. 

Up  to  this  time  Gilpin  had  not  been  able  to  proceed 
west  farther  than  the  mouth  of  the  Willamette,  and 
he  now  determined  that  he  would  see  the  Pacific 
ocean  without  further  delay.  He  procured  a  yawl 
with  a  single  mast  and  a  sb  et  for  a  8ail,  and  then  as 
a  crew  he  took  in  a  sprightly  young  sailor  boy,  a 
Missouri  man  named  Chanpel,  and  one  Dec  Newell. 
They  rowed  down  the  Willamette  and  out  into  the 
Columbia.  After  proceeding  a  short  distance  down 
the  C  lumbia,  it  was  noticed  that  they  were  not 
making  much  headway,  and  Gilpin  suggested  that 
they  should  go  ashore  and  wait  until  the  tide  changed 
in  their  favor.  At  this  Newell  turned  pale,  and  asked 
if  the  sea  was  really  strong  enough  to  take  anything 
up  stream.  To  prove  it  to  him,  Gilpin  threw  out 
some  hay,  which  floated  up  past  a  snag,  and  caught 
thereon,  much  to  the  discomfiture  of  Newell.  "  When 
I  find  myself  in  a  country  where  water  runs  up 
stream,"  he  said,  "I  want  to  get  out  of  it;  it  is  no 
place  for  an  Ohio  man." 

"I  am  going  to  the  ocean,"  said  Gilpin,  "and  you 
must  help  me  get  there,"  at  the  same  time  guiding 
the  boat  out  into  the  middle  of  the  stream  to  prevent 
Newell  from  jumping  ashore.  The  country  was  a  sav- 
age wilderness,  and  should  he  be  put  ashore,  he 
would  probably  starve  to  death  or  be  killed  by  In- 
dians. But  Newell  said  that  he  had  a  wife  and  chil- 
dren at  home ;  and  so  strong  was  his  belief  that  sure 
destruction  awaited  a  man  who  was  rash  enough  to 
venture  nearer  to  any  such  terrible  body  of  water, 
that  after  about  an  hour  spent  in  trying  to  convince 
him  of  his  folly,  they  finally  placed  him  on  shore  and 
rowed  away.  At  a  saw-mill,  a  few  miles  farther 
down,  they  procured  a  Nez  Perces  Indian  to  take 
the  place  of  Newell. 

When  they  reached  the  wide  bay  inside  of  Tongue 


u'.ul 


y  I 


h*  ■■ 


m' 


■  Mi  I 


m 


I 


■ ,'-} 


! 

n    TTfT 

1 
i  ■ 

1       '  ' 

'1 

1  ^ 

li     ; 

n 


528    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN   INTERIOR. 

point,  the  waves  were  running  high,  and  the  wind  blow- 
ing furiously.  The  remainder  of  the  passage  promised 
to  be  extremely  hazardous.  In  rounding  the  point, 
Gilpin  had  the  men  lie  down  flat  in  the  boat,  while 
he  took  the  sail  and  rudder  and  picked  his  way 
along  shore,  sometimes  barely  grazing  the  rocks;  but 
after  getting  into  the  open  channel,  he  had  a  fair  wind 
down  to  Astoria,  or  Fort  George,  where  the  party 
was  warmly  greeted  by  the  commander,  who  with  his 
people  had  been  watching  the  dangerous  course  of 
the  boat,  and  wondering  who  its  occupants  could  be. 
The  following  day  Gilpin  set  out  to  make  the  last 
stage  of  his  westward  journey  to  the  shores  of  the 
Pacific.  Dense  forests  and  almost  impenetrable 
swamps  had  to  be  traversed,  and  the  only  guide 
procurable  was  a  young  Indian  girl.  They  landed 
in  the  afternoon,  and  started  into  the  woods  to  cross 
over  to  the  beach.  Soon  darkness  set  in,  and  the 
situation  became  more  depressing  when  their  guide 
made  the  announcement,  in  her  own  terse  manner, 
that  she  had  lost  the  trail.  Nothing  further  could 
be  done  until  morning.  Gilpin,  after  some  difficulty, 
succeeded  in  starting  a  small  fire,  with  the  aid  of  a 
flint,  and  they  remained  there  until  daylight,  though 
none  of  them  slept.  When  morning  came  the  trail 
was  found,  and  in  a  short  time  they  emerged  upon 
Clatsop  beach.  Thus  the  great  object  of  the  journey 
from  Jackson  county  had  been  accomplished. 

Gilpin  took  a  plunge  in  the  sea,  and  was  then  ready 
to  retrace  his  steps.  Among  other  curiosities  on  the 
beach,  they  found  the  skeleton  of  a  whale,  some  forty- 
five  feet  long.  The  return  journey  to  Astoria,  au'l 
thence  to  Vancouver,  was  soon  made,  without  special 
adventure.  Arriving  there,  Gilpin  applied  to  Mc- 
Loughlin  for  assistance  to  return  home.  The  fur 
magnate  placed  at  his  service  a  canoe  and  five  In- 
dians, with  provisions,  consisting  of  cured  pork,  which 
was  scarce  and  expensive,  and  otlior  articles  of  food, 
and  on  the  10th  of  April.  1844,  he  left  Vancouver. 


WILLIAM   GILPIN. 


523 


Arriving  at  the  upper  Dalles  he  exchanged  his  five 
Indians  and  one  canoe  for  one  Indian  and  five  horses, 
swam  the  river  below  the  Dalles,  proceeded  250  miles 
through  Washington  territory,  and  recrossed  at  Walla 
Walla,  where  he  was  left  alona.  There  he  was  obliged 
to  wait  for  the  annual  brigade  of  supplies  for  Fort 
Hall,  900  miles  distant,  as  it  was  not  safe  to  make 
the  journey  alone.  He  found  his  horse  safe;  and 
when  the  brigade  arrived  under  the  command  of 
Major  Grant,  he  accompanied  it  as  far  as  Fort  Hall. 
Fort  Bridger  was  the  next  objective  point,  and  that 
WuiS  300  miles  farther  on.  At  Fort  Hall  he  met  Peg- 
leg  Smith,  a  powerful  man,  turbulent  and  tough,  rude 
in  manner,  but  of  wonderful  nerve  and  courage. 

While  out  on  the  plains  with  a  wagon-train  of  sup- 
plies intended  for  Bent's  fort,  he  was  accidentally 
thrown  from  his  wagon,  and  the  heavy  vehicle  passed 
over  his  leg,  crushing  the  bone  below  the  knee,  ren- 
dering amputation  necessary.  There  was  no  physician 
within  hundreds  of  miles,  and  he  feared  mortification 
would  set  in  and  consequent  loss  of  life.  Whereupon 
he  made  a  saw  from  his  butcher-knife,  built  a  fire  and 
heated  a  bolt  from  a  wagon,  and  then  cut  the  flesh  to 
the  bone,  sawed  the  leg  off,  and  drawing  the  flesh  down 
over  tho  wound  he  took  the  heated  bolt  and  seared  it 
over  to  prevent  bleeding.  This  is  not  the  only  in- 
stance of  similar  heroism  under  the  pressure  of  inex- 
orable necessity. 

This  man  had  come  to  Fort  Hall  for  powder,  and 
Gilpin  pro])()sed  to  him  that  they  should  make  the 
trip  to  Fort  Bridger  in  company,  to  which  Smith 
agreed.  They  could  get  no  meat  at  Fort  Hall,  and 
the  first  night  out  they  spent  at  Ross  fork,  with  noth- 
ing to  eat,  and  as  a  conse(juence  were  nearly  famished. 
They  accidentally  killed  a  ground-hog  and  tried  to  eat 
it,  but  could  not.  The  next  day,  the  3d  of  July,  they 
started  down  the  Point  Neuf  river,  and  were  fortu- 
nate enough  to  shoot  an  antelope.  They  celebrated 
the  4th  of  July  at  Soda  springs  by  eating  antelope 


n 


v'-'n 


c.  It.-l.    ;il 


i 


i; 


1  '■ 

^    ■...■■  . 

1 

ii 
II 
i 

m 

^:i 

'1:1 

1 
I 

!■'' 

f : 

j 

h    , 

'  ■ ;  1; 

i-i 

! 

1 

■:"'\ 

i':'? 

f 

^.i 

ii^  -^ 


ii 
h 

■I   ' 


F'          ' 

i 

i    I 

«  1 

'  1 

i 

530    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 

and  drinking  soda-water,  and  were  then  ready  to  re- 
sume their  journey  to  Fort  Bridger.  Arriving  there, 
Gilpin  engaged  a  young  Mexican  boy  as  his  guide,  and 
together  they  proceeded  over  the  Uintah  mountains, 
and  down  to  the  Grand  river  of  the  west,  which  they 
crossed,  coming  out  upon  the  old  Spanish  trail  used 
by  Californians  to  drive  their  cattle  from  Los  Angeles 
to  San  Antonio,  Texas.  Turning  to  the  left  as  they 
entered  this  trail  they  soon  parted  from  the  Grand 
river.  Once  they  camped  on  the  banks  of  a  small 
muddy  stream,  and  had  hardly  unpacked  when  their 
horses  galloped  off,  and  joined  others  which  soon 
appeared  in  sight.  Investigation  showed  that  there 
was  an  Indian  camp  close  by.  By  this  time  Gilpin 
had  learned  to  be  a  better  Indian  than  the  Indians 
themselves;  yet  it  was  only  by  his  coolness  and  brav- 
ery under  the  most  trying  circumstances  that  he 
escaped  with  his  life  on  this  occasion.  He  held  a 
long  conference  with  the  Indians  that  evening,  and 
another  in  the  morning,  during  which  he  distributed 
a  few  trifimg  presents  among  them,  and  on  the  latter 
occasion  extreme  measures  were  advocated  by  one  of 
the  chiefs;  but  by  his  very  audacity  Gilpin  and  his 
guide  were  permitted  to  depart  unharmed.  He  rode 
thirty -eight  miles  that  day,  crossing  the  Rio  Grande 
toward  evening.  After  that  he  encountered  no  more 
savages,  although  he  was  obliged  to  be  constantly  on 
his  guard.  Sometimes  a  week  would  elapse  without 
a  gun  being  discharged,  and  at  other  times  he  would 
not  dare  to  light  a  fire.  Passing  through  San  Luis 
park  he  reached  Bent's  fort,  and  from  that  point  took 
the  wagon-road  to  Independence. 

Arriving  at  the  state  line  he  found  that  the  presi- 
dential election  of  1844  was  being  held.  On  learning 
who  were  the  candidates  he  at  once  voted  for  Polk. 
Although  his  vote  was  at  first  challenged,  it  was 
afterwards  taken,  Gilpin  claiming  that  if  he  had  not 
been  residing  in  Missouri  for  some  time  past,  he  had 
not   resided   anywhere   else.     Arrived   at    Jefferson 


.'  I . 


WILLIAM   GILPIN. 


m 


City  he  was  immediately  tendered  his  old  appoint- 
ment, that  of  secretary  of  the  general  assembly  of 
Missouri,  then  in  session,  and  which  he  accepted. 
The  fame  of  his  travels  spread  abroad,  and  he  at- 
tracted much  attention,  letters  pouring  in  upon  him 
from  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  The  Oregon 
and  Texa,s  platforms  had  brought  into  existence  the 
fundamental  elements  of  the  great  army  of  pioneers, 
and  they  naturally  turned  to  this  j'^oung  man  who  had 
traversed  so  much  of  the  western  territory. 

In  the  spring  of  1845,  after  the  legislature  had 
adjourned  and  about  the  time  Polk  was  inaugurated, 
he  made  a  visit  to  hia  mother,  on  the  Brandywine, 
and  renewed  his  earlier  associations  in  that  quarter, 
his  father  being  now  dead.  He  went  to  Washington 
shortly  after  the  inauguration  of  Polk.  Among  the 
new  cabinet  officers  were  many  intimate  family  friends, 
among  them  Buchanan,  Walker,  Marcy,  George  Ban- 
croft, and  others.  He  found  himself  heartily  re- 
ceived at  the  capital.  In  the  eyes  of  the  people  he 
was  a  hero.  Washington  was  a  large  Virginia  vil- 
lage at  that  time,  and  the  kindness  of  so  many  dis- 
tinguished persons  was  gratifying  after  the  hardships 
of  his  frontier  life.  Through  all  the  flattering  atten- 
tions he  received  he  bore  himself  with  that  true 
quaker  modesty  which  had  been  bred  in  him  from 
boyhood.  He  called  on  James  Buchanan,  secretary 
of  state,  who  recognized  him  at  once,  greeted  him 
kindly,  and  requested  him  to  recite  the  incidents  of 
of  his  expedition  to  Oregon.  This  was  done,  and  so 
interesting  was  it  that  Buchanan  said,  when  Gilpin 
had  finished:  **  You  must  come  with  me  at  once  to  the 
president  and  give  him  word  for  word,  as  near  as  you 
can,  what  you  have  told  me.  It  is  bewitching,  and 
will  be  invaluable  to  us  just  at  this  time."  He  at 
once  went  to  the  president,  and  introducing  Gilpin, 
said:  "Here  is  my  young  friend  William  Gilpin, 
known  to  me  from  a  boy.     He  is  the  greatest  trav- 


li:?! 


-■;tsj 


IP  ; 


I- 

■ 


632    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES   IN  THE  WESTERN   INTERIOR. 

eller  of  his  age,  and  has  given  me  such  a  clear,  con- 
cise, and  valuable  account  of  his  journeyings  that  I 
wish  you  to  hear  the  same;  and  further,  Mr  Presi- 
dent, he  does  not  desire  an  office."  The  president 
greeted  him  kindly,  spoke  of  his  friendship  with  his 
brother,  Henry  Gilpin,  and  seconded  Mr  Buchanan's 
request  for  an  interview.  This  had  been  Gilpin's 
object  from  the  beginning,  and  his  dream  of  establish- 
ing an  empire  in  the  wilderness  now  seemed  in  a  fair 
way  to  be  realized.  He  repeated  the  account  of  his 
travels  to  the  president,  with  his  impressions  of  the 
country  through  which  he  had  passed,  a  description 
of  the  climate  and  soil,  the  few  settlers  he  had  met, 
and  their  condition  and  necessities.  His  recital  proved 
very  gratifying  to  Mr  Polk,  who  expressed  his  as- 
tonishment no  less  at  the  courage  and  enterprise  of 
the  young  man  than  at  what  he  heard  regarding  the 
condition  of  affairs  in  the  west.  Gilpin  saw  that  an 
attempt  would  be  made  to  overthrow  Polk  on  the 
extension  of  territory  question,  as  had  been  the  case 
with  Jackson  on  the  currency  question.  His  policy 
was  that  of  Jefferson's,  to  push  on  to  the  Pacific  and 
make  safe  all  that  vast  country. 

As  has  been  said.  Lieutenant  Gilpin  desired  no 
office.  The  idea  of  western  dominion  was  with  him 
greater  than  any  position  within  the  gift  of  the  ad- 
ministration, or  of  the  people,  which  would  trannuel 
his  independence.  He  would  have  entertained  no  pro- 
position, he  would  liave  entered  upon  no  road  to  honor 
or  emolument,  which  would  not  have  led  in  the  direc- 
tion of  his  grand  and  animating  concejition.  In  the 
discussion  of  Oregon  affairs,  he  was  preeminently  a 
most  important  personage.  In  speaking  to  him,  Sen- 
ator Benton  said:  "We  are  delighted  to  see  you,  and 
we  are  doliglited  with  your  conversations;  you  are  in 
a  position  to  give  us  facts  that  we  cannot  find  in  any 
books;  i.nd  you  will  find  it  universally  satisfactory 
and  to  the  pleasure  of  all  our  friends  if  you  will  return 
when   congress  opens."     Of  course   Benton   favored 


L^S 


I 


WILLIAM    GILPIN. 


538 


Fremont,  the  husband  of  Jessie,  but  he  was  still 
friendly  and  cordial  to  Gilpin.  So  the  Oregon  trav- 
eller went  away,  and  returned  at  the  convening  of 
congress,  and  was  admitted  to  all  the  debates,  with 
the  freedom  of  the  floors  of  both  houses,  which  were 
then  in  the  old  rooms ;  and  often  when  a  member  was 
in  the  midst  of  a  speech,  he  would  turn  to  Gilpin  and 
inquire  as  to  some  point  with  which  he  himself  was 
not  familiar. 

Senator  Niles  of  Connecticut  and  Senator  Atchi- 
son of  Missoui  i,  who  belonged  to  the  committee  on 
post-offices  and  post-roads,  were  both  greatly  inter- 
ested in  Lieutenant  Gilpin.  Said  the  former:  "All 
that  you  have  stated  not  only  surprises  me  exceed- 
ingly, but  harmonizes  with  my  sentiments;  but  it  is 
all  too  new  and  I  am  too  old  to  study  it  out  in  all  its 
vast  magnitude;  if  you  will  address  a  letter  to  Senator 
Atchison  covering  the  subject,  I  will  introduce  a  bill 
and  lay  it  before  congress,  making  my  report  intro- 
ductory to  the  same." 

The  report  was  submitted  March  2,  1846,  and 
ordered  to  be  printed,  3,000  copies  more  being  ordered 
two  days  thereafter.  The  committee  recomended  the 
opening  of  a  mail  route  from  the  western  line  of  the 
state  of  Missouri  to  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  river. 

In  this  letter  Mr  Gilpin  gave  a  full  description  of 
the  condition  of  affairs  in  Oregon.  He  speaks  of  the 
population,  the  industries  and  products  of  the  coun- 
try, also  its  position  in  relation  to  Japan  and  China, 
and  the  attitude  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  He 
then  pointed  out  the  advantages,  or  rather,  the  abso- 
lute necessity,  of  a  transcontinental  mail  route.  It  is 
worthy  of  remark  that  Mr  Gilpin  was  among  the 
fir«t  to  suggest  and  urge  this  measure,  as  well  as 
those  of  steam  communication  via  Panamd,  and  the 
overland  railway. 

This  much  having  been  disclosed,  congress  and 
the  people  desired  to  know  more.  On  the  16th  of 
March  Senator  Semple  addressed  a  letter  to  Mr  Gilpin 


f   II 


nmi 


i 


''   'I'ii 


:       ! 


'!   1 


■  i 

i 

J 

fH. 

if 

i    >- 

1 1 

!  1^ 

li 

1  \ 

1 

1 

!^ 

.  ,,)! 

j 

i  i^y. 

i                        ' 

m\''  ■■■ 

1 

M 

li.J; 

534     DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 

requesting  further  informp,tion.  Accompanying  his 
answer  was  a  full  exposition  of  the  natural  resources 
and  condition  of  the  farthest  west.  He  gave  the  geo- 
graphy and  position  of  Oregon,  showed  the  growth  of 
America  and  the  folly  of  restricting  progress.  He 
explained  the  possibilities  of  Pacific  coast  traffic,  the 
geographical  proportions  of  our  national  territory,  the 
productive  strength  of  America,  the  old  and  the  new 
routes  of  commerce,  the  natural  commercial  affinity 
of  the  Americans  and  Asiatics,  the  dignity  of  the 
American  position,  and  the  necessity  for  further  topo- 
graphic knowledge.  Then  he  gave  a  fine  dissertation 
upon  climates,  and  on  the  physical  character  of  the 
Pacific  slope  of  the  American  continent.  Next  he 
speaks  of  the  settlement  of  Oregon,  the  necessity  of 
American  sovereignty  on  this  continent,  the  Euro- 
pean jealousy  of  America,  concluding  with  some  perti- 
nent comparisons.  Altogether  the  report  made  a 
book  of  forty-seven  pages,  and  coming  just  at  this 
time,  on  the  eve  of  the  settlement  of  the  Oregon 
question,  the  Mexican  war,  and  the  acquisition  of 
California,  its  influence  and  importance  cannot  be 
estimated. 

Gilpin  remained  in  Washington  until  the  declara- 
tion of  war  against  Mexico.  Immediately  after  the 
battle  of  Palo  Alto,  a  bill  was  passed  entitled  "An 
act  to  appropriate  money  for  the  existing  hostilities 
between  the  United  States  and  Mexico."  Gilpin's 
petition  from  Oregon  had  been  introduced  in  the  sen- 
ate by  Atchison,  and  was  document  No.  1  in  both 
houses.  After  the  declaration  of  war  he  had  notified 
persons  in  Jackson  county  to  raise  a  company,  and 
they  had  saved  a  place  for  him,  but  this  he  did  not 
want.  From  President  Polk  he  obtained  permission 
to  call  out  one  regiment  of  Missouri  cavalry,  and  to 
call  it  the  Army  of  the  West.  Upon  reaching  Inde- 
;  pendence  he  found  that  a  company  of  105  men  had 
been  raised,  and  had  proceeded  to  Fort  Ijcavenworth 
to  be  mustered  in. 


\ 


WILLIAM   GILPIN. 


535 


He  at  once  proceeded  to  Fort  Leavenworth,  and 
there  found  six  companies  of  the  1st  regiment  Mis- 
souri volunteers.  Company  A  of  this  regiment  was 
composed  of  his  friends  who  were  anxiously  awaiting 
his  arrival.  Kearney  was  present,  and  as  he  did  not 
feel  kindly  toward  Gilpin  he  determined  that  he 
should  have  no  command.  Gilpin  felt  that  he  would 
be  elected  an  officer  if  he  could  once  gain  admission  to 
the  company.  He  found  in  the  company  from  Jack- 
son county  a  boy,  sixteen  years  old,  whose  widowed 
mother  had  claimed  his  discharge  on  account  of  his 
youth,and  Gilpin  paid  this  boy  eighty-five  dollars  for  his 
place  in  the  ranks.  Otherwise  he  could  not  have  se- 
cured a  place,  as  the  company  already  numbered  105; 
but  as  they  were  strong,  hardy,  and  desirable  soldiers, 
they  had  been  permitted  to  remain.  Gilpin  was  a 
trained  soldier  from  the  school,  and  had  also  had  ex- 
perience on  the  field,  and  he  drilled  the  companies  up 
to  the  time  of  the  election  of  officers.  Among  the 
men  was  an  old  class-mate  named  Ruflf.  Some  of  the 
men  were  pleased  to  think  they  could  prevent  Gilpin 
from  holding  any  office  in  the  company,  as  he  previ- 
ously had  worked  his  way  up  to  a  1st  lieutenancy, 
and  then  despising  that  rank,  had  resigned. 

Well,  the  election  proceeded.  A  man  named  Doni- 
phan was  chosen  colonel,  and  the  election  for  lieu- 
tenant-colonel then  came  up.  Doniphan  desired 
Gilpin  to  have  the  place,  but  RufF  was  the  candidate 
of  the  West  Pointers.  RufF  was  elected  by  two  votes. 
The  office  of  major  was  still  open.  After  the  election 
had  proceeded  thus  far,  the  regiment  broke  into  confu- 
sion and  declared  that  Gilpin  should  be  major.  Gilpin 
thereupon  made  them  a  speech  of  about  twenty  minutes* 
duration,  after  which  he  was  informed  that  Kearney 
wished  to  see  him  in  his  office.  He  obeyed  the  sum- 
mons, and  Kearney  said:  "I  have  received  from  the 
president  an  appointment  for  you  as  lieutenant-colonel 
of  the  3d  regiment,  and  I  suppose  this  is  followed  by 
a  life  service  if  you  choose.     Had  you  not  better  wifch- 


\U 


'I 


i 


!' 


I 


(     -        ' 

..1  i 

j 

tii 

i 


m 


\4\ 


'W- 


m 


•V. 


ii 


4f 

..1   ft  I 


536    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE   WESTERN  INTERIOR. 

draw  now  and  avail  yourself  of  this  appointment?" 
Said  Gilpin,  "I  will  not  accept  it."  He  felt  it  was  a 
measure  which  would  turn  him  from  the  west.  He 
returned  to  the  parade  ground  and  was  unanimously 
declared  elected  major,  without  the  formality  of  ballot- 
ing. It  spite  of  his  age  Gilpin  had  at  that  time  more 
frontier  experience  than  any  of  the  officers ;  his  train- 
ing had  been  thorough  and  varied,  and  he  was  virtually 
master  of  the  situation.  The  army  entered  Santa  Fd 
in  triumph  on  the  14th  of  August,  1846.  Kearney 
had  become  homesick  and  desired  to  turn  back. 

The  army  of  the  west  at  that  time  consisted  of  the 
Ist  regiment  Missouri  volunteers,  of  which  Gilpin 
was  major,  three  companies  of  dragoons,  a  battery  of 
volunteer  ai  tillery,  a  small  battalion  of  infantry  from 
Cole  county,  Missouri,  and  a  small  cavalry  company 
from  St  Louis.  Attached  to  the  army  were  three 
hundred  merchant  wagons  with  their  owners.  They 
had  laid  in  a  stock  of  goods  especially  adapted  to  the 
Mexican  country,  and  they  now  desired  to  keep  on  to 
Chihuahua,  their  destination.  These  teamsters  were 
as  good  soldiers  as  any  in  the  army,  and  assisted 
materially  at  the  battle  of  Sacramento,  which  pre- 
ceded the  taking  of  the  city  of  Chihuahua.  This 
battle,  at  which  the  Americans  had  less  than  1,200 
men  in  rank,  was  fought  on  the  28th  of  February, 
1847,  beginning  at  3  a.  m.,  and  ending  at  twenty 
minutes  past  ten  in  the  evening.  The  Mexican  army, 
according  to  Gilpin's  estimate,  had  5,250  soldiers, 
with  five  generals  and  26  pieces  of  artillery.  The 
Americans  had  about  eight  hundred  men,  including 
the  teamsters,  who  guarded  the  corral;  but  not  all 
reported  for  duty;  there  were  four  field-pieces  and 
two  mountain  howitzers.  The  Mexicans  were  drawn 
up  in  line  and  the  Americans  began  to  manoeuvre. 

They  marched  past  the  Mexicans,  who,  not  antici- 
pating such  a  measure,  waited  too  long  and  were  then 
forced  to  move  suddenly  and  disorderly  to  prevent 
the  American  army  from  marching  around  them  to 


WILLIAM    GILPIN. 


tt7 


the  city.  As  they  turned  to  rectify  their  mistake  the 
Americans  charged  them  upon  the  flank,  captured 
their  artillery,  cut  them  in  two,  and  defeated  the  two 
wings.  The  army  then  marched  to  Chihuahua,  where 
it  remained  some  three  months.  A  dispute  here 
arose  between  Gilpin  and  Doniphan,  which  involved 
the  integrity  of  the  expedition. 

The  average  age  of  the  army  was  22  years,  and 
there  was  a  difference  of  sentiment  among  the  men, 
the  younger  ones  wishing  to  push  on  into  the  Mexican, 
country,  and  the  others  desiring  to  return.     Gilpin's 
idea  was  this:  that  as  they  had  possession  of  that 
magnificent   city,  and  as  the  mint   contained  about 
$800,000,  they  should  confiscate  that  money,  as  they 
had  a  right  to  do,  as  spoils  of  war.     Up  to  this  time 
the  army  had  not  received  any  pay  or  recognition  of 
their  valor  from  home.     Finally  Doniphan  agreed  to 
call  a  court-martial  and  submit  the  question   as  to 
whether  the  army  should  retrace  its  steps,  or  push  on 
to  conquer  the  whole  Mexican  country.     Thus   far, 
besides  doing  their  own  work,  they  had  done  that 
which  had  been  allotted  to  General  Wool.     Doniphan 
picked  the   members  of  the  court-martial,  such   as 
would  favor  his  views,  as  nearly  as  he  was  able ;  but 
Gilpin  had  all  the  young  men  on  his  side.     The  ques- 
tion was  put,  and  it  was  decided  to  push  on  to  the 
city  of  Mexico.    They  then  made  a  three  days*  march 
in  that  direction,  Doniphan  accompanying  them,  al- 
though protesting  at  every  step,  and  offering  to  re- 
sign his  command  to  Gilpin  and  return  home.     The 
third  day  they  halted  at  San  Felipe.     Doniphan  had 
left  two  companies  at  Chihuahua  to  guard  the  city ; 
also  a  number  of  the  merohants  who  wished  to  sell 
out  their  goods.     At  San  Felipe,  on  the  following 
morning,  when  they  were  expecting  to  pursue  their 
way,  and  while  Gilpin  was  waiting  for  the  order  of 
march  from  Doniphan,  to  his  surprise  no  such  order 
came.     What  still  more  astonished  him  was  to  see 
Doniphan  and  several  of  his  friends  mount  and  take 


)  ■; 


1:4 

k 


!P'i 


638    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 

the  back  trail  to  Chihuahua.  One  of  Doniphan's 
men  came  up  presently  and  said  that  the  orders  were 
that  the  whole  army  should  return  to  Chihuahua, 
that  the  country  was  full  of  hostile  bands,  that  the 
soldiers  left  at  Chihuahua  would  be  massacred,  and 
that  he  would  not  expose  them  in  such  a  manner;  so 
the  whole  army  turned  back.  Arriving  at  Chihuahua 
there  was  another  discussion  as  to  whether  the  army 
should  return  home  or  not,  and  Gilpin  succeeded  in 
preventing  this.  Doniphan  finally  agreed  to  compro- 
mise the  matter,  the  Gilpin  party  agreeing  not  to 
resume  the  march  to  Mexico,  and  Doniphan  not  to 
return  to  Missouri. 

Doniphan  wrote  a  letter  to  General  Taylor,  then 
at  Monterey,  stating  the  position  and  condition  of 
the  army  of  the  west,  and  requesting  orders  where  to 
go.  This  was  forwarded  by  special  messenger.  Tay- 
lor's answer  was,  "Come  to  me."  So  they  started. 
From  Chihuahua  they  marched  through  the  s^^ate  of 
Durango  to  Buena  Vista,  where  Wool's  army  was  en- 
camped, and  thence  made  a  two  days'  march  to  Mon- 
terey. Over  a  year  had  passed  away,  and  the  fighting 
was  at  an  end.  They  had  now  but  to  return  home, 
so  after  spending  one  day  with  Taylor,  they  proceeded 
to  Mier  on  the  Del  Norte,  which  stream  was  too  low 
for  navigation;  whereupon  they  kept  on  down  the 
river  for  thirty  miles,  until  they  found  transports. 
From  there  they  went  down  to  the  mouth  of  tlie 
river,  landing  at  Bagdad.  The  nearest  harbor  into 
which  transports  for  New  Orleans  could  come  was 
Brazos  Santiago.  Here  arrangements  were  made  for 
the  transportation  of  the  army  to  New  Orleans. 

Major  Gilpin  proceeded  in  advance  with  a  personal 
guard  of  twelve  men,  taking  the  steamer  Telegraph  to 
New  Orleans,  where  he  arranged  for  the  reception 
and  paying  of  the  army.  He  was  three  days  in  New 
Orleans  before  the  first  of  the  force  arrived,  during 
which  time  he  and  his  companions  were  guests  of  the 
city.     The  gallant  young  major  had  seen  service  in 


WILLIAM    GILPIN. 


630 


the  everglades  of  Florida,  had  been  three  years  on 
the  coast  of  Oregon,  and  eighteen  months  in  the 
Mexican  war,  and  his  name  was  in  every  one's  mouth. 
July  and  August  the  army  spent  in  St  Louis,  where 
the  twelve  companies  were  discharged,  and  the  people 
of  Missouri  were  profuse  in  their  attentions  to  the 
returned  veterans.  Major  Gilpin  was  at  this  time 
suffering  from  the  effects  of  malaria  and  touches  of 
typhoid  fever,  and  he  concluded  to  go  home  to  Inde- 
pendence to  rest  and  recuperate.  But  for  ten  years 
the  seeds  of  disease  remained  in  his  system. 

At  a  reunion  of  Doniphan's  command,  on  the  ninth 
anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Sacramento,  held  at  Sac- 
ramento City,  California,  the  third  toast  was  as  fol- 
lows: "Major  William  Gilpin,  the  essence  of  chivalry, 
the  disciplinarian  of  the  regiment."  To  which  senti- 
ment Senator  Crenshaw  replied:  "I  suppose  I  am 
chosen  to  respond  to  this  toast  on  account  of  my 
intimate  acquaintance  with  Major  Gilpin.  We  were 
both  in  the  same  regiment,  and  from  the  position  that 
I  held,  I  had  many  opportunities  of  knowing  that  he 
possessed  all  the  attributes  expressed  in  the  sentiment 
just  read.  It  was  to  him  the  regiment  was  indebted 
for  the  military  training  it  received.  Colonel  Doni- 
phan was  in  reality  a  citizen  soldier.  All  his  move- 
ments were  characterized  by  a  cool  determination. 
The  regiment  was  composed  of  the  best  men  in  the 
state  of  Missouri,  young  but  courageous.  During 
the  whole  of  their  adventurous  march,  traits  of  hero- 
ism were  constantly  exhibited.  But  the  crowning  act 
was  the  battle  of  Sacramento.  Upon  the  rolls  that 
morning  there  were  less  than  eight  hundred  men  re- 
ported for  duty,  all  told.  By  the  books  which  after- 
ward fell  into  our  hands,  and  which  I  have  yet  in  my 
possession,  the  Mexican  force  that  morning  reported 
for  duty  over  four  thousand  men  The  Mexicans, 
besides,  occupied  a  position  protected  by  redoubts  and 
ditches,  and  had  a  much  superior  artillery  force.  Be- 
hind Doniphan's  men  was  a  desert  of  two  thousand 


1   Ll 


f? 


M 


1! 

{ - 

V' 

■i 

1;: 

/ 

540    DOMINATING   INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTKUIOTl. 

miles;  they  were  three  hundred  miles  distant  from 
another  American  soldier ;  they  were  almost  entirely 
bereft  of  food,  and  clothed  in  rags.  The  Mexicans 
were  certain  of  an  easy  victory.  They  had  already 
provided  the  thongs  with  which  to  pinion  the  Mis- 
souri Yankees.  But  the  motto  of  the  American  was 
victory  or  death.  I  remember  well  seeing  some  of 
the  thoughtful  clip  locks  of  hair  from  their  heads,  and 
give  them  to  their  comrades,  to  be  sent  to  loved  ones 
at  home  in  case  they  fell  hi  battle.  The  Mexican 
cavalry  charged,  full  of  confidence.  Not  a  shot  was 
fired  from  our  ranks  until  they  had  approached  near 
enough  to  insure  a  dead  aim.  Then  was  heard  the 
dreadful  crack  of  the  western  rifle.  The  enemy 
melted  before  the  murderous  discharge  like  grass 
before  the  scythe.  Confusion  took  possession  of 
their  ranks,  and  they  fled,  leaving  over  two  hundred 
dead  upon  the  field.  Many  of  the  dead  had  received 
rifle-balls  in  their  foreheads.  But  one  American  was 
killed,  the  lamented  Owens,  who  was  shot  while 
charging  upon  the  redoubt." 

During  that  summer  the  Indians  broke  out  along 
the  trail  from  Fort  Leavenworth  to  Sante  Fd,  mur- 
dering the  teamsters,  robbing  and  burning  the  trains ; 
and  then  came  the  news  that  the  Indians  had  consoli- 
dated and  were  to  unite  seven  tribes  in  an  onslaught 
upon  the  American  people  alorj<>'  the  Arkansas.  The 
white  men,  they  said,  should  not  1  ive  all  the  fighting, 
robbery,  and  pillage.  The  nevs  created  nmch  excite- 
ment all  through  Missouri,  a^i  1  Polk  became  alarmed. 
He  called  a  meeting  of  two  or  three  of  his  cabinet 
oflficers,  among  them  being  Benton,  and  related  what 
he  had  heard,  expressing  the  fear  that  war  would 
become  universal,  and  that  he  would  be  severely 
criticised  for  allowing  such  a  thing  to  occur.  Benton 
then  suggested  a  plan  which  was  afterward  carried 
out. 

It  was  probably  about  the  end  of  August  1847, 


WILLIAM    tULl'IN. 


541 


when  one  day  while  Major  Gilpin  was  lying  in  bed, 
with  a  physician  in  attendance,  at  his  home  in  Inde- 
pendence, he  received  a  visit  from  Governor  Edwards 
of  Missouri,  who  said:  "I  come  at  the  request  of  the 
president  of  the  United  States,  to  tell  you  of  the 
anxiety  he  is  in,  and  of  his  opinion  that  the  war  will 
spread  and  involve  the  whole  of  the  southwest,  and 
that  these  things  would  bring  censure  upon  him." 
He  went  on  to  say  that  thu  president  wished  to  know 
if  Major  Gilpin  would  raise  an  army  of  volunteers, 
take  care  of  the  Indians,  and  reopen  communication 
with  our  army  in  northern  Mexico.  Major  Gilpin 
replied:  "  I  have  gone  through  the  Mexican  war,  and 
other  labors  such  as  I  should  not  suppose  were  within 
the  bounds  of  human  endurance,  and  I  have  not  a 
dollar  lefb  for  my  trouble ;  what  I  have  received  does 
not  amount  to  one  third  of  what  I  have  spent;  I  have 
seen  no  notice  of  my  services,  and  I  must  decline  this 
offer."  Said  the  governor :  "  If  you  do  not  accept  tliis 
mission,  some  inexperienced  person  will  be  put  in, 
with  no  knowledge  of  what  it  has  taken  you  twenty 
years  to  learn,  and  as  a  result,  Missouri  will  be  lost." 
"Very  well,  I  will  accept  the  mission  on  three  con- 
ditions," replied  the  major:  "first,  if  my  health  per- 
mits, and  I  think  I  shall  soon  recover;  secondly,  that 
I  must  sign  my  own  orders  as  to  where  I  shall  go 
and  what  I  shall  do  and  how  I  shall  do  it,  and  that  I 
shall  recruit  my  men  here  in  Missouri,  where  I  can 
select  such  as  are  suited  to  the  desperate  service  in 
which  I  am  to  be  engaged  and  to  be  held  accountable 
for ;  and  thirdly,  that  the  president  will  be  pleased  to 
instruct  all  the  generals  who  are  now  commanding 
points  of  supplies  that  whatever  requisitions  I  shall 
make  upon  them  must  be  filled  without  delay,  either 
for  supplies  or  for  money."  His  intention,  at  once 
formed,  was  to  make  a  winter  campaign  against  the 
Indians,  knowing  that  if  they  should  unite  in  the 
spring  they  would  sweep  the  whole  of  Missouri. 
Edwards  communicated  with  Mr  Polk,  and  reported 


I 


:         t" 


TT 


mi 


ill 

I 
m 


iM3 


«t:i 


m 


m 


m 


it;.;  ■( 

ill 


542    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 

that  the  conditions  made  were  satisfactory  to  him, 
and  that  instructions  would  be  issued  to  that  effect. 

As  soon  as  Major  Gilpin  could  leave  his  bed  he 
raised  eight  companies,  though  he  was  obliged  to  take 
new  men,  as  those  who  had  participated  in  the 
Mexican  war  were  not  yet  sufficiently  recuperated  for 
fresh  service.  He  had  a  splendid  battery  of  six  guns 
from  St  Louis,  two  companies  of  infantry  and  two 
companies  of  cavalry,  with  additional  men,  attendants, 
wagoners,  etc.,  in  all  about  eight  hundred  and  fifty 
strong.  The  arms  were  all  shipped  to  Fort  Leaven- 
worth, whither  the  force  was  sent,  and  were  the  best 
that  could  be  procured.  This  was  called  Gilpin's 
battalion,  of  which  he  was  lieutenant- colon  el,  there 
being  no  other  field-offi,cer.  There  was  in  com- 
mand at  Fort  Leavenworth  Lieutenant-colonel  Clif- 
ton Wharton,  a  distant  relative  of  Colonel  Gilpin, 
though  the  two  were  not  upon  the  best  of  terms. 

The  supplies  had  all  arrived,  provisions  in  abun- 
dance, wagons  and  arms,  and  nothing  remained  but 
to  muster  in  the  force,  equip  them,  and  start.  Whar- 
ton at  first  refused  to  deliver  to  Colonel  Gilpin  the 
supplies  or  arras,  saying  it  was  an  indiscreet  thing  to 
send  a  young  boy  out  on  the  plains  at  the  beginning 
of  winter,  into  an  Indian  country.  After  several  dis- 
putes, and  being  once  placed  under  arrest  by  Wharton, 
Gilpin  wound  the  matter  up  by  preparing  a  challenge 
to  fight  Wharton,  who,  learning  of  it,  was  immediately 
taken  ill.  Calling  Gilpin  to  him  at  his  room,  he  turned 
over  the  supplies  and  arms  to  him,  and  in  three  days 
the  force  was  equipped,  and  armed,  ready  to  start;  it 
moved  forward  on  the  4th  day  of  October.  The  sup- 
plies consisted  of  200  wagons  of  provisions,  500  head 
of  beef  cattle,  and  fifteen  wagons  of  ammunition. 
When  but  a  short  distance  out  from  Fort  Leaven- 
worth, a  portion  of  the  command  mutinied ;  but  they 
were  threatened  with  instant  death,  and  finally  sub- 
mitted. Without  further  incident  the  march  was 
made  to  a  spot  just  below  the  present  site  of  Pueblo, 


WILLIAM   GILPIN. 


543 


where  they  went  into  camp  on  the  Arkansas  bottoms, 
reaching  there  about  the  middle  of  November.  At- 
tached to  the  force  were  two  hunters,  John  H. 
Thatcher,  who  afterward  located  himself  in  California 
and  became  a  prosperous  fruit-grower,  and  a  character 
called  Big  Bill  Fallon. 

These  men  kept  the  force  supplied  with  fresh  meat 
all  through  the  winter,  so  that  it  was  not  necessar}'  to 
kill  the  beef  cattle  which  had  been  brought.  During 
all  this  winter  Colonel  Gilpin  was  in  miserable  health, 
owing  to  a  severe  cold  which  he  had  contracted  at 
the  beginning  of  the  march;  nevertheless  he  showed 
himself  among  the  men  every  day.  Delegations  of 
Indians  came  frequently  to  visit  the  camp,  and  Gilpin 
sent  for  the  chiefs  of  the  Cheyennes  and  Arapahoes, 
who  were  the  owners  of  the  country,  saying  to  them : 
"  I  will  send  a  commissioner  with  you,  and  you  must 
go  up  between  the  forks  of  the  Platte  and  never  leave 
there  until  I  tell  you  to  come." 

Similar  warning  was  sent  to  the  Utes  in  the  moun- 
tains. The  winter  was  passed  comfortably,  and  owing 
to  the  abundance  of  supplies  the  men  were  all  in  good 
humor.  The  time  was  occupied  in  drilling  the  soldiers, 
which  was  done  thoroughly,  and  after  methods  par- 
ticularly adapted  to  Indian  warfare,  and  all  preparatory 
for  the  spring  campaign.  The  soldiers  were  expert 
riile-men,  wlio  had  been  accustomed  to  barking  squir- 
rels in  the  woods  of  Missouri,  and  they  were  soon 
masters  uf  the  necessary  tactics.  Whe  a  the  time  for 
action  came  they  moved  alcng  down  the  foot  of  the 
mountains  and  down  into  the  summer  country  of  the 
Indians.  Stopping  at  a  small  town  in  New  Mexico, 
called  Moro,  where  he  procured  a  supply  of  flour, 
Colonel  Gilpin  pushed  on,  his  object  being  to  ascertain 
the  lines  by  which  the  Indians  were  coming  to  their 
fighting-ground. 

The  battle-ground  where  most  of  the  fighting  was 
done  was  about  eighty  miloa  from  Fort  Mann,  now 
Dodge  City,  along  the  southern  bank  of  the  Arkansas, 


m 


^i 


it  ■ 


m 


jl!-: 


I. 


i)l; 


;r:j 


j       .'^.l 

1  ^  il^ 

544    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 

which  had  afForded  the  savages  traps  for  ambuscades, 
and  where  white  men  had  been  killed  for  fifty  years 
past.  For  a  distance  of  five  or  six  hundred  niiles^ 
scattered  all  along  the  way,  trains  of  twenty  and  thirty 
wagons  were  found  deserted  where  the  Indians  had 
left  them  on  previous  raids,  the  occupants  having  all 
been  massacred.  This  spot  was  selected  for  a  depot 
for  supplies,  for  the  reason  that  the  formation  of  the 
sand-hills  rendered  it  difficult  to  discover  any  one  in 
them.  Running  south  into  the  Arkansas  through 
these  hills  was  a  little  stream  called  Crooked  creek, 
and  up  this  stream  the  Indians  would  come  in  the 
summer,  where  they  could  have  water  and  be  sheltered 
from  observation. 

During  the  winter  he  camped  all  along  the  bottoms 
of  the  Arkansas,  where  the  sweet  cottonwoods  grew, 
affording  plenty  of  firewood,  a  space  in  which  to  drill, 
and  some  protection  from  the  elements.  He  had  In- 
dian lodges  for  the  soldiers  and  corrals  for  tl  3  animals. 
At  night  they  would  strew  the  bottoms  of  the  corrals 
with  branches  of  the  sweet  cottonwoods,  and  from 
these  branches  the  horses  would  strip  every  vestige 
of  the  bark.  In  this  way  the  horses  were  kept  in 
good  condition,  and  the  force  was  enabled  to  take  the 
war-path  two  months  before  the  Indians,  with  their 
emaciated  animals,  could  move.  During  two  months 
leisure  he  had  the  scouts  locate  all  the  various  trails 
by  which  the  Indians  would  come  in ;  the  force  was 
then  divided  into  four  fighting  parties  under  good 
officers.  These  four  companies  were  stationed  at  dif- 
ferent localities,  and  caught,  in  detail,  the  advancing 
tribes  as  they  came  in  from  every  direction  to  join  their 
confederates.  On  one  occasion  he  learned  that  a  party 
of  Comanche  warriors  had  left  their  camp  on  the 
Cimaron,  and  were  on  their  way  to  the  figliting-ground 
on  the  Arkansas.  One  of  the  divisions  was  sent  down 
and  destroyed  the  camp,  and  on  the  same  day  another 
division  on  the  Arkansas  attacked  the  party  of  war- 
riors and  drove  them  off"  down  to  their  home.     This 


i 


WILLIAM    GILPIN. 


545 


party  returned  to  camp  without  pursuing  the  Co- 
manches,  and  Colonel  Gilpin  immediately  detailed 
another  division  to  carry  out  their  work.  In  the  in- 
terval, a  party  of  sixty-three  Pawnee  warriors  had 
come  upon  the  trail  of  the  retreating  Comanches, 
and  had  followed  it  to  see  what  it  meant.  The  white 
men  followed  on  down  after  the  Comanches,  and 
soon  came  up  with  the  Pawnees,  who  were  encamped 
in  a  grove.  A  short  and  sharp  battle  ensued,  and  only 
two  Indians  escaped 

Nine  battles  were  fought  from  the  middle  of  July 
to  the  end  of  August,  and  253  scalps  of  warriors  were 
taken  from  first  to  last. 

On  the  1st  of  November,  1848,  the  force  arrived 
at  Leavenworth,  after  a  campaign  of  a  little  over  a 
year.     Meanwhile  Colonel  Gilpin's  health  instead  of 
improving  was  almost  destroyed.     He  remained  at  his 
home  in  Independence  until  May  1849,  when  it  be- 
came evident  to  him  that  he  must  either  die  or  secure 
the   services   of  a   physician   who   could   cure   him. 
Thereupon  he  proceeded  to  St  Louis,  where  he  placed 
himself  under  the  Cv^re  of  Doctor  Pope,  an  eminent 
physician  of  that  city.     He  arrived  there  in  the  midst 
of  the  cholera  season.     The  day  previous  to  his  ar- 
rival 361  deaths  had  occurred,  and  wherever  he  went 
he  either  saw  crape  on  the  door  or  the  occupants  of 
the  house  were  attending  the  funeral  of  some  friend. 
These  melancholy  surroundings  were  not  conducive  to 
his  recovery :  and  learning  that  the  disease  was  not 
so  prevalent  elsewhere,  he  went  to  Lexington,  Ken- 
tucky,   where   he   secured    the   services   of    Doctor 
Benjamin  Dudley,  the  founder  and  head  of  the  Tran- 
sylvania University.    Dudley  said :  "  You  are  the  worst 
diseased  man  but  one  that  I  have  seen  in  forty-five 
years  of  practice.     Still,  if  you  will  follow  my  advice 
for  a  week,  I  will  let  you  know  whether  I  can  cure 
you,  or  will  have  to  let  you  die." 

At  the  end  of  the  week  Dudley  said  he  would  da 

C.  B.-I.    36 


'■■8! 

i  |H 

!• 


Hi 

fl 

j 

• 

.« 


::i    '\ 


III, 

k 


< 


t 


I 


546    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 

the  best  he  could  to  keep  him  alive.  His  vital  func- 
tions had  been  sadly  depleted  during  his  years  of 
frontier  exposure,  and  only  his  iron  constitution  could 
have  carried  him  through.  Under  such  heroic  treat- 
ment as  raw  calomel  three  times  a  week,  mixed  with 
ipecac  and  rhubarb,  he  began  slowly  to  regain  his 
health.  While  at  Lexl.:gton  his  residence  was  in  the 
old  Phoenix  hotel.  The  sentiment  of  secession  was 
beginning  to  germinate,  and  many  of  the  representa- 
tive southern  men  would  consult  with  him  regarding 
the  situation.  These  individuals  were  very  communi- 
cative, and  i;  '  'led  much  of  their  half- formed  plans, 
always  taking  .  to  get  as  much  as  he  gave.  After 
a  hundred  days  of  so  had  elapsed,  he  returned  to  St 
Louis,  weighing  100  pounds,  but  on  the  road  to  re- 
covery. St  Louis  was  the  wintering  point  for  the 
wealthy  planters  in  that  section,  and  in  the  winter  of 
1849-50  Colonel  Gilpin  participated  as  actively  as  his 
reduced  physical  condition  would  permit  in  the  brilliant 
social  events  of  the  city.  After  a  time,  as  he  did  not 
improve  in  health  materially,  he  bethought  himself  of 
an  eminent  physician  of  Philadelphia,  Doctor  Samuel 
Jackson,  a  man  whom  he  had  known  in  his  younger 
days.  His  mother  was  living  in  Philadelphia  with 
her  two  daughters,  and  thither  he  proceeded  and 
placed  himself  under  treatment.  He  remained  in 
Philadelphia  during  one  summer,  and  then  returned 
to  his  home  in  Independence.  Living  on  his  planta- 
tion was  inexpensive,  and  a  portion  of  his  land  he  laid 
off  as  an  addition  to  the  town,  from  which  he  realized 
a  small  sum  of  money.  In  company  with  five  others 
he  also  laid  off  Kansas  City,  which  was  first  called 
Centropolis;  but  the  name  which  the  city  now  bears 
was  determined  by  the  voice  of  the  people,  who  fell 
into  the  habit  of  calling  it  Kansas  City.  He  remained 
in  that  locality  until  1861,  making  occasional  trips  to 
Washington,  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  St  Louis, 
practising  his  profession  at  times,  and  leading  rather 
a  quiet  life. 


nger 
with 
and 
[  in 
irned 
anta- 
laid 
lized 
;hers 
ailed 


WILLIAM   GILPIN. 


547 


About  the  first  of  February  of  the  year  last  named, 
he  made  a  trip  to  St  Louis,  where  he  met  General 
Hunter  and  General  Sumner,  who  informed  him  that 
President-elect  Lincoln  was  to  start  from  Springfield 
for  Washington  upon  the  third  morning  thereafter, 
and  as  the  party  was  small  he  was  anxious  to  have  in 
it  some  southern  man  who  had  voted  for  him  in  a  slave 
state.     Gilpin  had  cast  the  only  republican  vote  in 
Jackson  county,  though  he  had  been  unable  to  pro- 
cure a  printed  ticket.     Accordingly  it  was  agreed  that 
he  should  make  one  of  the  company.     They  joined 
the  party  at  Springfield,  which  was  transported  to 
Washington  in  a  small  car  holding  but  thirteen  per- 
sons.    On  arriving  at  Washington  he  was  one  of  a 
hundred  men  who  slept  in  the  White  house  as  a  per- 
sonal guard  to  the  president.     Immediately  after  the 
inauguration   he  was  asked   if  he  would   accept  an 
appointment  as  governor  of  Colorado,  as  he  was  con- 
sidered  the  one  indispensable  man  for  the  position. 
He  immediately  signified  his  willingness  to  do  so. 

At  the  first  cabinet  meeting  the  matter  was  brought 
up,  and  Colonel  Gilpin  was  nominated  by  Blair  for  the 
position.  Cameron  being  present  seconded  the  motion, 
whereupon  the  appointment  was  filled  out,  and  unani- 
mously confirmed  by  both  houses.  He  immediately 
received  his  commission  from  Secretary  Seward.  The 
time  was  indeed  critical ;  the  nation  was  on  the  ragged 
edge  of  dissolution,  and  e\  ery  member  of  the  adminis- 
tration was  worn  out  with  anxiety.  Cameron  had 
agreed  to  furnish  Governor  Gilpin  with  instructions, 
but  finally  told  him  to  write  them  out  himself,  and 
he,  Cameron,  would  sign  them.  The  day  previous  to 
his  departure  from  Washington,  Governor  Gilpin  was 
unable  to  see  any  cabinet  member,  and  at  12  o'clock 
at  night  he  took  up  his  post  in  front  of  the  White 
house,  where  he  rightly  surmised  they  were  holding  a 
consultation.  Shortly  afterward  three  persons  came 
out  and  stood  on  the  porch  conversing.  Governor 
Gilpin  recognized  and   spoke  to  them.     They  were 


548    DOMINATING   INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN   INTERIOR. 

Cameron,  Scott,  and  Lincoln.  He  informed  Mr 
Lincoln  that  he  had  his  commission  in  his  pocket, 
and  was  ready  to  leave  for  Colorado.  He  further 
went  on  to  say  that  it  would  be  necessary  for  him  to 
have  money  with  which  to  pay  expenses  that  must 
necessarily  be  incurred  at  the  beginning.  Said  Mr 
Lincoln:  "We  have  not  a  cent.  I  have  just  nego- 
tiated a  loan  of  fifty  millions  of  dollars  from  the  banks 
of  New  York,  and  have  called  a  special  session  of  con- 
gress to  meet  on  the  4th  of  July,  to  know  if  they  will 
hang  me  for  treason  for  this  unconstitutional  act.  If 
you  are  driven  to  extremities  you  must  do  as  I  have 
done,  issue  drafts  on  your  own  responsibility." 

"What  siiall  I  do  for  soldiers?"  asked  Gilpin. 

"If  you  need  them,  call  them  out  as  we  have  done, 
command  them  yourself,  send  your  pay-rolls  to  me, 
and  I  will  see  that  they  are  paid,"  said  Cameron. 
"  Wo  will  give  you  the  rank  of  command  of  briga- 
dier-general." Both  Lincoln  and  Scott  acquiesced 
in  this  arrangement.  He  then  bade  them  farewell 
and  left  them.  Early  in  April  he  arrived  in  Denver. 
The  only  other  n^'ember  of  the  government  then  in  the 
place  was  Secretary  Weld,  who  had  been  residing 
here  for  some  time.  On  alighting  from  the  coach 
he  was  greeted  by  a  dozen  or  so  of  his  old  acquaint- 
ances, the  first  comers  to  Colorado,  who  welcomed 
him  heartily.  Waiting  upon  him  later  in  his  room, 
they  presented  commissions  from  Medeira  and  Den- 
ver, governors  of  Kansas,  expressed  their  faith  in  Gil- 
pin's ability  and  firmness,  and  requested  him  to  renew 
their  commissions.  Said  their  spokesman:  "If  you 
want  a  legislature,  call  it  and  we  will  fill  it  for  you, 
and  we  expect  to  have  you  on  our  side."  But  theirs 
was  not  the  side  of  loyalty  and  integrity ;  it  was  not 
Governor  Gilpin's  side;  neverthless,  it  was  deemed 
better  to  make  propositions  to  neutralize  their  infiu- 
ence  than  to  provoke  open  hostilities.  Therefore  he 
said  to  them :  "  Gentlemen,  I  am  much  obliged  for 
your  kindness,  but  there  is  ample  time  to  consider 


WILLIAM   GILPIN. 


549 


this  matter  after  I  look  around  a  little."  The  seces- 
sion flag  was  at  the  time  flying  from  the  Criterion,  a 
theatre  and  gambling-house  on  Larimer  street,  be- 
tween 15th  and  16th  streets.  The  bill  creating 
Colorado  had  been  introduced  by  Green,  a  strong 
secessionist  in  congress,  and  this  was  done  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  slavery  in  Colorado,  and  the 
powers  granted  were  pure  despotism.  Gilpin  was 
present  at  the  time  the  bill  was  passed,  and  it  origi- 
nally was  to  establish  Jefferson  Territory,  but  at  Gil- 
pin's suggestion  the  name  was  changed  to  Colorado. 

The  newly  appointed  governor  found  the  secession 
element  in  full  blast;  he  found  also  a  provincial  gov- 
ernment, and  a  regiment  of  mounted  riflemen,  sixty- 
nine  strong,  organized  and  furnished  with  arms. 
Governor  Gilpin  found  the  situation  a  trying  one; 
and  just  how  to  use  the  power  which  had  been  con- 
ferred upon  him  could  cnly  be  determined  by  careful 
consideration;  but  his  plans  weie  ultimately  formed 
with  methodical  exactness. 

He  despatched  a  man  who  was  secretary  to  Russell, 
one  of  the  owners  of  the  stage  line,  to  Central  City, 
where  were  the  most  of  the  men  he  had  to  deal  with, 
a  nest  of  secessionists,  to  say  that  on  Thursday,  at 
three  o'clock,  he  would  be  there  to  address  the  people. 
This  was  on  Tuesday.  Promptly  at  the  hour  appointed 
he  was  on  the  spot,  and  delivered  a  lengthy  address 
upon  the  political  and  social  condition.  An  Irishman 
named  Kavanaugh  attempted  to  reply  to  the  gov- 
ernor's speech,  but  he  had  proceeded  only  a  few  mo- 
ments when  the  assemblage  took  offence  at  his  remarks 
and  prevented  his  continuing. 

Subsequently  Governor  Gilpin  made  a  tour  to  the 
principal  settlements  and  mining  camps  throughout 
the  territory,  speaking  in  them,  and  advocating  the 
cause  of  the  union.  On  this  trip  the  marshal  of  the 
territory  accompanied  him  for  the  purpose  of  taking  a 
census.  In  summing  up  results  after  his  tour  of 
speech-making,  he  found  that  he  could  rely  on  the 


1 


" 


il; 


•i.    :  i 


680    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN   INTERIOR. 

people  to  stand  by  the  union  cause  by  eight  hundred 
and  fifty  majority.  Then  he  had  the  secessionists  to 
deal  with,  and  he  prosecuted  this  work  with  vigor  and 
promptitude.  He  mustered  in  a  few  soldiers,  but  they 
were  without  arms,  while  the  secessionists  were  well 
armed.  He  managed  to  gather  from  the  loyal  people 
a  number  of  old  rifles  and  muskets,  many  of  them  broken 
and  useless,  and  pistols  without  locks;  and  with  these 
he  made  a  fair  showing  for  a  time.  The  mails  had 
been  stopped,  and  provisions  were  very  scarce.  The 
secessionists  were  recruiting  constantly,  and  many  en- 
listed with  them  merely  because  they  were  starving. 
All  eyes  were  upon  the  chief  executive,  and  by  a  judi- 
cious display  of  the  useless  arms  he  succeeded  in  keep- 
ing matters  quiet  for  the  time. 

The  second  regiment  of  United  States  dragoons  had 
been  stationed  at  Fort  Crittenden  in  Utah  during  the 
Utah  war.  That  being  over,  the  troops  started  east. 
When  they  arrived  at  Laramie,  Governor  Gilpin  made 
known  his  situation  to  Pleasanton,  who  was  in  com- 
mand, and  he  at  once  placed  at  the  governor's  disposal 
eighteen  wagons  containing  1,800  new  Mississippi  ri- 
fles, with  a  large  supply  of  fixed  ammunition.  By  this 
means  Colorado  was  saved.  A  man  named  Slough, 
who  had  been  mayor  of  Denver,  was  appointed  captain 
of  the  forces,  and  Logan  was  appointed  first  lieutenant. 
Camp  Weld  was  constructed  near  the  city,  and  here 
the  troops  were  drilled  daily.  The  government  was 
thus  fully  established.  The  governor  made  a  code  of 
laws,  which  was  received  by  the  people  with  satisfac- 
tion. This  was  early  in  December  1861.  In  procur- 
ing supplies  for  the  one  company  of  infantry,  and  two 
companies  of  cavalry  which  were  now  mustered  in, 
Governor  Gilpin  was  obliged  to  follow  Lincoln's  plan  of 
raising  money  for  the  United  States.  He  drew  what 
was  necessary  from  the  merchants  of  Denver,  giving 
them  therefor  drafts  upon  the  United  States  govern- 
ment.    At  the  end  of  every  thirty  days  a  special  mes- 


i  ■■ ;!  ■[ 


WILLIAM   GP.PIN. 


851 


senger  took  them  to  Washington,  where  payment  wasat 
first  refused;  but  finally  a  government  agent  was  sent 
to  Colorado,  and  all  the  indebtediiBss  paid.  The  total 
amount  of  drafts  drawn  and  paid  during  the  campaign 
was  $227,500,  which  covered  all  the  expenses  of  the 
government. 

The  Texan  army  under  Sibley  marched  up  and  took 
possession  of  Santa  Fe,  and  friends  of  Governor  Gil- 
pin immediately  brought  the  news  to  Denver.  The 
forces  here  at  once  pushed  on  to  Fort  Union,  march- 
ing over  Raton  pass  in  the  dead  of  winter.  General 
Rene  Paul,  a  first  cousin  to  Governor  Gilpin's  wife, 
was  in  command  there,  and  received  the  Colorado 
troops,  re-armed  and  re-clothed  them,  all  in  a  single 
day.  The  Texan  army,  having  captured  Canby  and 
his  forces,  were  at  Santa  F^  resting  and  preparing  to 
move  upon  Fort  Union,  where  there  were  thirty 
thousand  stand  of  arms.  In  Slough's  command  was 
a  man  named  Collins,  who  had  guided  the  American 
troops  into  Chihuahna,  and  who  was  familiar  with  all 
the  mountain  trails  around  Apache  canon.  With  a 
portion  of  Plough's  men  he  went  over  a  trail,  got  in 
behind  the  Texans,  and  at  daylight  camped  where 
they  had  left  their  wagons,  they  in  the  mean  time 
having  advanced  through  the  canon.  They  were  at- 
tacked at  the  mouth  of  the  canon  by  Slough  with 
such  vigor  that  they  were  forced  to  retreat.  Arriving; 
at  their  camp  they  found  it  destroyed,  all  their  sup- 
plies and  provisions  having  been  found  by  Collins, 
whereupon  they  broke  up  and  scattered.  This  was 
the  battle  of  Glorietta. 

Toward  the  latter  part  of  1862,  Governor  Gilpin 
received  a  request  from  President  Lincoln  to  come  to 
Washington,  if  he  could  be  spared,  which  was  com- 
plied with.  Notwithstanding  all  that  Governor  Gil- 
pin had  done  for  Colorado,  essentially  saving  the 
country  to  the  union,  his  enemies  were  ever  actively 
at  work  circulating  false  statements  and  stirring  up 
strife,  and  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  make  a  change. 


ill 


m 


1 

1 

% 

k. 

Il 

fl-  ' 

t 


552    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 

Gov(irnor  Gilpin  set  out  for  home  on  the  8th  of  Janu- 
ary, 1862.  Soon  after  his  return  to  Colorado,  he  re- 
ceived a  letter  from  Seward,  saying  that  the  territory 
was  in  a  very  dangerous  condition,  that  they  did  not 
know  what  would  become  of  it,  and  requesting  him 
to  remain  as  governor  until  his  successor  should 
arrive  at  Denver.  He  was  succeeded  by  John 
Evans,  of  Illinois. 

On  his  return  from  the  Pacific  coast  in  1844,  Gov- 
ernor Gilpin  had  stopped  for  rest  at  Bent's  fort,  and 
while  there  he  had  familiarized  himself  with  the  Mexi- 
can system  of  grants,  and  especially  with  the  location 
of  four  lai^e  tracts,  among  them  being  the  Sangre  de 
Cristo  rancho  consisting  of  a  million  acres  granted  to 
Don  Carlos  Beaubien,  and  located  in  San  Luis  park. 
Returning  to  this  country  after  the  Mexican  war,  he 
had  secured  a  floating  grant  of  one  hundred  thousand 
acres,  which  he  succeeded  in  locating  in  December 
1862,  along  the  northern  boundary  of  New  Mexico 
and  the  southern  boundary  of  Colorado.  While  en- 
gaged in  perfecting  this  title,  he  received  a  message 
from  Don  Carlos  Beaubien,  whom  he  had  met  some 
time  before,  requesting  that  he  might  see  him  at 
Taos  on  a  matter  of  importance.  He  immediately 
proceeded  to  Taos,  accompanying  the  messenger  on 
his  return.  He  found  Beaubien,  and  held  a  long  con- 
ference with  him.  Beaubien  stated  that  he  was  now 
sixty-three  years  of  age,  had  lived  upon  the  frontier 
the  greater  part  of  his  life,  and  desired  to  return  with 
his  wife  to  his  birthplace,  a  few  miles  below  Quebec, 
Canada.  He  stated  further  that  he  had  a  perfect  title 
to  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  grant  of  a  million  acres,  and 
that  he  desired  to  dispose  of  the  same.  Governor 
Gilpin  was  familiar  with  the  location  and  character  of 
the  land,  and  was  desirous  of  securing  possession  of  it. 
They  fixed  the  price,  and  he  was  given  the  refusal  of 
the  land  until  the  4th  of  March,  1863,  while  in  the 
mean  time  he  would  endeavor  to  raise  the  requisite 
money  from  his  friends. 


WILLIAM    GILPIN. 


553 


He  returned  to  Santa  Fe,  where  he  concluded 
arrangements  which  perfected  the  title  to  his  float, 
which  he  had  located,  and  then  proceeded  to  Denver, 
arriving  here  on  the  21st  day  of  February.  While 
engaged  in  writing  letters  to  his  friends  for  the  pur- 
pose of  raising  money,  Bela  M.  Hughes  arrived  and 
proposed  to  him  that  he  should  accompany  him  to 
Salt  Lake  City,  whither  he  was  going  to  defend  a 
brother  of  Ben  Holladay,  who  was  in  prison  on  a 
charge  of  murder. 

Thinking  he  could  return  in  time  to  receive  answers 
to  his  correspondence,  which  would  be  in  about  thirty 
days.  Governor  Gilpin  consented  to  this  proposition. 
But  instead  of  returning  direct  from  Salt  Lake  City, 
he  was  persuaded  to  accompany  Frank  Clark,  treas- 
urer of  Wells,  Fargo  &  Co.'s  Express  between  Salt 
Lake  City  and  San  Francisco,  to  Sacramento.    While 
driving  in  the  latter  place  with  Clark  one  day,  they 
were   thrown   from   their   carriage,   and   Clark    was 
killed,  Governor   Gilpin   being   so   seriously  injured 
that  his  recovery  was  despaired  of.     For  forty-seven 
days  he  lay  in  bed  in  Sacramento,  requiring  assistance 
even  to  turn  over.     As  he  convalesced,  he  remem- 
bered friends  of  his  in  San  Francisco,  the  Donahoes. 
When  Donahoe  and  a  friend  of  \\h  ware  on  their  way 
to  California  in  an  early  day,  they  were  both  taken  ill 
at  Independence,  and  Governor  Gilpin  had  there  ren- 
dered them  valuable  assistance.     He  now  wrote  to 
Donahoe,  stating  his  position,  and  requesting'  \  loan 
of  a  thousand  dollars.     The  money  came  'j  return 
mail,   as   did   also   an    invitation    from   L"  luhoe   to 
visit  him  at  his  home  in  San  Francisco.     As  soon 
as  he  was  able  to  be  up  he  accepted  the  invitation, 
and    was    elegantly   entertained.       On    leaving    San 
Francisco  by  steamer  via  Panamd   for   New  York, 
Governor  Gilpin  received  from  Donahoe  a  letter  to  a 
friend  in  New  York,  and  through  his  influence  he 
secured  a  loan  of  thirty  thousand  dollars  from  the 
banking  house  of  Duncan  Sherman  &  Co.,  with  which 


ivr 


E^,i 


l'! 


664    DOMINATING   INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN   INTERIOR. 

to  make  the  payment  on  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  grant. 
Early  in  Marcli  he  left  for  Colorado,  bearing  with 
him  thirty  certificates  of  deposit  for  a  thousand  dol- 
lars each.  Arriving  in  Denver  he  at  once  started  for 
Beaubien's  home,  accompanied  by  an  acquaintance 
from  Denver,  and  on  arriving  at  the  entrance  to 
Sangre  de  Cristo  pass,  he  met  an  old  friend,  who  in- 
formed him  that  Beaubien  was  dead.  He  inquired 
of  his  friend  if  he  thought  there  would  be  any  use  of 
proceeding  farther,  and  was  informed  that  Beaubien, 
just  before  his  death,  had  called  his  wife  and  children 
around  him,  and  instructed  them  that  tho  grant  be- 
longed to  Governor  Gilpin,  and  that  it  must  be  trrjis- 
ferred  to  him  in  case  he  paid  the  money.  Encouraged 
by  this  report,  the  governor  hurried  on  and  met  the 
family.  The  deeds  were  drawn  up,  the  money  paid 
over  and  divided  among  the  wife  and  children  of 
Beaubien,  and  the  transaction  was  complete.  The 
summer  of  1863  Governor  Gilpin  spent  upon  his 
million-acre  tract,  with  five  surveyors  and  seventeen 
prospectors,  running  out  the  lines  and  prospecting  for 
minerals.  They  found  thereon  a  great  many  gold 
mines.  The  next  winter  he  went  to  New  York  and 
there  endeavored  to  negotiate  a  sale  of  the  land;  but 
while  New  York  capitalists  favorably  entertained  the 
proposition,  they  did  not  have  sufficient  confidence  in 
the  resources  of  the  country  to  invest  their  money  in 
the  wild  lands  of  the  Rocky  mountains.  He  then 
consulted  with  Morton  Fisher,  a  friend  of  his  who 
had  assisted  him  in  securing  the  loan  of  thirty  thou- 
sand dollars,  and  they  decided  that  it  would  be  best 
to  place  the  land  upon  the  London  market.  Finally 
it  was  decided  that  Fisher  should  go  to  London,  vhile 
Governor  Gilpin  should  return  to  Colorado  and  look 
after  the  property  there. 

Fisher  put  forth  every  effort  to  find  a  sale  for  the 
property  in  London,  but  was  unsuccessful.  He  then 
determined  to  go  to  Holland,  at  the  suggestion  of  an 
American  who  was   practising  law  in  London,  and 


WILUAM    GILPIN. 


656 


the 
then 
)f  an 

and 


who  had  been  very  successful  in  placing   along   the 
Khine  the  bonds  of  the  eastern  division  of  the  Union 
Pacific  railway,  and  see  what  could  be  done  there 
They  went  to  Amsterdam  and  were  successful  in  sell- 
ing 500,000  acres  at  a  dollar  an  acre.    Governor  Gilpin 
was  at  once  telegraphed  for,  and  immediately  proceeded 
to  Amsterdam.     Some  little  delay  was  caused  by  the 
breaking  out  along  the  Rhine  of  the  war  between 
Bismarck  and  Napoleon,  but  this  was  terminated  by 
the  battle  of  Sedan,  and  by  the  17th  of  January,  1871, 
the  money  was  deposited  in  the  bank  of  England, 
and   the   sale   consummated.      The   novelty   of    this 
transaction  went  abroad  among  the  brokers,  and  at- 
tracted wide-spread  attention.     General  Palmer  ar- 
rived in  Amsterdam  just  after  the  completion  of  the 
sale,  and  succeeded,  through  the  influence  of  Governor 
Gilpin,  in  raising  $60,000  to  assist  in  constructing  the 
Denver  and  Rio  Grande  railway,  which  was  to  run 
near  the  grant. 

Thus  we  have  presented  before  us  the  varied  ex- 
periences of  an  active  and  useful  man,  of  one  who 
through  a  long  period  of  public  service  performed 
many  acts  of  the  highest  importance  to  the  common- 
wealth, saving  the  country  from  bloody  wars  and 
revolution,  and  preserving  it  for  a  glorious  reign  of 
peace;  and  small  was  his  reward. 

The  true  patriot,  instead  of  enriching  himself  at 
the  cost  of  his  country,  too  often  brings  down  upon 
his  devoted  head  the  enmity  of  all.  But  it  is  the 
province  of  histci'y  to  vindicate  the  just.  There  were 
times  after  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office  in  Colo- 
rado when  the  former  governor  of  the  territory,  he 
who  had  saved  to  the  nation  millions  of  dollars,  had 
not  twenty-five  cents  with  which  to  buy  his  breakfast ; 
nevertheless,  when  once  his  talents  were  directed 
toward  himself,  and  for  the  provision  of  his  family,  he 
found  no  great  difficulty  in  making  a  million  or  two  of 
dollars. 


I  ^ 


\m 


i;W 


!(■;;. 


'A      :' 


556    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN   INTERIOR. 

Governor  Gilpin  married  on  the  1 2i;h  of  February, 
1874,  Mrs  Julia  Pratt  Dickerson,  of  St  Louis,  widow 
of  Captain  Dickerson  of  that  city.  Mrs  Gilpin  had 
four  children  as  the  result  of  her  first  marriage,  and 
of  the  second  marriage  there  were  born  William 
and  Mary,  twins,  May  12,  1875,  and  Louis,  July  10, 
1877.  William  and  Mary  are  delightful  children  in 
every  way,  filled  with  the  ethereal  atmosphere  in 
which  they  were  born  and  have  always  lived.  Mary 
has  undoubted  musical  talent,  and  possesses  a  fine 
physique,  graceful  as  Diana  or  Minerva.  She  has  all 
the  ideas,  judgment,  and  caution  of  a  woman  of  mature 
years;  she  is  gentle,  wholly  without  guile,  affectionate, 
and  a  patient  student.  She  commands  every  one  who 
surrounds  her,  but  in  a  gentle  and  sweet  manner. 
She  is  an  enigma  of  goodness.  William  is  very  bright 
and  studious.  He  has  a  fine  mechanical  mind,  full  of 
courage  and  vigor.  His  father  selects  for  him  inter- 
esting and  instructive  books,  such  as  Plutarch's  Lives, 
and  in  studying,  he  is  required  to  give  particular  at- 
tention to  arithmetic. 

Louis,  the  youngest  child,  has  all  these  tastes.  He 
is  very  graceful  of  movement,  impetuous  and  full  of 
energy  and  self-reliance,  gentle,  affectionate,  and  at- 
tentive to  words  of  advice. 

Governor  Gilpin  has  strong  domestic  tastes,  is 
warm-hearted  and  kind  in  his  family,  and  exceed- 
ingly devoted  to  his  children,  who  are  his  pride  and 
joy.  His  studious  habits  he  continues,  deligliting  in 
generalizations  from  the  immense  store  of  knowledge 
treasured  up  in  his  mind.  He  is  specially  partial  to 
biography,  the  Life  of  Agricola  by  Tacitus,  the  IJfe  of 
Gromirell  by  Carlylc,  PluiarcKs  Lives,  Comit  Wallensteiu 
by  Shiller,  Southey's  Nelson,  Shakspeare's  Hamlet,  Na- 
poleon's Julius  Capsar,  Voltaire's  Peter  tlie  Greats  and 
Thiers's  Napoleon  being  among  his  favorites. 

In  1860  Governor  Gilpin  published  a  >otk  entitled 
The  Ceniral  Gold  Region.  Three  hundred  copies  were 
printed  and  distributed  to  the  leading  statesmen  and 


1 1 


WILUAM   GILPIN. 


657 


scholars  of  the  day.  In  1874,  when  slavery  had  been 
for  some  time  abolished,  and  peace  restored  had  began 
to  perfect  itself,  he  wrote  a  kind  of  peroration  as  to 
how  these  and  kindred  powers  of  evolution  should 
result,  in  the  form  of  a  book  entitled  Mission  of  the 
North  American  People,  Geographical,  Social,  and  Poli- 
tical; Illustrated  by  six  charts,  deliiieaiing  the  Physical 
Architecture  and  Thermal  Jmws  of  all  the.  Continents. 
In  it  the  mountain  formation  of  North  America  is 
first  given;  then  the  cordillera  of  the  Sierra  Madre ; 
the  plateau  of  North  America ;  the  Sierra  San  Juan ; 
the  South  pass  of  America;  the  great  basin  of  the 
Mississippi;  pastoral  America;  the  system  of  the 
parks;  thermal  America;  a  chapter  on  power;  con- 
cluding with  three  chapters  on  the  North  American 
mission.  Id  an  appendix  are  given  a  few  of  the  more 
conspicuous  speeches  of  Mr  Gilpin,  on  such  subjects 
as  the  Mexican  War;  the  Pacific  Railway;  and  the 
geographical  features  of  the  Rocky  mountains.  The 
maps  delineate  the  mountain  system,  the  thermal 
belts,  and  the  system  of  parks  of  North  America,  and 
a  map  of  the  world  delineating  the  contrasted  longi- 
tudinal and  latitudinal  forms  of  the  continents,  the  iso- 
thermal zodia«"  and  axis  of  intensity  round  the  world, 
and  the  line  of  the  Cosmopolitan  railway  and  its  longi- 
tudinal feeders. 

The  theories  which  we  find  elucidated  in  this  work 
may  be  epitomized  as  follows:  We  represent  English 
stock  that  runs  back  to  the  time  of  Alfred,  and  to  the 
time  of  the  formation  of  the  Roman  provinces  in  the 
reign  of  Claudius.  We  belong  to  a  people  who  early 
accepted  Christianity.  Our  ancestors  were  devotees 
and  followers  of  Cromwell,  and  held  by  him  until  he 
established  the  commonwealth  of  England.  There 
was  reconstructed  a  Roman  empire  with  christainity, 
education,  and  science,  as  bases  of  progress,  an  empire 
of  350,000,000  of  people  with  Queen  Victoria  at  the 
head. 

The  American  people  are  here  on  a  fallow  conti- 


I 


:;:,!!! 


^ 


558    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN   INTERIOR. 


Hi''  i 


il 


m 


8(ii   ■ 


nent,  and  all  their  institutions  are  based  upon  the 
development  of  the  people:  First,  democrary,  rightly 
understood,  reduced  to  practice — the  sovereign  power 
placed  in  the  peop- ^.  We  have  this  continent  which 
IS  able  to  feed  mankind ;  we  have  no  occasion,  like  the 
Komans,  Greeks,  or  Spaniards,  to  make  conquests  or 
massacres,  but  we  move  on,  and  here  are  the  Euro- 
peans swarming  on  one  side  and  the  Chinese  on  the 
other;  but  we  shall  take  care  of  ourselves,  and  de- 
velop upon  this  intermediate  and  sublin  jntinent  a 
master  nation,  and  do  our  work,  and  if  the  outside 
world  pleases  to  attack  us,  uniting  as  they  did  against 
Napoleon,  they  could  not  even  land  on  our  continent ; 
and  in  the  mean  time  we  are  giving  a  successful  ex- 
ample to  Ireland  and  France,  and  to  the  socialists 
and  nihilists.  We  are  now  by  progressive  experi- 
ments in  possession  ot  all  the  elements  of  political  aad 
social  science. 

Under  the  leadership  of  Washington  and  Franklin, 
of  Jefferson,  Jackson,  and  like  men,  the  American 
people  have  brought  democracy  to  be  rightly  under- 
stood and  reduced  to  practice.  First  they  have  abso- 
lute sovereignty;  the  people  decide  everything;  we 
have  11,500,000  votes  cast  in  one  day,  where  each 
man  expresses  his  opinion  of  the  government.  The 
first  thing  the  people  did,  the  first  use  they  made  of 
this  relegation  of  sovereignty  which  it  took  three 
generations  standing  under  fire  to  protect,  has  been 
to  establish  universal,  perpetual,  and  compulsory  edu- 
cation ;  and  we  are  now  becoming  matured  in  our 
declaration  of  independence,  the  federal  constitution, 
and  the  constitutions  of  the  states.  We  have  a 
peculiar  system  of  balance  in  choosing  the  presiden- 
tial electors,  which  was  the  best  that  could  be  in- 
vented by  the  men  who  did  it;  and  the  people, 
understanding  this,  are  adapting  themselves  to  the 
enlargement  and  extension  of  society  and  its  wants. 
Every  thirty  years  a  new  generation  comes  in,  and  if 
there  is  anything  not  suited  to  the  times,  they  elimi- 


WILLIAM  GILPIN. 


669 


nate  it;  and  if  there  is  anything  newly  invented,  they 
put  it  into  their  constitution  as  a  discovery,  whether 
it  be  of  political  or  social  science. 

We  have  all  kinds  of  population,  the  pioneer  popu- 
lation making  farms,  the  manufacturing  population 
producing  for  us,  and  the  laboring  population.     We 
have  a  broad  belt  of  temperate  zone  extending  from 
sea  to  sea.     In  Europe  there  are  monarchies  and  bar- 
barisms which  are  perpetually  fighting  and  slaughter- 
ing one  another.    Here  our  genius  takes  another  turn. 
We  are  a  complete  nation,  living  in  harmony;  we 
have  tried  a  great  many  things  that  never  were  tried 
before.     Our  mission  is  to  plant  empire  in  the  wilder- 
ness.    When  we  cross  the  Atlantic  and  come  here 
our  world   opens  to   the   way,  our  arena   of  effort 
widens.     We  have  this  great  concave  continent,  with 
the  modifications  of  the  temperate  zone,  the  semi- 
tropical  zone,  and  the  arctic  zone.     In  the  semi-tropics 
we  can  cultivate  the  semi-tropical  fruits,  oranges,  ba- 
nanas, etc.,  and  rice  and  sugar,  and  cotton  for  our  sum- 
mer wear  and  for  the  summer  clothing  of  the  world ; 
and  then  above  that  comes  the  region  of  Indian  corn  and 
pork;  the  broader  belt  of  wheat,  cattle,  and  horses; 
and  wool  for  the  winter  clothing  of  the  world;  hides 
for  the  leather  of  the  world;  also  wine,  liquors,  and 
tobacco;  and  above  tliat  the  belt  of  oats  and  hay;  and 
then  we  have  barley.    These  belts  are  all  united  by  the 
longitudal  rivers ;  and  now  we  are  putting  railroads  on 
all  their  banks.     Then  belts  of  temperate  warmth  are 
thus  echeloned  across  our  continent,  from  east  to  west 
like  the  streaks  of  the  rainbow.     Various  atmospheres 
envelope  us,  the  cloudy,  or  aqueous,  covering  about 
four  fifths  of  the  earth's  surface;  then  at  a  height  of 
four  or  five  thousand  feet,  the  aerial  atmosphere,  to 
which  the  heavier  clouds  cannot  attain.     Here  is  the 
only  ethereal  or  continental  climate  that  the  human 
race  can  profitably  enter.     The  Cosmopolitan  railway 
across    Bering  strait   will    connect    the   systems  of 
America  with  the  systems  of  Asia  and  Europe ;  that 


j-i.i: 


560    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN   INTERIOR. 

this  is  possible  you  have  only  to  ascertain  the  facts 
regarding  the  physical  features  of  that  region.  In- 
deed, we  are  now  in  the  very  midst  of  this  new  de- 
parture, we  are  now  upon  the  plane  of  this  higher 
civilization,  and  yet  all  the  while  advancing  and 
expanding. 

We  have  abolished  aristocrats  and  plebeians,  and 
have  established  patrician  democracy,  and  this  has 
been  done  by  universal  suffrage  and  perpetual  educa- 
tion, which  are  the  elements  that  expand  and  preserve 
it,  until  we  find  what  is  wrong  and  weed  it  out,  and 
what  is  right  and  congeal  it.  Literature  preserves 
and  creates  lives;  while  the  bad  dies  out  of  all  we 
have  from  antiquity,  the  good  only  has  lived.  Evo- 
lution proves  this. 

America  is  now  getting  her  continental  dimen- 
sions, and  the  people  who  control  the  North  Amer- 
ican island  are  forming  themselves  into  a  pioneer 
army  which  plants  empire  in  the  wilderness,  not  by 
slaughter,  as  did  Caesar  and  Alexander  and  the  Span- 
iards; it  takes  the  nations  of  the  world  which  they 
slaughtered  and  peoples  the  wilderness  under  a  policy 
of  peace  and  industry. 

In  regard  to  the  plateau  of  North  America,  the 
author  says  that  it  is  little  understood,  even  by  those 
who  travel  over  it,  extending  from  Tehuantepec  to 
the  polar  sea,  with  a  genial  altitude  of  6,000  feet,  the 
mountains  on  either  side  being  12,000  feet  high;  it 
has  an  area  of  11,000,000  square  miles,  and  is  almost 
everywhere  easy  of  access.  It  has  seven  great  basins, 
namely,  the  valley  of  Mexico,  the  Bolsom  de  Mapimi, 
the  Rio  Bravo  del  Norte,  Colorado,  Great  Salt  Lake, 
the  Columbia,  and  the  basin  of  Eraser  river.  The 
climates  are  dry,  altitude  and  aridity  tempering  the 
heat  toward  the  south,  and  the  cold  toward  the  north. 
The  soils  are  fertile,  both  for  agricultural  and  pasto- 
ral purposes. 

Governor  Gilpin  did  much  to  advance  the  idea  of  a 
Pacific  railway,  and  at  a  time  when  the  prospect  was 


INTERIOR. 

he  facts 
n.  In- 
lew  de- 
higher 
Qg  and 

ns,  and 
his  has 

educa- 
reserve 
ut,  and 
eserves 

all  we 
Evo- 

dimen- 
Amer- 
pioneer 
not  by 

Span- 
h  they 

policy 

3a,  the 
'  those 
pec  to 
Bt,  the 
gh;  it 
almost 
basins, 
apimi. 
Lake, 
The 
ig  the 
north, 
pasto- 

a  of  a 
;t  was 


IR' 


|3"'- 


I:  !• 


■$  I 


i ,  ■ 

i 

n 

I           '' 

■■ 

i  '1 

i '  -  ■■ 

•1 
i 

1 .'  ■' 

r 

1     '■    : 

i 

i 

10  0  10         20        30        40         50        60        70         80        90       100       ItO       120       130     140       150       160       I'O 


0  -ij  ?0        30         -K)  50         eo  '0  8C         10        1u'         110        120       -.30       140         150      lEC       1/0 


"i-^ 


If^ 


■?  !  i 


Mi-  I 


i 

■' 

t 

ri- 

I 

^t 

if 

i 

ji 

1 

- 

! 

1 

k 

1 

WILLIAM    GILPIN. 


881 


thought  by  many  to  be  chimerical,  giving  it  the  aid 
of  both  tongue  and  pen.  In  a  speech  delivered  at 
Wakerusa,  now  Lawrence,  Kansas,  and  again  at  In- 
dependence, he  says:  "We  perceive  in  the  formation 
of  the  American  continent  a  sublime  simplicity,  an 
economy  of  arrangement  singular  to  itself,  and  the 
reverse  of  what  distinguishes  the  rest  of  the  world. 
The  continents  of  the  old  world  resemble  a  bowl 
placed  bottom  upward,  which  scatters  everything 
poured  upon  it,  w^hilst  northern  America,  right  side 
up,  receives  and  gathers  toward  its  center  whatever 
falls  within  its  rim.  In  geography  the  antithesis  of 
the  old  world,  in  society  it  will  be  the  reverse.  North 
America  will  rapidly  attain  to  a  population  equalling 
that  of  the  rest  of  the  world  combined,  forming  a 
single  people  identical  in  manners,  language,  and  im- 
pulse, preserving  the  same  civilization,  imbued  with 
the  same  opinions,  and  having  the  same  political  lib- 
erties." 

In  a  speech  delivered  at  St  Louis  on  the  8th  of 
January,  1850,  on  the  then  existing  Indian  policy, 
Colonel  Gilpin  said:  "There  is  observable  an  ar- 
rangement of  our  people,  in  general,  in  these  propor- 
tions: Agriculturists  in  the  middle,  southern,  and 
central  states,  producers  of  articles  for  foreign  ex- 
port, are  seventy  per  cent  of  the  whole  population  of 
the  union;  agriculturists  of  the  commercial  states, 
producing  .food  for  the  immediate  consumption  of 
their  commercial  cities,  twenty  per  cent;  commerce 
proper,  which  also  includes  manufactures,  ten  per 
cent."  After  the  lecture  a  number  of  resolutions 
were  offered  and  passed. 

In  London,  in  1870,  was  published  Notes  on  Col- 
orado; And  its  inscription  in  the  Physical  Geography 
of  the  North  American  Continent,  hy  WilHam  Gilpin^ 
Governor  ^f  the  Territory  of  Colorado.  It  is  a  16  mo 
brochure  of  52  pages,  and  its  contents  were  spoken 
before  a  large  audience,  under  the  auspices  of  the 

C.  U.—i.    36 


lir' 


■4 


Wl 


i  .. 


1*  > 


11 


i 


662    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 

British  Association  of  Science,  at  Liverpool,  on  the 
26th  of  September  of  that  year. 

It  was  one  of  Mr  Gilpin  s  ablest  efforts.  It  opens 
in 'this  wise:  "A  glance  of  the  eye  thrown  across  the 
North  American  continent,  accompanying  the  course 
of  the  sun  from  ocean  to  ocean,  reveals  an  extraordi- 
nary landscape.  It  displays  immense  forces  character- 
ized by  order,  activity,  and  progress.  The  structure 
of  nature,  the  marching  of  a  vast  population,  the 
creations  of  the  people,  individually  and  combined, 
are  seen  in  infinite  varieties  of  form  and  gigantic  di- 
mensions. Farms,  cities,  states,  public  works,  define 
themselves,  flash  into  form,  accumulate,  combine,  and 
harmonize.  The  pioneer  army  perpetually  advances, 
reconnoitres,  strikes  to  the  front.  Empire  plants  itself 
upon  the  trails.  Agitation,  creative  energy,  industry, 
throb  throughout  and  animate  this  crowding  deluge. 
Conclusive  occupation,  solidity,  permanence,  and  a 
stern  discipline  attend  every  movement  and  illustrate 
every  camp.  The  American  realizes  that  progress  is 
God.  He  clearly  recognizes  and  accepts  the  conti- 
nental mission  of  liis>  country  and  his  people.  His 
faith  is  impregnably  fortified  by  this  vision  of  power, 
unity,  and  forward  motion." 

In  another  place  it  says:  "It  fell  to  my  lot,  during 
the  years  from  1840  to  1845,  alone  and  in  extreme 
youth,  to  seek  and  chalk  out,  in  the  immense  solitudes 
filling  the  space  from  Missouri  to  China,  the  lines  of 
this  dazzling  empire  of  which  we  now  hold  the  oracular 
crown,  to  have  stood  by  its  cradle,  to  be  the  witness 
of  its  miraculous  growth." 

Thus  in  perusing  the  life  of  William  Gilpin,  the 

{)hiiOsophic  reader  cannot  fail  to  have  noticed  under- 
ying  principles  governing  all;  strong  currents  of 
original  and  practical  thought  sweeping  before  them 
old-time  dogmas  and  superstitions.  His  grea+  mind, 
like  Humboldt's,  absorbing  and  retaining  all  knowl- 
edge, in  his  elucidations  thereof  he  seems  like  one 


WILLIAM    GILPIN. 


663 


perched  above  the  world,  and  taking  in  at  one  glance 
all  lands  and  all  times. 

He  sees  the  several  continents  surrounded  by  the 
several  oceans,  the  continents  of  Europe  and  Asia 
being  convex  in  their  configuration,  thus  isolating 
peoples  and  products,  and  engendering  diversity  of 
interests  and  general  distraction,  while  the  continent 
of  America  is  concave  in  its  structure,  tending  to 
homogeneity  and  harmonious  unity. 

He  sees  the  mountain  and  river  systems  of  the  old 
world  running  with  the  latitudinal  lines,  thus  restrict- 
ing animals  and  plants  each  to  their  climatic  zone,  and 
preventing  that  free  social  and  commercial  intercourse 
which  tends  to  the  highest  development;  while  in  the 
new  world  the  mountain  and  river  systems  run  longi> 
tudinally  across  isothermal  lines,  thus  breaking  the 
barriers  of  configurations  and  climates,  and  throwing 
together  the  various  productions  of  earth  and  man. 

He  sees  extending  along  the  summit  of  the  great 
American  Andes  a  system  of  plateaux  and  parks, 
high  in  ethereal  air,  where  men  or  gods  may  dwell  and 
achieve  their  ultimate  endeavor.  Along  this  line  ex- 
tends the  natural  course  for  a  continental  railway  con- 
necting the  railway  systems  of  America  with  those  of 
Europe,  thus  bringing  the  whole  world  together  by 
continuous  iron  track  with  only  the  ferriage  of  the 
strnit  of  Bering. 

He  sees  the  power  of  population  trailing  in  from  the 
old  world,  and  overspreading  the  new,  whose  elevation' 
of  intellect  and  extension  of  capabilities  with  all  the 
collateral  comforts  and  blessings  attendant  thereunto 
it  is  the  mission  of  the  American  people  to  accomplish. 
The  pioneer  army  are  already  here  at  work,  absorbing 
and  assimilating  to  our  advanced  ideas  and  institutions 
the  eff^ete  civilizations  of  Asia  and  Europe. 

He  sees  the  great  heart  of  American  society  palpi- 
tating with  new  fires  impelled  by  a  universal  instinct, 
inspiring  discipline  in  action  and  rectitude  of  purpose. 

He  sees  a  divine  light  issuing  from  the  obscurity 


II 


! 


h  '[I 


064    DOMINATING  INFLUENCJSS  IN  THE  WESTERN   INTERIOR. 


of  the  past,  shining  upon  our  country  and  our  people, 
illuminating  alike  the  recesses  of  nature  and  the  in-  > 
tellect  of  man. 

He  sees  that  in  the  first  three  centuries  now  rolling 
over  our  race  upon  this  continent,  from  nothing  we 
have  become  one  hundred  millions  of  people.  From 
nothing  we  have  grown  to  be  in  agriculture,  commerce, 
and  native  ability  the  first  among  existing  nations;  and 
this  is  but  the  beginning.  We  have  yet  vast  areas  of 
the  continent  to  subdue,  and  to  perfect  the  industries 
and  institutions  of  the  parts  whose  occupation  is 
begun. 

Such  is  the  mission  of  the  North  American  people, 
to  animate  their  own  future  millions  and  cheer  them 
upward,  to  establish  new  order  in  human  affairs,  and 
regenerate  superannuated  nations,  to  confirm  the  des- 
tiny of  the  human  race,  to  perfect  science,  to  emblazon 
history  with  the  conquest  of  peace,  and  shed  a  new 
and  resplendent  glory  on  mankind. 

Physically  and  intellectually  Governor  Gilpin  pre- 
sents a  striking  figure.  Full  six  feet  in  height,  weigh- 
ing IGO  pounds,  graceful  in  his  movement,  courteous 
in  manner,  fine  Greek  head  well  set  on  good  square 
shoulders,  big  brain  pan,  dark  brown  hair  turned 
grayish,  dark  hazel  eyes  still  bright  and  penetrating, 
nervous-sanguine  temperament,  and  a  decided  military 
bearing,  he  carries  us  back  to  the  old  scnool  of  thor- 
oue:h-bred  soldiers  and  statesmen  of  continental  times. 
And  if  ancestry,  birth,  and  breeding,  if  ability,  activ- 
ity, and  integrity  throughout  the  course  of  a  long  and 
checkered  life,  count  for  aught,  then  shall  the  nani  >  (M 
William  Gilpin  forever  be  entitled  to  proud  dist  n. 

He  has  a  strong  and  retentive  memory,  a  I  nut 
imagination,  and  an  invigorating  and  elastic  i  md 
replete  with  learning.  Both  manners  and  intellect 
are  redundant,  even  perhaps  in  some  respects  to 
eccentricity;  but  clear,  and  for  the  most  part  cool, 
collected,  and  sensible  and  practical.     He  haR  ever 


,  I, 


WILLIAM    (ilLPIN. 


S6S 


(^ 


been  a  great  student,  no  less  of  nature  than  of  books. 
It  was  during  his  travels  in  the  mountains,  with  such 
books  in  his  knapsack  as  the  Cosmos  of  Humboldt,  the 
Vegetable  Chemistry  of  Liebig,  Tacitus,  Shakspeare,  and 
De  Tocqv£ville's  Democracy  in  America,  that  the  facts 
regarding  their  anatomy  came  to  his  mind,  configura- 
tions, soils,  climates,  and  the  evolution  of  the  race 
being  almost  continually  in  his  thoughts. 

In  reading  the  published  life  of  Governor  Gilpin's 
ancestor,  of  three  hundred  years  ago,  Bernard,  the 
Apostle  of  the  North,  I  was  struck  by  the  similarity 
of  many  of  their  salient  characteristics.     "  His  person 
was  tall  and  slender,"  the  book  goes  on  to  say,  "  in 
the  ornament  of  which  he  was  at  no  pains.     He  had 
a  peculiar  aversion  to  the  fopperies  of  dress.     In  his 
diet  he  was  very  temperate,  rather  abstemious.     His 
parts  were  very  good.     His   imagination,   memory, 
and  judgment  were  lively,  retentive,  and  solid.     His 
acquirements  were  as  considerable.     By  an  unwearied 
application  he  h^d  amassed  a  great  store  of  knowl- 
edge, and  was  ignorant  of  no  part  of  learning  at  that 
tinjt;  in  esteem.     His  temper  was  actively  warm;  and 
in  his  youth  we  meet  with  instances  of  his  giving  way 
to  passion ;  but  he  soon  got  more  command  of  him- 
self, and  at  length  entirely  corrected  that  infirmity. 
His  disposition  was  serious,  ye:  among  his  particular 
friends  he  was  commonly  cheerful,  sometimes  facetious. 
His  general  behavior  was  very  affable.     Never  did 
virtue   sit   with   greater  ease  on  any  one,  had   less 
moroseness,  or  could  mix  more  agreeably  with  what- 
ever was  innocent  in  commr'!:  life.     lie  had  a  most 
extraordinary  skill  in  the  art  of  managing  a  fortune. 
Extravagance  with  him  was  another  name  for  injustice. 
Amidst  all  his  business  he  found  leisure  to  look  into  his 
affairs,  well  knowing  that  frugality  is  the  support  of 
charity.     His  intimacies  were  but  few.    His  sincerity 
was  such  as  became  his  other  virtues."    Thus  are  the 
traits  of  a  good  man  who  livjd  three  centuries  back 
found  so  vividly  reproduced  in  a  descendant  of  to-day. 


w 


Mm  mm-' 


666    DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IK   THE  WESTERN  INTERIOR. 

A  later,  and  probably  the  most  important  literary 
work  of  his  life,  is  The  Cosmopolitan  Railway,  Com- 
paxUng  and  Faring  Together  All  the  World's  Continents, 
published  in  18J1. 

"The  purpjse  of  this  book  is  to  throw  a  stronger 
light  upon  an  obscure  region,  and  invest  with  fresh 
interest  a  fascinating  subject.  In  the  consummation 
of  the  grand  scheme  of  a  Cosmopolitan  Railway 
will  be  forged  another  link  in  the  great  chain  of 
progress,  which  is  slowly,  but  surely,  uniting  in  one 
race,  one  language,  and  one  brotherhood  all  the  peo- 
ple of  the  earth. 

"  It  will  unfold  to  man  a  field  of  new  possibilities, 
such  as  from  the  beginning  nature  has  ever  been 
revealing,  as  the  human  intellect  was  prepared  to  un- 
derstand them.  For  although  nature  abounds  in 
resources,  and  is  lavish  of  her  gifts,  it  is  for  man, 
civilized  man,  to  utilize  and  draw  from  them  wealth 
to  economize,  and  so  multiply  even  these  abundant 
resources." 

Governor  Gilpin  is  a  good  scholar ;  his  learning  is 
broad  and  deep.  Lis  fund  of  information  remarkable. 
He  is  a  striking  speaker ;  with  nervous  energy  and 
gesticulation  he  drives  home  his  arguments,  while  his 
generalizations  are  most  brilliant.  Like  Montaigne, 
knov;ing  himself,  the  world,  and  books,  he  talks  with 
much  shrewdness,  dealing  throughout  in  the  positive 
degree,  and  uses  liberally  sarcasm  and  invective. 

"Intellect,"  says  Plato,  "is  king  of  heaven  and 
earth."  The  world  of  nature  is  at  the  disposition  of 
mind ;  philosophy  penetrates  all  surfaces,  while  in- 
spiration sweeps  them.  Theories  may  be  defective, 
but  mountains  and  oceans  remain.  Nature  gives  the 
law  ;  intellect  perceives  it. 


B.ii 


'I 


]'  i 


CHAPTER  IX. 

EARLY  INFLUENCES  DOMINATING  THE  NORTHWEST. 


British  and  American  Occupation— The  Great  Monopoly— Govern- 
MENT,  Society,  and  Progress  of  Oregon- Life  of  William  S.  Ladd 
—Boyhood  and  Education— Early  Struggles— His  Influence  on 

THE  Destinies   of    Oregon— Marriage— Banking— Stock-raising 

Phenomenal  Success— His  Benefactions— William  M.  Ladd— Char- 
actbristics. 

The  Northwest  Coast,  as  the  Oregon  region  was  early- 
called,  had  long  been  claimed  by  Spain  on  the  ground 
of  contiguity,  and  especially  under  the  title  of  prior 
discovery  and  exploration,  to  which  she  had  been 
driven  by  jealousy  of  Russian  entry  from  Siberia. 
When  its  rich  fur  resources  attracted  trading  fleets 
toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  she  has- 
tened once  more  to  assert  her  sovereignty  by  seizing 
English  vessels  as  intruders,  and  attempting  to  estab- 
lish a  fortified  station  at  Nootka.  The  consequent 
dispute  resulted  in  the  convention  of  1790,  whereby 
the  British  were  allowed  to  trade  and  settle  on  the 
coast  at  will,  without  prejudice  to  Spanish  territorial 
claims,  Spain  cared  little  for  this  region,  and  finding 
mythical  the  long  rumored  strait  to  the  Atlantic, 
which  had  been  here  her  chief  concern,  and  that  her 
California  colonies  would  evidently  be  safe  for  the  pres- 
ent, she  withdrew,  making  no  further  attempt  to 
flaunt  her  colors  in  the  north. 

This  abandonment  left  the  field  open  to  other  na- 
tionalities, particularly  traders  from  the  United 
States,  who  soon  absorbed  most  of  the  fur-gathering 
from  the  English  vessels,  suffering  as  these  did  under 

(567) 


1 


1 1 
1 


■  r 


W8        DOMINATINO  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 


|:i:' 


the  monopoly  of  the  Oriental  markets  by  the  East 
India  and  South  Sea  companies.  The  trade  was  at- 
tended by  official  exploration  on  the  part  of  their 
government,  by  an  attempted  colony  under  Winship, 
and  by  permanent  establishments  under  Astor,  whose 
aim  was  to  eclipse  the  rival  companies  of  Canada,  to 
form  a  line  of  posts  across  the  Rocky  mountains,  and 
gain  glory  as  the  founder  of  a  United  States  Pacific 
empire.  His  expeditions  established  in  1811  the  en- 
trepot Astoria,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  river, 
and  then  planted  stations  in  the  interior. 

Meanwhile  Canadian  competitors  had  entered  the 
same  field,  after  a  fierce  rivalry  on  the  eastern  slope, 
first  between  the  original  French  founders  of  the  fur 
trade  and  the  Hudson's  Bay  company,  a  struggle 
from  which  the  latter  issued  triumphant  by  the  ces- 
sion in  1763  of  all  French  territory  to  England.  Now 
the  strife  burst  forth  among  the  British  traders,  or 
rather  lif;ensed  associations,  to  which  the  crown  re- 
stricted the  business,  vainly  hoping  thereby  to  check 
irresponsible  disorders.  Of  these  two  stood  preemi- 
nent the  old  Hudson's  Bay  company,  and  the  recent 
Northwest  company,  the  latter  composed,  in  its  active 
elements,  of  men  selected  with  great  care,  by  vote, 
for  their  experience  and  energy,  backed  by  a  few  capi- 
talists, who  figured  as  agents  and  purveyors,  and 
who  took  care  to  sustain  the  zeal  of  able  workers 
by  promotion  and  a  share  in  the  profits.  The 
Northwest  men  quickly  outstripped  the  older  firm, 
encroaching  upon  the  domain  claimed  as  exclu- 
sive under  a  doubtful  charter,  advancing  beyond 
it  into  the  unexplored  northwest,  and  finally 
crossing  the  Rocky  mountains,  establishing  between 
1805-10  several  stations  from  Peace  river  to  the 
Okanagati.  War  breaking  oufc  between  England  and 
the  United  States,  they  seized  tlie  opportunity  to  buy 
Astor's  possessions,  and  obtain  sole  control  of  the  new 
field. 

Donald  McTavish,  one  of  the  oldest  members  of  the 


'11 ' 


THE    FUR    ERA. 


MO 


)fthe 


company,  came  over  to  organize  the  new  department 
of  the  Columbia.  Bold  and  blunt,  sincere  as  a  friend, 
undisguised  as  a  foe,  he  was  skilled  in  the  artifices  of 
trade  and  Indian  intercourse,  and  neglected  no  means 
to  assure  the  one  and  harmonize  the  other.  As  in- 
terior manager  he  selected  Donald  McKenzie,  lately 
of  Astor's  party,  who  subsequently  became  governor 
of  the  Red  river  colony,  while  men  like  D.  W. 
Harmon  attended  to  the  New  Caledonia  district. 
Such  was  their  success  that  by  1817  over  300  Cana- 
dians kept  three  vessels  busy  in  bringing  supplies,  and 
transporting  the  peltry  of  this  slope,  and  promised  to 
afford  scant  opportunity  for  the  rival  company,  which 
was  then  preparing  to  contest  this  field.  The  prospect 
of  a  renewal  here  of  the  bloody  feuds  marking  the 
eastern  competition,  led  the  government  to  mediate, 
and  the  two  opponents  were  united  in  1821,  under 
the  title  of  the  older  name  of  the  Hudson's  Bay.  com- 
pany, and  with  a  license  for  exclusive  trading  in 
British  hyperborean  America  for  twenty-one  years. 
This  privilege  was  subsequently  extended  into  the 
sixties,  the  crown  retaining  the  right  to  cancel  it,  or 
to  withdraw  any  tract  for  settlement,  and  to  appoint 
magistrates  and  obtain  the  surrender  of  criminals.  In 
1869  the  company  transferred  its  territorial  rights  to 
the  dominion  of  Canada  for  £300,000,  reserving  only 
a  small  tract  round  each  station. 

The  company  divided  its  domain  into  four  depart- 
ments, three  in  the  east,  and  the  fourth,  that  of  the 
Columbia,  comprising  the  Pacific  slope.  This  was 
subdivided  into  the  Oregon  and  Western,  the  former 
covering  all  of  the  subsequent  United  States  territory, 
and  these,  in  time,  into  eii^ht  districts,  with  thirtv 
posts  in  1857.  The  northern  received  the  largest  at- 
tendance of  Indians,  with  the  best  and  most  abundant 
peltry,  the  soath  being  valued  chiefly  for  its  beavers. 

There  were  nine  grades  of  ofiices  and  service,  two 
more  than  in  the  Northwest  company,  headed  b}  an 
American  governor,  residing  at  a  central  point  in  the 


?        '  i 

'            ! 

;               ■ 

i      •     '     '     '' 

1 

\ 

"     1       J 

'        i    ■ 

■  i  ■ !  ^ 

- 

!i:ii; 


m 


If'';' 


ill 


h   \ 


m 


,      : 


'■T  '     I 


% 


> 

;mJ  i 

'     !' 

'- 

1 

1 

i' 

1 

L 

870      DOMINATING    INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

east,  and  subject  only  to  the  London  governor  and 
directors.  Next  to  him  stood  the  chief  factors, 
twenty-five  in  number,  in  charge  of  departments  or 
factories,  and  classed  as  full  shareholders;  third, 
the  chief  traders,  or  half  shareholders,  twenty- 
eight  in  number  and  in  charge  of  important  posts; 
fourth,  chief  clerks,  in  charge  of  union  posts,  or  ex- 
peditions; fifth,  apprenticed  clerks,  a  kind  of  forest 
midshipmen;  sixth,  postmasters,  usually  promoted 
from  the  ranks,  and  often  in  charge  of  small  posts; 
seventh,  interpreters,  generally  laborers;  eighth,  voy- 
agers or  boatmen ;  ninth,  laborers,  who  attended  to 
any  rough  work,  including  artisans'  tasks.  The 
laborer  could  rise  only  to  postmaster;  but  apprentices 
became,  after  five  years  of  good  service,  entitled  to  a 
full  clerkship;  afterward  they  might  be  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  chief  trader  and  factor,  or  even  governor. 
The  board  of  proprietors  of  the  Northwest  company 
had  absorbed  tLo  office  of  governor,  the  latter  term 
being  applied  to  commanders  of  posts  or  districts. 
Chief  factors  were  ex-officio  members  of  the  general 
council,  seven,  with  the  governor,  forming  a  quorum, 
at  some  central  point.  At  all  principal  stations  a 
local  council  sat  annually,  composed  of  shareholders, 
to  assign  posts  and  duties,  settle  disputes,  and  punish 
infractions. 

Higher  servants,  a  title  which  none  below  the  rank 
of  postmaster  could  receive,  enjoyed  commissions  in 
addition  to  a  salary,  the  income  of  chief  traders 
ranging  between  £400  and  £800.  Laborers  received 
on  an  average  £17  a  year;  apprentices  began  usually 
with  £20,  obtaining  as  clerks  £100  or  £150;  some 
took  rations  instead  of  the  usual  board.  No  traffic 
for  personal  profit  was  allowed.  Two  factors  and 
two  traders  might  annually  retire  in  rotation ;  winter- 
ing in  the  field  for  five  years  entitled  them  to  half 
profits  for  six  years;  leave  of  absence  was  liberal. 
Subordinates  must  above  all  be  obedient.  The  com- 
pany managed  to  furnish  their  employes  with  Indian 


r 


CIVILIZATION  OVERSHADOWING  SAVAGISM. 


571 


wives,  who  must  in  return  for  their  rations  do  some 
slight  work.  After  the  expiration  of  their  term, 
fifty  acres  of  land  could  be  had  on  condition  of  a 
month's  service  annually  for  seven  years,  but  this 
gave  little  hope  for  comfort  or  independence.  Dis- 
obedience was  punished  with  heavy  fines,  which  often 
left  little  surplus  from  the  pittance,  and  liquor  and 
extravagance  placed  many  at  the  mercy  of  the  monop- 
oly. The  latter  took  its  risks  in  the  advances  ol 
goods  and  provisions  to  hunting  parties  of  employes 
or  Indians,  the  repayment  of  which  depended  gener- 
ally on  results.  Most  of  the  servants  were  Scotch- 
men, with  a  few  Irishmen  and  fewer  English,  while 
the  lower  ranks  were  drawn  chiefly  from  French 
Canadians  and  half-breeds.  In  1846  there  were  over 
500  articled  men  and  55  officers;  but  the  total  force 
was  larger,  reaching  in  1857  about  3,000  men,  th^ 
proprietors  numbering  nearly  240.  Post  commanders 
received  appointment  as  justices  of  the  peace  from  the 
crown,  thus  rendering  the  company  additionally  auto- 
cratic, for  appeals  were  difficult  to  obtain. 

Monopoly  undoubtedly  tended  to  serfdom  among 
the  employes,  although  business  prudence  checked  in- 
justice and  maletreatment,  and  it  also  sought  to  keep 
back  settlers  and  prevent  farming  or  other  civilizing 
agencies ;  they  could  make  more  money  out  of  savag- 
ism.  Decided  advantages  were,  however,  conveyed 
by  licenced  exclusiveness  in  the  prudent  administra- 
tion of  territorial  wealth,  and  in  the  humane  treatment 
of  the  natives  with  the  attendant  preservation  of 
order  and  security,  restriction  of  drunkenness,  and 
the  healthy  emulation  in  hunting  and  purveying,  with 
other  practical  incentives  to  industry  and  improved 
habits  of  life.  The  Spanish  religio-military  method 
of  civilizing  lacked  the  means  of  improvement,  and 
reduced  the  native  in  position  and  ambition  to  a  child, 
of  which  soldiers  and  the  succeeding  settlers  took  ad- 
vantage, enslaving  and  teaching  them  vice.  The 
Anglo- A.mericans   were   still   worse   in  their  selfish 


%' 


I 


! 


[     i;,  f 


III 

Mi 


i 


\ 


U 


i 


672      DOxMlNATING    INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

dealings,  when  not  controlled  by  hope  of  gain,  using 
them  as  tools  or  regarding  them  as  pests,  partly  from 
a  fear  of  just  retaliation  from  outrages;  or  driving 
the  aboriginal  holders  by  force  from  tracts  desired  for 
themselves.  The  United  States  government  accepted 
them  as  wards,  but  surrendered  them  to  the  mercy  of 
politicians  and  corrupt  agents,  who  neglected  to  carry 
out  stipulations.  The  British  government  kept 
better  faith  and  more  responsible  agents. 

The  policy  of  the  fur  companies  differed.  They 
sought  no  gold  or  land ;  they  depended  upon  the  Ind- 
ians for  trade,  for  food,  and  for  the  safety  of  their 
scattered  parties.  Hence  they  courted  them  with 
gifts  and  credit,  with  considerate  treatment,  keep- 
ing all  promises  and  threats.  The  conspicuous  de- 
fect of  the  Indians  was  their  disregard  for  property 
rights,  which  led  to  many  other  troubles.  Harmonious 
and  safe  intercourse  required  this  to  be  checked  with 
inexorable  strictness,  yet  without  the  wanton  infliction 
upon  guilty  and  innocent  alike  which  has  marked  the 
Indian  policy  in  general,  and  engendered  wide  ill-feel- 
ing. The  United  States  has  spent  some  five  hundred 
million  dollars  and  countless  lives  in  wars,  while  in 
British  territory,  where  Indians  are  amenable  to  and 
protected  by  law,  bloody  battles  were  rare.  A  com- 
mon procedure  on  the  part  of  the  hunters  was  to  in- 
terdict an  offending  tribe  from  all  traffic,  with  its 
coveted  liquor  and  baubles  and  blankets,  until  cul- 
prits were  surrendered.  This  made  the  entire  band 
jealously  observant  of  the  conduct  of  each  member. 
Occasionally  the  effect  of  a  cannon  shot  was  demon- 
strated, or  chiefs  were  seized  for  hostages.  The  threat 
to  fire  the  powder  magazine  saved  more  than  one  post 
from  attack,  as  did  jugglery  with  pretended  Pandora- 
boxes  containing  small-pox  and  other  dreaded  scourges. 
Intrigue  was  added  to  array  tribes  against  one 
another,  to  prevent  alliances,  to  withhold  arms,  to 
favor  ambitious  and  friendly  leaders  above  insolent 
chiefs,  to  tickle  the  vanity  of  influential  men  with 


ij' 


THE  MIGHTY   MONOPOLY. 


078 


lienors  and  authority  to  be  exercised  for  the  safety  of 
whites,  to  circumvent  the  obdurate  by  winning  uver 
their  children.  Traders  who  had  encountered  trouble 
were  also  moved  to  other  districts,  so  as  to  lessen  the 
cause  for  discontent. 

The  company  favored  the  taking  of  concubines  or 
wives  from  among  the  Indians,  mainly  to  win  their 
alliance  or  good  will,  and  partly  to  obtain  half-breed 
servants,  who  could  be  relied  upon  for  their  devotion 
to  the  fur-traders,  and  for  their  influence  with  the 
natives.  The  half-breeds  generally  unite  the  aborigi- 
nal sluggishness  of  mind  with  civilized  proclivities  to 
drink  and  disease,  those  of  French  descent  being  more 
frivolous  than  children  of  staid  Scotchmen.  In  the 
far  interior,  they  enjoy  a  contented  position,  despite 
their  lack  of  practical  energy,  but  with  the  approxi- 
mation of  Anglo-Saxon  settlers,  they  begin  to  feel 
their  inferiority  and  bitter  disadvantage. 

Liquor-dealing  was  not  advocated,  because  it  under- 
mined the  industry  and  efficiency  of  the  natives  as 
hunters,  and  made  them  quarrelsome,  but  its  potency 
as  a  medium  for  trade  was  unequalled ;  with  the  field 
to  itself,  however,  the  Hudson's  Bay  company  gener- 
ally suppressed  the  traffic. 

Under  consolidated  sway,  the  administration  of  the 
fur-traders  upon  the  slope  assumed  a  fresh  and  vigor- 
ous phase.  In  1818,  the  United  States'  flag  was 
raised  anew  and  officially  over  Astoria,  without  preju- 
dice to  territorial  claims  over  the  Northwest  coast, 
to  which  the  citizens  of  both  the  contending  nations 
were  to  have  free  access  until  later  negotiations  should 
decide  the  title.  Nevertheless,  the  British  assumed 
that  the  southern  region  must  fall  to  their  opponent, 
and  that  the  Columbia  would  be  the  boundary.  With 
this  idea,  and  the  natural  oWection  of  living  under  a 
foreign  flag  at  Astoria,  the  Hudson's  Bay  company, 
in  1825,  founded  new  headquarters  at  Fort  Vancouver, 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  river,  selecting  a  fertile 


!i' 


m:\v 


i^'if 


m 


874      DOMINATING   INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

site  opposite  the  Willamette,  central  for  interior  oper- 
ations along  this  great  boat  route,  and  adapted  for  a 
prospective  capital.  Agriculture  was  started  here, 
and  toward  Puget  .sound,  on  a  scale  sufficient  to  meet 
an  export  trade  to  Alaska  and  the  Hawaiian  islands. 
At  the  latter  point,  an  agency  was  opened  for  ex- 
changing flour,  lumber,  and  fish  for  groceries  and 
other  necessaries,  and  at  San  Francisco  bay  another 
branch,  to  barter  European  goods  for  hides,  tallow, 
and  peltries.  The  market  among  the  Russians,  north- 
ward, for  imported  as  well  as  home  products,  was 
increased  by  the  lease  of  the  southern  shore  line  of 
Alaska,  which  permitted  also  the  more  energetic 
British  traders  to  encroach  upon  districts  beyond,  and 
outbid  the  Russians.  These  and  other  measures 
served  to  sustain  the  large  revenue  drawn  from  the 
Pacific  slope.  While  the  returns  from  the  posts  in 
Oregon  declined,  stations  were  advanced  into  the  re- 
mote north  by  way  of  compensation. 

The  supreme  board  of  directors  at  London  had  little 
influence  upon  the  management  of  the  American 
field,  so  long  as  revenues  were  maintained,  if  possible 
with  prudent  dignity  and  order.  Experience  had 
shown  them  that  trade  must  be  left  largely  to  find  its 
own  channels,  guided  by  men  directly  engaged  there- 
in. Hence,  even  the  superior  council  and  governor 
residing  on  the  Canadian  slope  gave  only  general  di- 
rections and  suggestions,  leaving  to  annual  local  meet- 
ings the  more  essential  as  well  as  subordinate  control. 

This  governor  was  George  Simpson,  a  natural  son 
of  the  uncle  of  Thomas  Simpson,  the  Arctic  explorer, 
who  gaining  the  good-will  of  the  earl  of  Selkirk's 
family,  was  given  an  appointment  in  the  Hudson's 
Bay  company's  service.  He  needed  nothing  more;  a 
bright,  clear  intellect  and  native  shrewdness  did  the 
rest,  sustained  by  a  strong  constitution  and  physique, 
not  exactly  imposing,  but  of  a  medium  size,  well-knit, 
with  redundant  animal  spirits  reflected  in  the  finely 
chiselled    features     and    clear     blue   eye.     He  ad- 


EST. 


SIR   GEORGE  SIMPSON. 


B75 


f  I 


•ior  oper- 
ted  for  a 
;ed  here, 
b  to  meet 
1  islands, 
i  for  ex- 
sries  and 
J  another 
s,  tallow, 
ns,  north- 
ucts,  was 
>re  line  of 
energetic 
jrond,  and 
measures 
from  the 
B  posts  in 
to  the  re- 
had  little 
American 
possible 
ence   had 
to  find  its 
ed  there- 
governor 
eneral  di- 
)cal  meet- 
e  control, 
tural  son 
explorer, 
Selkirk's 
Hudson's 
more;  a 
did  the 
hysique, 
ell-knit, 
he  finely 
He  ad- 


vanced quickly,  to  the  position  of  governor  of  a  dis- 
trict in  1820,  and  soon  after  to  govemor-in-chief. 
Entering  upon  work  when  the  association  was  pros- 
trated by  long  and  ruinous  competition,  by  his  keen- 
ness and  activity  he  brought  order  out  of  confusion, 
and  raised  the  company  to  the  highest  pitch  of  pros- 
perity. Absolute  in  many  respects,  he  was  responsi- 
ble only  to  the  board  at  London.  In  1839  he  received 
a  baronetcy  for  his  services  in  organizing  the  Arctic 
expedition  under  Dease  and  Simpson.  He  bought 
Isle  Dumal,  for  a  place  of  abode,  and  built  there  a 
splendid  residence,  where,  in  1860,  he  extended  the 
couHesies  of  the  company  to  the  prince  of  Wales. 
He  died  the  following  year. 

Simpson  crossed  the  Rocky  mountains  on  three 
occasions,  in  1824,  to  reorganize  the  department,  in 
1828-9,  and  in  1841.  He  suggested  many  im- 
provements, and  approved  the  plans  for  carrying 
trade  to  the  adjoining  coasts.  On  the  first  and  second 
journeys  he  returned  as  he  came,  across  the  British 
Columbia  section  of  the  Rocky  mountains ;  the  third 
journey  was  extended  to  Alaska,  California,  and  the 
Hawaiian  islands,  and  through  Siberia  to  Russia, 
round  the  world,  as  published  in  his  Narrative.  His 
journey  was  like  the  march  of  a  monarch,  with  a 
numerous  train,  and  with  salvos,  bunting,  and  proces- 
sions at  the  stations,  particularly  at  St  James,  the 
capital  of  western  Caledonia,  and  at  Vancouver.  It 
was  well  to  impress  the  attending  native  tribes  with 
such  pomp,  and  the  fort-dwellers  were  only  too  glad  of 
such  diversion.  At  the  Islands  receptions  were  ten- 
dered by  Sir  J.  H.  Pelly,  sometime  the  London  gov- 
ernor of  the  Hudson's  Bay  company,  who  was 
succeeded  by  A.  Colville,  the  patron  of  Simpson. 

The  Pacific  had  also  its  governor,  who,  owing  to  re- 
moteness from  Canada  and  direct  communication  with 
London,  became  quickly  the  most  prominent  of  the 
department  commanders,  and  in  time  almost  inde- 
pendent   of    the    American    governor-in-chief,  and 


hi 


576 


DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 


u 


accountable  to  the  directory.  At  this  period  of  the 
consolidation,  the  charge  at  Fort  St  George  or  Asto- 
ria was  held  by  James  Keith,  partner  in  the  Northwest 
company,  who  was  now  given  the  superintendency  of 
the  Montreal  department.  He  soon  retired  to  Aber- 
deen, Scotland,  with  a  fortune,  and  married,  there  to 
meet  his  death  by  slipping  upon  an  orange  peel,  after 
passing. unscathed  through  the  perils  of  a  long  career 
in  wild  and  savage  lands. 

His  successor,  John  McLaughlin  of  Fort  Francis, 
Rainy  lake,  arrived  on  the  Columbia  in  1824,  in  com- 
pany with  Governor  Simpson,  with  plans  for  reorgan- 
ization. He  had  entered  the  service  of  the  Northwest 
company  early  in  the  century  as  physician ;  but  a 
quick  perception  and  natural  aptitude  for  business 
commended  him  to  the  management  for  various  com- 
missions, and  he  gradually  abandoned  drugs  for  peltries. 
Bright  and  educated,  he  stood  conspicuous  above  the 
mercenary  fur-trader  or  coarse  immigrant,  and  im- 
pressed white  men  and  red-skins  alike  by  his  com- 
manding intellect  and  presence.  Body,  mind, 
and  heart  were  all  carved  in  gigantic  propor- 
tions. His  tall,  powerful  figure,  over  six  feet  in 
height  was  usually  arrayed  in  black,  and  crowned  with 
long  snow-white  locks,  which  made  singularly  appro- 
priate the  name  of  White  Eagle  given  him  by  the 
natives.  His  associates  styled  him  the  Emperor  of 
the  West.  His  eye  bore  indeed  the  eagle  stamp,  fiery 
at  times  with  rare  momentary  outbursts,  but  more 
frequently  beaming  with  innate  goodness  of  heart. 
His  influence  over  the  savages  was  remarkable.  Be- 
fore his  coming  the  coast  was  not  safe  except  for 
armed  bands.  His  wise  and  benign  policy  changed 
this,  and  transformed  the  savage  into  a  steadfast 
friend.  He  treated  him  as  a  human  being,  not  for- 
getting he  was  but  a  child ;  and  as  to  a  child  he  spoke 
to  him,  kindly  yet  firmly,  rewarding  the  deserving, 
punishing  the  wrong-doer,  surely  if  not  severely. 
Equally  strict  was  he  over  the  company's  servants. 


I 


JOHN  Mclaughlin. 


577 


In  some  directions  he  displayed  the  Englishman's 
fondness  for  pomp,  chiefly  in  the  presence  of  the 
natives.  He  was  given  to  sociability  and  free-heart- 
edness;  nor  would  he  tolerate  profanity  or  inappropri- 
ate levity.  So  determined  was  he  in  character,  and 
so  bent  upon  having  his  own  way  when  he  knew 
it  to  be  right,  that  the  directory  at  London  had  diffi- 
culty in  controlling  him.  Unswerving  in  integrity, 
he  was  no  less  so  in  following  the  path  outlined  by- 
conscience,  in  the  interests  of  justice  an  J  humanity. 

On  his  arrival  he  was  chief  trader,  but  was  soon 
made  chief  factor,  and  not  long  afterward  governor 
of  all  the  Hudson's  Bay  company's  affairs  west  of 
the  Rocky  mountains,  with  ever  increasing  power  and 
importance.  He  deserved  indeed  this  confidence,  for 
little  fault  was  found  in  him  save  a  questioning  of 
the  policy  of  combining  with  fur-trading  agricultural 
and  other  pursuits,  undoubtedly  profitable,  yet  in  the 
end  fatal  to  exclusiveness.  One  other  so-called  in- 
firmity was  l^is  humane  treatment  of  the  United 
States  immigrants,  which  created  the  outcry  that  he 
was  becoming  more  American  than  English,  more 
farmer  than  trader.  Blind  to  the  fact  that  Yankee 
immigration  was  inevitable  and  resistance  futile,  so 
that  a  considerate  attitude  was  politic  as  well  as 
humane,  the  shareholders  called  for  a  less  philan- 
thropic manager.  As  a  primary  step  to  his  deposal, 
they  associated  with  him  in  the  management  two  other 
members ;  and  then,  on  the  strength  of  certain  unfav- 
orable reports,  made  partly  by  his  colleague  and 
protege,  Douglas,  they  undertook  to  reprimand  him. 
He  resigned,  and  retired  in  the  spring  of  1846  to 
Oregon  city,  where  he  died  eleven  years  later,  embit- 
tered by  misplaced  confidence  and  litigation.  Like 
most  fur-trading  officials,  he  took  to  himself  a  chiefs 
daughter,  whom  he  subsequently  married  under  cleri- 
cal prompting.  His  daughters  married  prominent 
traders.  John  McLaughlin  was  too  great  and  good 
a  man  successfully  to  serve  a  monopoly. 

C.  B.-I.    37 


|.i  li 


^.  \ 


ii 


1   ■  ; 
I    V, 


4       ! 


ii 


■  1 


If  - 


t 


II 


878        DOMINATING    INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

Lying  to  the  northwest  of  the  United  States,  be- 
tween the  Rocky  mountains  and  the  Pacific  ocean, 
and  extending  northward  from  the  forty-second  paral- 
lel of  latitude,  is  situated  the  vast  region  to  which 
was  given  in  early  days  the  name  of  Oregon,  an 
appellation  now  applied  to  about  one-third  of  the 
oilginal  area.  A  glance  at  the  physical  features  of 
the  present  state  of  Oregon  will  result  in  the  recog- 
nition of  an  extreme  diversity  of  surface  and  consequent 
variety  of  climate.  Intersected  longitudinally  by  the 
lofty  Cascade  range,  and  transversely  in  the  north- 
eastern portion  of  the  state  by  the  filue  mountains, 
the  country  presents  wide  variations  in  configuration, 
soil,  and  r?'^'^'irces. 

West  of  the  Cascade  range,  between  it  and  a  lower 
chain  which  rims  the  seaboard,  stretches  from  north 
to  south  the  beautiful  and  fertile  valley  of  the  Wil- 
lamette, into  which  open  innumerable  others  of 
smaller  size,  like  the  affluents  of  some  great  river. 
In  the  south  lie  the  devious  valleys  of  the  Umpqua 
and  Rogue  rivers,  resting  in  a  conglomeration  of  hills 
and  mountains,  the  silent  proofs  of  terrestrial  turmoil. 
East  of  the  Cascade  range  extend  elevated  plains, 
some  rich  in  pasture  grounds  for  cattle,  others  waterless 
and  barren.  Still  farther  east,  among  the  Blue  moun- 
tains, and  beyond  them  to  Snake  river,  lies  a  mining 
region  intersected  with  canons  and  innumerable  gulches 
and  small  streams.  There  a,re  forests  also,  not  spread 
over  vast  areas  of  level  surface,  but  covering  the 
mountain  sides,  and  the  lowlands  along  the  rivers  and 
streams.  Few  countries,  in  the  distribution  of  wood- 
lands and  prairies  can  offer  more  attractions  and 
greater  advantages  to  the  agriculturalist  than  western 
Oregon. 

Previous  to  1834,  there  were  no  people  in  this 
country,  except  a  few  Canadian  settlers  in  the  Willa- 
mette valley,  who  were  retired  servants  of  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  company.  Nature  was  bountiful  to  the 
Indians  of  Oregon   in  her  supplies  of  subsistence. 


TT 


!l 


RBLimON  AND  AMERICANIZATION. 


570 


Herds  of  elk  and  deer  pastured  in  great  numbers  in 
the  valley  meadows;  bears  were  plentiful  In  the  for- 
ests ;  water-fowl  of  many  kinds  were  abundant :  and 
the  woods  and  groves  dotting  the  prairies  were  rich 
in  wild  fruits  and  berries,  and  alive  with  game  birds, 
grouse,  pheasant,  and  quail.  The  rivers  were  well 
stocked  with  salmon,  and  the  streams  and  brooks  with 
trout.     Such  were  the  natural  resources. 

The  people  to  whom  all  this  was  originally  given 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  namely,  those  of 
the  coast,  those  of  the  mountains,  and  those  of  the 
plains.  Each  class  exhibited  marked  characteristics, 
consequent  upon  surroundings,  habits  of  life,  and  food. 
Lowest  in  the  scale  were  the  coast  dwellers,  the 
mountaineers  and  people  of  the  plains  being  both 
above  them.  Hearing  of  the  Christians,  and  how 
heaven  favors  them,  fear  Flathead  chiefs  went  to  St 
Louis  about  1832,  and  asked  for  teachers.  Two  years 
later,  the  methodists  sent  missionaries,  who,  instead 
of  the  rugged  Flathead  country,  chose  hr  a  mission 
site  the  Willamette  valley,  near  the  settlements  of  the 
Canadians,  with  other  stations  elsewhere.  The  pres- 
byterians  next  erected  buildings  near  Fort  Walla 
Walla.  Missionary  work  did  not  pay,  however,  either 
with  the  white  men  or  the  red  ;  whereupon  the  apostles 
to  this  region  began  to  attend  more  to  their  own 
affairs  than  to  the  saving  of  savage  souls.  They  broke 
up  their  establishments  in  1844,  and  henceforth  be- 
came a  political  clique,  whose  chief  aim  was  to  acquire 
other  men's  property. 

Meantime  colonization  set  in,  encouraged  by  the 
aspiring  missionaries.  As  long  as  the  boundary  ques- 
tion remained  undetermined,  the  position  of  the  set- 
tlers was  anomalous.  They  were  on  debatable  ground ; 
neither  the  United  States  nor  the  British  government 
could  extend  jurisdiction  over  them.  Some  form  of 
rule  was  necessary,  and  in  1843  a  provisional  govern- 
ment was  organized.  Political  factions  followed. 
There  was  the  methodist  party,  which  hoped  to  con- 


I.  .  ;■ 


if     !|     s       « 


■<>    ,;lf 


580       DOMINATING    INFLUENCES  IN  THE   NORTHWEST. 

trol  affairs,  and  the  catholic  party,  determined  it 
should  not  if  the  latter  could  help  it.  Among  the 
settlers,  numbers  of  influential  persons  were  opposed 
to  the  formation  of  a  government,  so  long  as  peace  and 
harmony  existed,  while  the  new  settlers  did  not  relish 
the  idea  of  a  governor  being  appointed  from  the 
methodist  missionaries.  Again,  others  objected  to 
the  scheme  on  the  ground  that  the  majority  of  the 
population  being  catholic  would  elect  officers  of  that 
creed.  The  niethodists,  liowever,  by  the  exercise  of 
some  diplomacy,  carried  the  day. 

In  1845  three  thousand  persons  arrived,  doubling 
the  white  population.  Tlie  same  underlying  causes 
for  this  migratory  movement  existed  as  in  the  previ- 
ous years,  namely,  dissatisfaction  with  home,  want  of 
a  market,  and  distance  from  the  sea;  to  which  may 
be  added  antagonism  to  the  British,  and  a  determina- 
tion not  to  allow  that  nation  to  come  into  possession 
of  Oreiion.  This  and  other  migrations  were  worked 
up  by  eastern  politicians  to  save  Oregon  to  the 
United  States,  as  they  termed  it.  ¥7ith  their  repre- 
sentations of  rich  lands  for  nothing,  they  induced  a 
larore  number  of  iicrsons  to  emij^rate. 

In  184^)  the  boundary  question  was  decided,  and 
Oregon  became  a  portion  of  the  United  States;  in 
August  IH48  the  territory  of  Oregon  was  created  by 
congr<!SS.  Tlie  slavery  question  caused  delay.  Mean- 
time Oregon  was  engaged  in  a  bloody  contest  witli 
hostile  Indians. 

The  people  of  Oregon  at  this  time  were  industrious, 
honest,  and  hospitable.  They  constituted  a  new  and 
novel  connnunitv,  whose  condition  and  recjuirenients 
evoked  a  in<>ral  tone  They  had  to  labor  in  order  to 
live;  most  or'  the  s<'ttlers  having  passcnl  through  the 
ordeal  of  destitution  on  their  arrival,  and  having  been 
receivetl  with  generous  assistance,  were  ready  to  ex- 
tend the  same  to  others.  In  due  time;  came  prosper- 
ity Th(Mr  farms  yielded  grain  and  vegetables  abun- 
dantly; cattle  and  sheep  were  brought  from  California. 


I 
■I 

1 1 


OREGON. 


581 


i 


Some  little  trade  was  carried  on  with  the  Hawaiian 
islands,  but  it  was  of  small  benefit  to  the  farmers, 
owing  to  the  exclusiveness  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  com- 
pany's rules,  which  made  it  obligatory  that  their 
vessels  should  carry  none  but  the  cargoes  of  the  com- 
pany. As  their  vessels  were  almost  the  only  ones 
at  this  time  plying  up  and  down  the  coast,  and  to 
and  from  Honolulu,  the  want  of  means  for  exporta- 
tion was  severely  felt.  A  few  other  vessels  there 
were  belonging  to  merch?^.nts,  who  adopted  the  same 
rule,  refusing  to  take  freight  on  shipper's  account. 
They  were  thus  able  to  keep  down  the  price  of  wheat, 
and  load  their  vessels  with  it  a*:  small  cost,  to  their 
own  great  profit.  Thus  the  flouring  mills  and  grana- 
ries were  overstocked,  while  lumber  and  shingles  were 
made  in  quantities  that  could  not  be  disposed  of. 
Much  inconvenience,  also,  was  caused  by  the  nature 
of  the  currency,  wliich  consisted  of  government  scrip, 
orders  on  merchants,  and  drafts  on  wheat;  for  of 
gold  and  silver  coin  there  \'a,s  hardly  any.  But  a 
cliange  in  the  condition  of  affairs  was  near. 

When  the  news  of  the  gold  discoverv  in  California 
reached  OregDU,  quite  an  excitement  followed.  Many 
went  southward,  while  some  increased  their  produc- 
tions to  meet  an  extended  market.  Henceforth  Ore- 
gon iiad  iiotliing  to  complain  of  as  regards  her  trade 
and  industiies.  But  apart  from  material  advan- 
tages derived  from  the  gold  discovery,  a  change  was 
eifocted  in  the  habits  of  the  people.  An  advance 
was  made  from  straitened  circumstances,  necessitat- 
ing thrift  and  economy,  to  a  more  comfortable  pros- 
perity. Had  California  continued  to  plod  along  in 
her  former  jmstoral  life;,  Oregon  would  have  long  re- 
mained in  a  measure  isolated.  The  settlers'  children, 
witli  poor  educational  facilities,  would  not  be  what 
they  now  an^  intelligent  and  enterprising.  Another 
consequence  of  tlie  rush  to  California  was  the  explora- 
tion of  the  southern  p(irtion  of  Oregon,  the  discovery 
of  gold  there,  as  well  as   in  tlie  region  east  of  the 


.  \  t 


I  ';: 


il 


i.ll 


\m. 


:^'  i 


Ht:<, 


Iff-;      '< 


Wi  I! 


582        DOMINATING    INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

Cascade  range,  the  influx  of  new  comers,  the  found' 
ing  of  towns,  and  the  settlement  of  the  Umpqua  and 
Rogue  river  valleys.  This  consummation  was  not 
accomplished  without  trouble  from  the  savages. 

In  September  1850  a  donation  act  was  passed, 
granting  640  acres  to  each  married  settler,  a  citizen 
of  the  United  States  or  intending  to  become  such, 
and  320  acres  to  a  single  man.  At  a  later  date 
amendatory  acts  were  passed  which  provided  that 
the  widows  of  men,  who  had  they  lived  would  be  en- 
titled to  claim  under  the  act,  were  granted  all  that 
their  husbands  would  have  been  entitled  to  had  they 
lived ;  and  to  each  of  the  orphan  children  of  the  earli- 
est settlers  160  acres  were  granted.  Any  immigrant 
who  became  a  resident  before  December  1850,  could 
avail  himself  of  the  privileges  of  the  donation  law,  and 
the  opportunity  thus  presented  of  obtaining  land  free 
of  cost  attracted  no  small  number  of  immigrants,  and 
materially  aided  in  developing  agriculture. 

With  regard  to  British  possessory  rights,  which 
according  to  the  terms  of  the  treaty  were  to  be  re- 
spected, so  undefined  were  their  claims,  and  so  deter- 
mined were  the  American  squatters,  that  tlie  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company  was  glad  to  sell  to  the  United 
States  for  what  it  could  get.  In  1853  the  region 
north  of  the  Columbia  was  segregated,  and  the  terri- 
tory of  Wasliingtoii  created.  When  Oregon  was 
made  a  territory,  the  local  political  cliques  declined, 
and  the  two  great  national  parties,  the  whigs  and 
democrats,  came  forward.  For  a  time  the  democrats 
dominated;  and  it  was  not  until  1857  that  the  repub- 
licans, wlio  had  taken  the  place  of  the  whigs,  began 
to  lift  up  their  heads.  The  democratic  party  had  so 
conducted  affairs  during  the  Indian  war  of  1855-6,  as 
to  alienate  a  munber  of  influ«!ntial  supporters.  The 
question  of  admission  as  a  state  arising,  the  point  to 
be  determined  was  as  to  whether  it  should  be  a  free 
or  a  slave  state. 

In  185*.)  Oregon  was  admitted  into  the  union  as  a 


i 


Si 


LATER  DEVELOPMENT. 


583 


free  state.  As  the  time  approached  when  the  great 
struggle  between  the  north  and  south  was  to  com- 
mence, anti-slavery  ideas  gained  ground ;  and  in  the 
election  of  1860  the  state  went  republican,  and  con- 
tinued in  favor  of  the  union  throughout  the  war. 
After  the  conclusion  of  the  war  the  political  elements 
gradually  readjusted  themselves,  and  democracy  again 
became  dominant.  While  the  contest  lasted,  the  state 
had  to  depend  on  her  own  resources  for  defence 
against  the  Indians,  who  were  hostile  in  eastern 
Oregon,  which  had  been  opened  by  the  discovery  of 
mines  on  the  John  Day  and  Powder  rivers,  and  m 
Idaho.  Several  campaigns  had  to  be  undertaken  for 
their  subjugation,  not  always  attended  with  success. 
There  followed  the  Shoshone  war  in  1866-8,  succeeded 
later  by  other  troubles  with  the  natives,  whom  it  was 
difficult  to  keep  on  the  reservations  to  which  from 
time  to  time  they  were  removed. 

But  these  troubles,  though  grievous  at  the  time, 
could  not  arrest  the  onward  march  of  the  young  state. 
Agriculture  on  the  west  side  of  the  Cascade  range, 
and  cattle-raising  on  the  east,  have  progressed  since 
1870  in  an  extraordinary  degree ;  flocks  of  sheep  pas- 
ture on  the  mountain  slopes  and  hills,  and  wool  has 
become  one  of  the  staple  productions  of  the  country. 
Coal  mines  are  worked  in  the  neighborhood  of  Coos 
bay,  quartz  mining  is  carried  on  in  the  northeastern 
portion  of  the  state,  and  gravel  mining  by  the  hy- 
draulic process  in  the  southwestern.  Hand  in  hand 
with  agricultural  and  pastoral  success  the  manufactu- 
ring industries  have  advanced.  Saw  and  flouring 
mills  continue  their  great  work ;  foundries  and  ma- 
chine shops  are  increasing;  commerce  has  expanded 
in  due  proportion. 

In  asocial  point  of  view  progress  is  equally  marked. 
Universities  and  colleges  have  been  founded ;  a  pub- 
lic school  system  has  been  brought  to  high  perfection ; 
benevolent  institutions  have  been  erected ;  and  socie- 
ties and  associations  have  been  organized,  all  tending 


I'  V 


I  l 


f  ■■; 


mi 


■  I 


■  'I 


■    I- 


584        DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

to  the  advancement  of  the  state.  Libraries,  churches, 
and  a  widely  extended  press  exercise  their  usual  in- 
fluence as  factors  in  the  elevation  of  the  people.  A 
spirit  of  brotherhood  in  public  benefactions  was  early 
displayed,  leading  to  the  most  beneficial  results. 

And  here  we  may  find  it  profitable  to  pause  in  this 
analysis,  and  give  one  or  two  examples  from  among 
the  individual  experiences  of  those  who  came  early 
hither  to  take  a  part  in  the  building  of  this  common- 
wealth, to  supplement  the  work  of  those  who  had 
reclaimed  the  country  from  savagism  as  well  as  from 
British  sovereignty,  and  assist  in  and  carry  forward 
that  marvellous  development  which  has  placed  the 
state  of  Oregon  in  one  of  the  most  enviable  of  posi- 
tions. 

The  missionaries  and  pioneer  settlers  of  the  north- 
west did  much  to  secure  the  country  to  the  United 
States.  Had  there  been  no  movement  of  the  kind, 
England  would  have  extended  her  claim  over  the 
whole  territory  with  a  fair  prospect  of  making  it  her 
own.  But  the  missionaries  and  farmers  alone  never 
would  have  made  Oregon ;  they  never  would  have 
poured  out  wealth  so  lavishly  to  erect  churches, 
establish  institutions  of  learning,  make  roads,  clear 
the  streams  for  navigation,  and  build  a  beautiful 
metropolis.  The  early  merchants  of  Portland  were 
the  principal  builders  of  the  commonwealth  of  Ore- 
gon, particularly  in  its  later  development.  It  was, 
mdeed,  some  time  before  the  merchants  themselves 
could  enlarge  their  field  and  enter  upon  this  com- 
prehensive work ;  they  had  first  to  make  their  wealth. 
The  growth  of  the  country  about  them  was  slow,  and 
it  suffered  a  long  period  of  isolation  ;  but  there  was 
a  quiet  power  and  depth  of  purpose  inherent  in  these 
men  such  as  are  sure  in  the  end  to  outstrip  eva- 
nescent effort,  no  matter  how  strong  or  brilliant  it 
may  be. 

William  Sargent  Ladd  took  a  place  among  these 


1    J 

'     f 

n 

■  i 

1 

1 

, 

p 

, 

; 

I-.     1 

J 

J,    fl 

t '' 

I    R 

I- 

i    1 

il 


p 


■%■' 


>  .'i 


i¥  '• 


;   I 

i     I 


i 


!    11    :M    I 

1     ^' 

i  ;•:    31! 
s  ■  • 

jl  1' 

! 

< 

u 


.1 


WJ4.1A>^ 


m> 


\  ■' 


:  i 


S 


men   of  character   ^i   •<:         >:  i    ffim*   ilw  tim*'    *f*<> 

secured  a  foufchoW    I.  «^-.,.., ..^  jj-j  ^^j   ..h- 

of  many  othir  cu!ii->.  ■  »»  i  ?m.,  > 

for  himself  and  fanii . 

iiig  more  to  the  j^!fmi&>«i  "  m^ittH, 

other  large  factors  in  i.-  <     4  tii#i 

close  of  the  year    1^8*'  ^  ?«» 

the    most   proiniMei-*'    ♦■ 

•itates,    possessing   gr«)n^  ; 

capable    of  ex«^r«MHing   g^- 

than  any  other  citiam  in  ^' 

Seldom  is  aeon  prei'ir 
out  the  incipent  j^tagrai  and   ia 
progressive    c'wnnutnwcalt'        ' 
accorded   continuously    a    ; 

«'onsent.       New     (tountri*'*"  ' 

impulses  of  steans  and  elerc 
plunges,  rr.ther  than  in  thi*  .-: 
communities,  so  that  during  ' 
or  half  century  it  ia   n«A  uii  . 
strength  and   influence  n»\\ 
new  issues  hf^ing,  nipt  l>^  :. 
the  earlier  foundations  of      ■  . 
on  affairs  grailuall_v  relating  j:. 
is  an  (exception  to  the  rule  ''•    ■■ 
iarly  of  gold-bearing  I.ijh      «*n<f  Mr  ' 
tion  to   tlie  rule  in  C>reg'm.     "^ 
'artier    to    the   country   too'c 
front    rank,    and,  with    int* . 
honored   and  succ.v^sful    h   ■ 
who  arrived  there  in   thf  s^ru 
im>bably  done  more  thai. 
f   uific    <roast    to   elevate    %ko  - 

«<>*iety,   and  keep  pun    il»«'  w.-s 

ouiiuunity.      rrnpuiTionn*' ■     •> 
norchants  and   bankerf«  ni    -  v.      » 

ffuninent  early  (^aliforniaiis  rf 

+itiny,  and  controlled  thcm*s  '%♦•«»  »nd  t.hi>»r  tm^ut'^tw 
fiUch    a    way,  a^   stil)  to   {>«•  ahk  t«>  -  fin.)  tht? 


* 


] 

■i 


WILUAM  S.  LADD. 


CSS 


luen  of  character  at  once,  and  from  the  time  he 
secured  a  foothold  he  has  gone  forward  in  advance 
of  many  other  competitors,  doing  more  as  a  builder 
for  himself  and  family,  and  in  so  doing  contribut- 
ing more  to  the  growth  of  the  country  than  most 
other  large  factors  in  his  community ;  so  that  at  the 
close  of  the  year  1889  he  was  clearly  recognized  as 
the  most  prominent  figure  in  the  northwestern 
states,  possessing  greater  resources  and  power,  and 
capable  of  exercising  greater  influence  and  control 
than  any  other  citizen  in  that  section. 

Seldom  is  seen  preeminently  conspicuous  through- 
out the  incipent  stages  and  later  development  of  a 
progressive  commonwealth,  one  man  to  whom  is 
accorded  continuously  a  foremost  place  by  general 
consent.  New  countries,  under  the  latter  day 
impulses  of  steam  and  electricity,  go  forward  often  in 
plunges,  rather  than  in  the  steady  advance  of  older 
communities,  so  that  during  the  period  of  a  quarter 
or  half  century  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  the  men  of 
strength  and  influence  rising  and  falling  by  the  way, 
new  issues  being  met  by  new  leaders,  those  who  laid 
the  earlier  foundations  of  society  feeling  their  hold 
on  affairs  gradually  relaxing  as  time  runs  on.  Oregon 
is  an  exception  to  the  rule,  in  the  colonization  particu- 
larly of  gold-bearing  lands,  and  Mr  Ladd  is  an  excep- 
tion to  the  rule  in  Oreiyon.  True,  others  who  came 
earlier  to  the  country  took  their  position  in  the 
front  rank,  and,  with  integrity  unimpaired,  lived 
honored  and  successful  lives.  There  are  four  men, 
who  arrived  there  in  the  spring  of  1851,  who  have 
probably  done  more  than  any  other  four  men  on  the 
Pacific  coast  to  elevate  the  tone  of  politics  and 
society,  and  keep  pure  the  moral  sentiment  of  the 
community.  Proportionately  more  of  the  prominent 
merchants  and  bankers  of  early  Oregon  than  of  the 
prominent  early  Californians  retained  their  grip  on 
destiny,  and  controlled  themselves  and  their  business 
in    such   a   way,  as   still  to  be  able  to  control  the 


ii' 


•I 


\$li 


jili* 


B-'^ 


it- 

i  ■■    ■'. 

■          '   5 ; 

i  i     : 

1    I 

m 

686        DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

affain  of  the  country  up  to  the  later  period  of  their 
lives.  Those  who  now  are  proud  to  call  themselves 
Oregonians,  came  originally  to  Oregon  to  do  exactly 
what  they  have  done — to  Americanize  the  country, 
and  prepare  the  soil  for  the  growth  of  free  and 
enlightened  institutions,  on  which  to  rear  intelli- 
gent and  virtuous  societies. 

Such  species  of  colonization  has  been  the  good  for- 
tune of  the  eastern  seaboard,  but  the  fate  of  by  far 
the  largest  portions  of  North  America  has  been  at 
the  first  to  draw  in  a  population  coveting  only 
immediate  wealth,  people  from  all  quarters  of  the 
globe,  intent  on  securing  gold  or  furs,  or  encomien- 
das,  for  their  quick  enrichment,  then  to  depart  and 
enjoy  their  wealth  elsewhere,  caring  nothing  for  the 
country  or  as  to  what  should  become  of  it  thereafter. 
The  effect  of  the  high  integrity  and  pure  lives  and 
spirit  of  home-building  of  some  of  the  leading  men  of 
Portland,  and  other  cities  and  towns  throughout  the 
state,  which  have  naturally  made  the  metropolis  their 
model  in  the  various  lines  of  development,  has  been 
most  beneficial.  In  the  accumulation  of  wealth, 
power,  and  position  there  is  a  selfishness  that  con- 
siders only  the  individual  and  his  more  immediate 
belongings ;  and  again,  there  is  a  nobler  selfishness 
which  ever  guards  the  purity  of  society  and  the 
best  interests  of  the  state. 

The  name  of  Ladd,  or  Lade — both  spellings  belong 
distinctly  to  the  same  family — is  essentially  a  Kentish 
name.  It  is  found,  originally,  nowhere  beyond  the 
limits  of  county  Kent  and  county  Sussex,  England, 
and  all  the  documents  point  to  the  existence  of  but 
one  family  of  Ladd  previous  to  the  17th  century. 
The  origin  o^  the  name  cannot  be  precisely  deter- 
mined, either  as  to  date  or  the  circumstances  that  sug- 
gested it.  In  fact  the  source  of  most  Anglo-Saxon 
family  names  can  rarely  be  determined  satisfactorily, 
even  where  special  pride  or  peculiar  circumstances 
have  tended  to  keep  their  genealogical  history  clear. 


II 


n 


WILLIAM   S.    LADD. 


587 


It  is  noteworthy  that  people  of  this  blood,  which  is 
that  which  gives  character  and  body  to  civilization  in 
the  United  States,  have  looked  more  to  the  substance 
of  things  than  to  the  details  of  heraldry  ;  in  contrast 
with  the  people  of  Latin  origin,  especially  the  Span- 
iards, who  devote  more  time  and  care  to  such  history 
than  any  other  nationality.  I  commend  them  for  it, 
though  I  am  aware  that  if  it  comes  to  a  question  of 
work  or  the  genealogical  tree,  they  always  lean 
toward  the  latter.  Our  people  incline  the  other  way ; 
too  much  so,  perhaps.  The  later  day  scions  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  stock  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic  have,  as  a 
rule,  rather  acted  on  the  idea  that  a  man's  life  begins 
and  ends  with  himself,  which  is  not  true  in  philoso- 
phy or  in  fact.  The  popular  spirit  prevails  in  our 
society  and  government,  and  a  man's  name,  of  itself 
alone,  gives  him  no  title  to  consideration.  This  is  as 
it  should  be ;  and  I  hope  the  day  will  never  come  in 
*his  republican  land  of  ours  when  it  shall  be  otherwise. 
But  there  is  an  aristocracy  of  character  in  the  United 
States,  as  well  as  in  every  other  country  inhabited  by 
mankind,  regardless  of  rank  or  condition.  True  worth 
everywhere  gives  vitality  to  the  name  of  its  possessor. 
By  his  usefulness  and  example  he  makes  the  name 
he  bears  honorable ;  it  commands  respect  and  has  a 
force  peculiar  to  itself.  As  an  expression  of  defini- 
tion of  the  man,  his  name  becomes  by  virtue  of  his 
career  a  living  power.  A  good  name  fairly  earned 
is  not  less  prized  in  America  than  in  Europe,  for  pride 
of  character,  which  is  inseparable  from  pride  of  name, 
is  universal,  natural,  and  manly.  It  is  only  just  that 
a  fair  name  acquired  in  a  republic  should  be  as  scru- 
pulously guarded  and  as  highly  appreciated  as  any- 
where else  under  the  sun.  Distinction  achieved 
through  talent  and  industry,  and  crystalized  in  a 
name  is  a  sacred  inheritance.  There  is  no  other  heir- 
loom half  so  precious.  It  is  the  duty  and  should  be 
the  ambition  of  those  to  whom  it  descends  to  honor 
it  by  maintaining  it  in  its  integrity  and,  if  possible, 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


|J0     ■■*       ■■■ 

ut  Uii   |Z2 

Sf  11,2    ■■■ 

lAO     12.0 


us 

U 


L25  III  1.4 


Ml 

1.6 


^ 


h. 


^ 


w 


Photographic 

Sciences 

CorporaHon 


33  WIST  Mu*  .1  STRUT 

wnSTIR.N.Y.  USSO 

(716)  173-4303 


v 


iV 


^ 


.SJ 


<^ 


^ 


V 


6^ 


^V"" 
V 


Z 


588        DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 


I    ' 


^i! 


W- 


by  enhancing  its  lustre  by  their  own  efforts.  History 
abounds  in  incidents  of  virtue,  courage  and  heroism  to 
which  men  have  been  inspired  by  regard  for  a  name 
inherited.  I  can  conceive  no  motive  for  enterprise 
that  is  more  just,  no  incentive  to  good  works  that  is 
more  commendable  than  this.  In  the  acquisition  of 
a  good  name  through  the  vicissitudes  of  toil  and  strug- 
gle, a  force  is  engendered  that  ought  to  be  compre- 
hended and  preserved.  To  the  extent  that  such  a 
force  or  power  is  appreciated,  it  is  a  tonic.  It  is  help- 
ful in  religion  and  morals,  society  and  government. 
Wendell  Phillips,  who  was  one  of  the  fairest  expo- 
nents of  the  republican  spirit  that  ever  lived,  charges 
us  to  garner  up  the  experiences  of  our  ancestry.  Says 
he :  **  I  can  conceive  of  nothing  more  unfortunate 
than  a  lack  of  desire  to  understand  the  early  founda- 
tions of  our  societies,  or  to  explore  the  sources  of 
individual  power,  which  are  the  sum  of  national  great- 
ness. To  neglect  the  merits  of  our  fathers  is  a  dis- 
grace." Hence  no  one  is  called  upon  to  apologize  for 
cherishing  a  worthy  family  name.  I  should  rather 
say  it  is  inexcusable  not  to  foster  such  an  influence 
for  the  good  that  it  is  capable  of  at  home  and  abroad, 
now  and  forever.  Even  if  it  only  en,courages  others 
to  go  and  do  likewise,  this  of  itself  is  a  lesson  from 
real  life.  It  is  an  argument  which  every  sensible 
young  man  heeds,  because  it  interests  and  convinces 
him.  It  has  been  said  that  there  is  nothing  in  a 
name.  Yet,  withal.  Archbishop  Trench,  certainly 
a  high  authority,  says:  "One  word  will  often  be 
found  to  contain  more  history  than  the  narrative  of 
an  entire  campaign."  Sometimes  a  single  word  prop- 
erly studied  furnishes  a  text  in  morals  which  may  be 
expanded  into  a  better  sermon  than  those  ordinarily 
preached.  And  if  this  be  true,  how  potent  is  a  name 
about  which  cluster  the  associations  of  a  long,  active, 
and  valuable  life — a  name  which  is  the  index  to  char- 
acter. There  is  a  charm  in  the  very  labor  of  tracing 
it  to  its  source. 


; 


I 


!    •! !, 


WILLIAM   S.   LADD. 


The  estate  of  Bowyck  in  the  Hundred  of  Borings- 
borough  and  the  parish  of  Eleham  was  in  very  ancient 
times  the  residence  of  tne  Ladds.  It  is  definitely 
known  that  this  estate  was  in  possession  of  the  Ladds 
before  the  time  of  Henry  VI,  as  various  wills  mention- 
ing the  fact  executed  by  members  of  the  family  are 
still  to  be  found  in  the  prerogative  office  Canterbury. 

Thomas  Ladd  died  in  possession  of  Bowyck  Manor 
in  1515  ;  so  did  his  grandson,  Vincent,  in  1563.  It 
passed,  in  1601,  through  the  marriage  of  Sylvester 
Ladd,  daughter  and  co-heiress  of  Vincent  Ladd,  into 
the  Nethersole  family. 

In  1730  John  Ladd,  a  direct  descendant  of  the 
above  Vincent,  was  created  a  baronet  by  George  II. 
In  the  next  generation  the  baronetcy  became  extinct. 

These  facts  are  obtained  from  the  following  author- 
ities :  W.  H.  Ireland's  History  of  Kent,  1,  199  ;  Host- 
en's  Kent,  11,  815  ;  Berry's  Kent  Geologies,  342  ;  Berry's 
Sussex  Geologies,  248 ;  J.  and  J.  B.  Burke's  History  of 
Extinct  and  Dormant  Baronetcies  of  England,  Ireland, 
and  Scotland,  1844. 

The  America  Heraldica,  published  in  the  year  1889, 
records  the  coming  to  America  of  Daniel  Ladd  and 
John  Ladd,  the  former  arriving  in  New  England  in 
1623,  and  the  latter  in  New  Jersey,  with  other  mem- 
bers of  the  Society  of  Friends  in  1678.  It  is  safe  to 
assume,  from  documentary  evidence  already  referred 
to,  that  these  early  immigrants,  from  whom  many 
descendants  have  come,  were  from  one  and  the  same 
Kentish  family  originally.  The  early  court  records 
of  Gloucester  county  give  a  connected  history  of  the 
Ladd  family  in  England,  but  prior  to  the  dates 
referred  to,  little  is  known  definitelv. 

John  Ladd  was  a  practical  surveyor  and,  it  is  said, 
was  employed  by  William  Penn  in  laying  out  the 
city  of  Philadelphia,  the  tradition  being  that  when  he 
produced  his  bill  for  services  rendered  to  the  patroon, 
he  declined  to  receive  in  payment  a  square  of  land  in 


U 


i  . 
I 


fipD       DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

what  is  now  the  heart  of  the  city,  preferring  £35 
sterling  instead,  which  was  the  amount  of  his  bill. 

In  1688  John  Ladd  located  :;  large  tract  of  land  in 
Gloucester  county,  comprising  about  6,000  acres,  and 
on  it  built  a  dwelling,  known  in  the  family  as  Candor 
Hall.  For  two  or  three  generations  a  portion  of  this 
tract,  about  2,000  acres,  has  been  known  as  the 
Howell  estate,  coming  into  the  latter  family  by  the 
devise  of  John  Ladd,  junior,  to  John  Ladd  Howell,  a 
son  of  Katherine  Ladd,  who  married  John  Howell. 

At  the  time  of  his  death,  John  Ladd,  as  is  sh  -ywn 
hy  his  operations  in  land,  was  one  of  the  largest 
holders  of  real  estate  in  the  colony.  He  was  also  a 
man  of  good  education,  and  held  positions  of  responsi- 
bility. 

He  held  a  prominent  place  in  the  society  of  Friends ; 
and  although  he  adhered  to  plainness  of  dress  and 
simplicity  of  habit,  yet  about  his  home  could  be  seen 
evidence  of  things  generally  attendant  upon  wealth 
and  liberality.  His  slaves,  his  plentiful  board  and 
his  well-appointed  household  showed  that  the  creature 
comforts  were  not  neglected. 

The  grandson  of  his  daughter  Katherine,  Joshua 
Ladd  Howell,  finally  inherited  the  Candor  Hall  prop- 
erty, afterwards  named  by  him  Fancy  Hall,  by  which 
title  it  has  been  known  ever  since,  and  a  large  part  of 
the  tract  still  remains  in  the  Howell  family. 

The  history  of  Daniel  Ladd  has  not  been  written, 
except  in  the  lives  of  his  later  descendants,  whose 
traits,  derived  from  him,  would  indicate  that  he  was 
no  less  substantial  in  character  than  his  relative  John 
Ladd. 

We  have  in  William  Sargent  Ladd  a  conspicuous 
reproduction  of  those  qualifications  which  have  char- 
acterized the  founders  of  his  name — qualifications  that 
have  enabled  him  to  give  fresh  vigor  to  it  in  a  new 
country. 

When  Mr  Ladd  arrived  in  Oregon  the  country  was 
young  and  strong;   so  was  the  man.     Society  was 


WILLIAM  S.   LADD. 


591 


immature  and  impressionable,  and  the  young  man's 
character  was  early  stamped  into  it,  as  the  image  and 
superscription  upon  true  metal,  which  should  deter- 
mine its  value.  He  exercised  at  once  a  powerful, 
though  unconscious,  force  for  good.  He  was  one  of 
the  four  of  1851.  reaching  Portland  on  the  8th  of 
April. 

He  was  then  in  the  twenty -fifth  year  of  his  age, 
having  been  born  in  Holland,  in  the  northern  part  of 
Vermont,  on  the  10th  of  October,  1826.  Full  aix 
feet  in  height,  slim,  sinewy,  weight  say  125  pounds, 
with  large  head  well  set  on  broad  shoulders,  high 
forehead  of  intellectual  cast,  dark  brown  hair,  large 
and  well-lighted  gray  eyes  set  back  under  prominent 
arched  eyebrows,  fine  Grecian  nose,  and  well-outlined 
mouth  and  chin,  he  dropped  himself  upon  the  bank 
of  the  Willamette  like  another  Siegfried,  whose  pres- 
ence should  go  far  to  dispel  the  gloom  of  moral  mists 
incident  to  the  approaching  transformation. 

Back  in  his  old  home,  during  the  period  of  adoles- 
cence, he  had  been  preparing  himself  for  the  battle 
of  life,  this  very  preparation  forbidding  him  to  remain 
at  ease   away  from  the   conflict.      His   father  was 
Nathaniel  Gould  Ladd,  a  man  whose  life  and  char- 
acter are   worthy   of  notice.     Like  all  other  New 
England  boys  of  his  generation,  he  was  brought  up 
in  an  atmosphere  of  labor  and  economy,  a  waste  of 
substance  and  time  being  looked  upon  as  disgraceful 
and  ruinous.     Labor  was  respectable  and  idleness  a 
sin ;  frugality  was  part  of  the  moral  law,  the  fear  of 
God  governing  all.     It  was  a  severe  school,  but  it 
turned  out  men  equal  in  body  and  mind  to  endure 
any  hardship  and  overcome  any  obstacle ;  men  who 
have  been  conservators  of  the  country  in  every  emer- 
gency, and  the  foremost  agents  in  enterprise,  inven- 
tion  and    progress.      Among   them   there   was   no 
distinction,  except  that  which  was  based  upon  merit; 
no  r(  yal  road  to  preferment.    The  soil  was  unfriendly, 
the  climate   inhospitable;  a  necessitous  region,   in 


' 


i    i 


692        DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 


!i->!l 


in 


which  the  struggle  of  living  besan  almost  at  the 
cradle.  It  has  sometimes  seemed  to  me  that  provi- 
dence ordained  this  condition  of  things  just  so,  in 
order  that  men  of  iron  frame,  indomitable  spirit  and 
aevere  morality  might  grow  up  in  New  England  as  a 
nursery  from  which  to  go  out  in  their  strength  to 
settle  and  build  up  civilization  in  the  wildernesses 
and  waste  places  of  the  United  States. 

In  this  school  of  toilers  Nathaniel  Ladd,  who  was 
io  offer  a  son  of  typical  chftracter  for  this  work,  was 
reared.  He  learned  the  lessons  of  his  times  well, 
both  in  manual  labor  and  in  the  rudiments  taught  in 
the  district  school.  He  was  ambitious  beyond  the 
rest  of  his  companions,  and  not  being  contented  to 
live  the  life  of  a  farmer,  he  helped  himself  to  higher 
education.  By  working  at  whatever  his  hands  found 
to  do  in  the  spring  and  summer,  he  saved  enough 
money  to  pay  for  attendance  upon  medical  lectures 
in  the  winter,  until  he  was  entitled  to  and  obtained 
his  diploma  as  physician  and  surgeon  in  the  medical 
department  of  Dartmouth  college.  He  was  very 
proud  of  the  profession  and  grew  strong  in  it,  acquir- 
ing a  large  practice.  He  was  a  man  of  angles, 
possessing  very  little  of  what  is  styled  policy.  He 
was  outspoken  and  blunt,  and  would  never  cater  to 
the  people  to  promote  his  practice.  It  was  not  in 
his  nature  to  humor  his  patients,  especially  if  they 
thought  they  were  sick  and  he  knew  they  were  not. 
He  was  radical  in  his  thinking,  and  had  decided 
convictions  on  all  matters  tliat  engaged  his  attention  ; 
in  the  niaintenance  of  a  principle  he  was  independent 
and  fearless,  never  stopping  to  count  the  cost  of  his 
words  or  his  acts.  Human  slavery  was  revolting  to 
his  sense  of  manhood  and  justice,  and  he  was  an 
abolitionist  at  a  time  when  it  was  anything  but 
popular  or  politic  to  advocate  such  a  sentiment. 
Convinced  that  it  was  a  sin  and  a  crime  for  one 
human  being  to  hold  another  in  bondage,  he  never 
hesitated,  at  any  time  or  place,  to  stand  up  in  defense 


■■ 


WILUAM  S.  LADD. 


593 


of  this  humane  doctrine.  He  was  severe  in  his  ideas 
of  right  and  wrong,  and  would  never  resort  to  or 
tolerate  in  others  anything  indirect  or  frivolous;  a 
hard  man  in  some  respects,  but  conscientiously  so. 
In  whatever  appeared  to  him  to  be  right  he  was 
inflexible.  In  the  government  of  his  children,  of  whom 
he  had  ten,  he  applied  the  same  discipline  as  that 
which  he  himself  had  passed  through.  "A  healthy 
mind  in  a  healthy  body"  was  his  ambition  for  them, 
and  he  did  not  conceive  that  it  could  be  secured  in 
any  other  way  but  that  by  which  he  had  attained  it. 
His  dictum  was  that  labor  and  study  should  go  for- 
ward together  hand  in  hand.  As  exemplified  in  him- 
self, it  had  much  to  commend  it.  He  was  a  small 
man  in  stature,  but  perfect  in  health,  strong  and  active. 
He  was  still  an  athlete  when  over  sixty  years  of  age. 
He  was  very  desirous  that  his  son  William  should 
study  medicine,  but  there  were  reasons  why  this  was 
not  to  be — primarily,  perhaps,  on  account  of  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  was  proposed  he  should  pursue  his 
studies.  The  truth  is  that  Doctor  Ladd,  without 
realizing  it,  was  rigorous  in  the  matter.  He  had 
ample  means  to  educate  his  son  in  such  a  manner  as 
would  have  made  his  proposed  medical  studies  agree- 
able, but  he  saw  no  other  mould  for  his  son  than  the 
one  in  which  he  had  been  formed  for  the  profession. 
It  was  not,  I  apprehend,  that  he  was  disposed  to  be 
ungenerous,  so  far  as  the  expenditure  of  money  was 
concerned,  but  that  he  thought  it  best  for  the  boy  to 
travel  over  the  same  rocky  road  that  he  had  traveled 
to  become  a  practitioner,  and  that  any  milder  process 
would  be  to  cheapen  it  in  his  son's  appreciation  and 
really  to  render  it  less  valuable  than  it  ought  to  be. 

His  wife,  whose  maiden  name  was  Abigail  Kelley 
Mead,  was  a  native  of  New  Hampshire,  born  August 
7,  1806,  his  own  birthday  being  July  13,  1798.  He 
died  at  an  advanced  age,  but  at  the  close  of  1889  his 
widow  was  still  living,  at  Maiden,  Massachusetts,  and, 
considering  her  great  age,  was  well  preserved.     She 


C.  B.— I.    38 


'*  -Is. 


m 


Km 


n 

■   • 

i: 

1 

DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 


was  of  a  modest,  retiring  disposition,  and  an  exem- 
plary member  of  the  methodist  church,  to  which  her 
husband  also  belonged.  She  was  quiet  and  undemon- 
strative, devoting  her  whole  life  to  her  family,  and 
doing  otherwise  whatever  good  it  was  in  her  power 
to  do.  Her  only  apparent  temporal  ambition  was 
that  her  children  should  grow  up  to  be  moral,  relig- 
ious and  useful  members  of  society.  She  was  of  very 
devout  temperament,  and  it  would  have  gratified  her 
if  her  sons  had  become  active  ministers  of  the  gospel 
in  the  methodist  church.  Her  influence  over  her 
children  was  that  of  sympathy  and  affection,  and  very 
marked  by  reason  of  the  example  she  set  them.  In 
personal  appearance  and  way  of  living  she  did  not 
differ  greatly  from  many  other  good  women  of  New 
England.  Her  family  were  among  the  very  early  set- 
tlers of  that  section  of  the  country,  whose  character- 
istics for  morality,  thrift  and  intelligence  have  been 
oulogized  by  almost  every  American  writer  of  note.  Of 
her  it  need  only  be  said  that  in  her  sphere  she  did  her 
whole  duty.  Had  her  responsibilities  been  greater 
and  her  opportunities  proportionate  to  them,  it  is  not 
unlikely  that  she  would  have  developed  capabilities 
that  were  latent  and  not  perceived.  The  only  crite- 
rion, therefore,  by  which  she  could  be  judged  was  her 
surroundings.  Her  larger  life  may  more  pi-operly  be 
looked  for  in  that  of  her  children,  whose  field  of  labor 
has  afforded  them  an  opportunity  for  the  development 
of  that  which  is  good  in  them  and  inherited  from  her. 
The  virtues  transmitted  to  them  from  her  and  con- 
firmed in  them  by  her  example  during  life  have  prob- 
ably been  more  instrumental  than  any  other  moral 
agency  in  forming  their  character  and  influencing  their 
lives.  Her  impression  upon  her  son  William  is  unmis- 
takable; for  while  he  appears  to  be  the  counterpart  of 
his  father  in  decision  of  character,  aggressiveness  and 
will  power,  underlying  these  his  mother's  affectionate 
temper,  religious  fervor  and  sympathy  with  her 
fellow-beings  are  stamped  upon  him.     The  characters 


WILLIAM  S.   LADD. 


595 


of  parents  are  thus  constantly  repeated  in  their  chil- 
dren, though  in  such  a  manner  as  sometimes  to  escape 
the  notice  of  the  superficial  observer.  Acts  of  affec- 
tion, discipline,  industry  and  self-control  which  they 
daily  exemplify  live  and  act  when  all  else  that  may 
have  been  learned  has  long  been  forgotten. 

When  William  was  about  four  years  of  age  his 
parents  first  moved  to  Meredith  village,  New  Hamp- 
shire, and  three  years  later  to  a  place  called  San  born- 
ton  Bridge,  in  the  same  state,  now  known  as  Tilton, 
a  village  comprising  two  manufactories,  two  or  three 
stores,  two  blacksmith  shops,  two  wheelwright  shops 
and  the  postoffice,  with  farms  all  around  it.  There 
the  bov  was  reared  and  taught  in  those  ways  of  body 
and  mmd  which  lead  to  success.  There  were  good 
educational  facilities  in  the  place,  which  had  a  free 
school  and  an  academy.  Afterward  a  seminary  was 
established  there.  William  went  to  school  during  the 
winter,  the  rest  of  the  year  making  himself  useful  in 
whatever  way  he  could.  This  was  the  idea  prevail- 
ing at  that  time  as  to  how  a  boy  should  get  an  edu- 
cation. He  could  fairly  compass  what  was  to  be 
taught  in  the  schools  of  his  neighborhood  by  studying 
at  that  season  of  the  year  when  boys  could  be  best 
spared  from  the  farm — that  is,  in  the  winter;  in 
other  words,  it  was  considered  a  matter  of  course  that 
he  should  earn  his  tuition. 

Doctor  Ladd  could  readily  have  kept  his  son  at 
school  continuously  during  the  year,  but  to  do  so  was 
in  conflict  with  the  spirit  of  the  times  and  contrary 
to  his  own  views  of  utility,  besides  his  ideas  of  thrift 
and  saving  were  extreme,  and  if  it  had  been  suggested 
to  him  that  his  son  should  go  to  school  uninterrupt- 
edly he  would  not  have  been  able  to  see  anything  in 
it  less  than  a  violation  of  the  laws  of  economy — such 
economy  as  makes  men  independent  and  self-reliant, 
but  has  a  tendency  also  to  make  them  hard  and 
unsympathetic. 

William  was  an  apt  scholar  and  fairly  diligent,  but 


\ 


!  i 


I 


'^<, 


11 

'-  ■:      i 
■    •  j 

1 

■  ■        1 

1 

i.     I      ^ 

!,;.,  i    .    1 

!        ■ 

•  ■■■  ]       \ 

iJ 

lU     ^ 

S98        DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

he  was  never  cut  out  for  a  bookworm  or  a  "dig,"  as  the 
word  is  in  college  parlance  nowadays;  still,  being  a  boy 
of  good  parts,  he  got  his  lessons  with  little  difficulty, 
and  always  stood  among  the  first  in  his  class.  Ideas 
he  grasped  readily,  and  when  he  came  to  demonstrat- 
ing he  knew  what  he  was  talking  about.  Some  of 
his  classmates  depended  upon  him  largely.  A  story  is 
told  of  a  heedless  fellow  who  stood  near  him  in  the 
class  one  day,  and  when  it  came  his  turn  to  read  he 
encountered  a  hard  word  that  he  could  not  pronounce. 
In  a  whisper  he  asked  Ladd  what  it  was.  "Skip 
it,"  was  the  reply,  also  in  a  whisper.  Being  confused, 
and  also  convinced  that  anything  Bill  told  him  was 
right,  he  read  the  word  as  he  got  it  from  the  latter's 
lips  -"Skip  it." 

Young  Ladd  was  full  of  animal  spirit,  and  after 
having  faithfully  done  the  tasks  set  for  him,  he 
delighted  to  take  part  with  the  other  boys  in  the 
sports  that  were  in  vogue  at  that  time,  and  he  played 
as  he  worked,  with  all  his  might.  He  was  among 
the  first  to  start  and  among  the  last  to  stop.  He 
was  very  popular  with  his  companions,  and  they 
would  come  around  frequently  and  help  him  out  with 
his  "  stint " — a  word  which  we  seldom  hear  now,  but 
which  was  full  of  meaning  then  and  there — in  order 
that  he  might  go  with  them  to  the  ballground.  It 
has  been  stated  that  his  father  wanted  him  to  be  a 
doctor,  but  he  did  not  take  kindly  to  medicine.  His 
sympathetic  nature  made  him  dread  contact  with 
distress  and  pain  such  as  the  practitioner  encounters; 
this,  however,  was  his  boyish  idea  of  it;  besides,  the 
manner  in  which  it  was  proposed  that  he  should  be 
educated  for  the  profession  did  not  offer  him  a  pleas- 
ant prospect.  His  real  ambition  was  to  be  a  sailor 
and  work  himself  up  to  the  command  of  a  ship;  but 
back  of  this  he  was  full  of  energy,  active  and  eager  to 
go  out  into  the  world  and  do  something  on  his  own 
account.  These  are  the  reasons  why  he  did  not  follow 
in  the  professional  footsteps  of  his  father  and  become, 


\ 


WILLIAM  S.   LADD. 


607 


perhaps,  a  fixture  in  the  neighborhood  or  state,  in 
which  it  is  hardly  credible  that  he  could  have  grown 
to  such  large  usefulness  as  characterizes  his  life  in  the 
northwest,  even  though  fortune  had  favored  him  and 
he  had  won  a  most  commanding  position  in  his  native 
state.  William  would  have  gone  to  college,  because 
other  boys  whose  parents  were  no  better  off  than  his 
were  sent  there,  but  it  was  his  father's  theory  that 
Latin  could  be  learned  at  home  as  well  as  at  college, 
so  William  was  given  this  task  to  perfcim  under  the 
paternal  roof  coupled  with  such  exactions  that  he 
finally  lost  all  relish  whatever  for  this  classic. 

It  was  not  until  he  was  fifteen  years  of  age  that 
William  was  really  made  to  apply  himself  in  earnest 
to  labor;  and  then,  the  father  having  no  farm  of  his 
own,  let  the  boy  try  his  hand  at  a  neighbor's,  who 
worked  him  very  hard,  calling  him  at  half-past  three 
in  the  morning,  and  keeping  him  going  until  eight  or 
nine  o'clock  before  the  milking  would  be  done.  As 
the  man  for  whom  he  worked  paid  him  little  or  noth- 
ing, the  father  thought  the  boy's  labor  might  as  well 
be  bestowed  on  land  of  his  own  as  on  that  of  another. 
So  he  bought  fifteen  acres  of  land  on  which  were 
possibilities  for  labor  equal  to  any  other  fifteen  acres 
in  New  Hampshire.  It  was  the  roughest,  rockiest 
and  stumpiest  spot  that  could  be  found  in  all  that 
region,  and  William  was  set  to  work  to  clear  it  up. 
He  had  some  lielp,  but  what  was  the  help  of  one  or 
two  men  when  the  rocks  grew  faster  and  faster  the 
more  the  land  was  tilled.  Nevertheless,  those  fifteen 
acres  were  made,  in  time,  to  yield  wheat,  oats,  corn, 
hay  and  potatoes  more  than  many  another  fifty  acres 
thereabout. 

Reaching  the  age  of  nineteen  an  unexpected  honor 
was  thrust  upon  the  youth.  Few  New  England 
boys  or  girls  of  moderate  fortune  have  escaped  the 
eTupemnentum  cruets  of  school-teaching  at  some  period 
of  their  lives.  One  winter's  day,  on  going  to  school 
as  usual,    the   professor   in   charge  called   him   and 


'II 


I   ' 


!     I 


li 


506       DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

requested  him  to  step  into  the  vestibule  for  a  moment, 
where  he  introduced  him  to  two  strangers.  "  These 
gentlemen,"  said  the  professor,  "  are  from  Loudon, 
and  they  want  a  school-teacher  for  their  district." 

"  I  do  not  see  how  I  can  help  them,"  said  Ladd. 

"The  place  is  offered  to  you," continued  the  professor. 

"But  I  have  no  desire  to  teach  school,"  Ladd 
replied,  "  besides  I  am  not  competent." 

"  I  will  vouch  for  your  ability,"  urged  the  professor. 

"  What  school  is  it  ?  "exclaimed  Ladd,  now  becoming 
interested.  On  being  told,  he  replied,  "Oh,  yes  ;  nice 
place ;  three  teachers  already  pitched  out  this  winter." 
It  fact  the  school  was  notorious  as  the  roughest  in  all 
that  region,  with  quite  a  fighting  record.  The  young 
man  accepted  the  place,  however,  undaunted  by  the 
difficulties  he  knew  he  had  to  encounter.  He  had  a 
curiosity  to  see  how  he  would  behave  when  cornered 
by  boys  and  girls  bigger  and  stronger  than  himself 
Besides  he  wanted  to  make  a  record  for  the  honor  of 
the  district  he  represented. 

Meanwhile  tidings  of  the  new  turn  in  affairs  reached 
the  seat  of  learning,  and  the  pugilistic  pupils  awaited 
the  coming  of  the  master.  Forty-four  boys  and  girls 
were  present  as  the  new  pedagogue  entered  the  school- 
room. Two  boys,  past  twenty,  and  one  girl,  their 
sister,  were  generally  leaders  of  the  rebellion.  The 
teacher  sought  by  hard  work  anu  tact  to  keep  the 
attention  of  the  school  fixed  on  interesting  and 
improving  studies,  and  as  a  rule  he  succeeded  very 
well.  He  thus  diverted  their  minds  for  awhile  and 
staved  off  the  evil  day.  But  storms  will  brew  in  the 
moral  as  well  as  in  the  material  universe,  and  long 
before  it  broke  upon  him  the  teacher  felt  it  coming. 
First  it  became  necessary  to  bring  forward  the  girl 
for  misbehavior  and  stand  her  on  the  floor  before  the 
school.  On  the  morning  following  the  two  big  boys 
came  shuffling  in  and  took  their  places  by  the  stove. 
They  were  great  swaggering  fellows,  either  of  whom 


WILUAM  S.  LADD. 


599 


could  take  up  the  school-master  with  ease  and  pitch 
him  out  at  the  window. 

"  The  school  will  come  to  order,"  said  the  master. 
All  went  to  their  places  but  the  elder  of  the  two  loaf- 
erish  brothers,  who  still  stood  by  the  stove.  "  Take 
your  seat,"  said  Ladd. 

"I  will  take  my  seat  when  I  get  ready,"  was  the 
reply.  It  was  now  or  never.  Pale  as  a  ghost, 
though  quick  as  a  flash,  Ladd  was  upon  him.  Before 
he  was  aware  of  it  the  fellow's  heels  were  tripped  up, 
and  his  face  was  churning  the  floor  at  9uch  a  vigorous 
and  rapid  rate  that  he  soon  roared  lu.  -  Hy  for  mercy. 
The  next  day  the  father  of  the  ringleaders  in  the 
rebellion  came  around.  He  did  i  -t  care  abouL  the 
thrashing  his  son  had  got,  but  it  nettlod  Lim  sorely 
taaL  his  daughter  had  been  made  to  stand  up,  and  he 
was  going  to  resent  it.  The  school-master  paid  no 
attention  to  him,  and  when  the  hour  arrived  for  open- 
ing school  he  rapped  on  the  window  for  the  boys  to 
come  in.  He  came  in  with  the  rest  of  them.  Said 
the  teacher  to  him,  "  Mr  Blank,  if  you  come  here  as 
a  visitor  just  come  up  and  take  a  seat  in  my  chair 
and  I  shall  be  glad  to  see  you.  If  you  come  as  a 
pupil,  however,  be  kind  enough  to  take  a  seat  with 
the  other  pupils  and  I  will  furnish  you  with  a  book 
and  slate." 

"  Well,"  said  he,  but  he  got  no  farther,  Ladd  con- 
tinuing :  "  One  of  three  things  you  must  do,  you 
must  be  either  visitor  or  pupil,  or  you  must  leave  the 
schoolhouse." 

The  man  glared  at  the  master  for  a  moment,  but 
the  latter's  determination  and  courage  overawed  him. 
He  went  away  quietly,  and  ever  afterwards  was  as 
good  a  friend  as  the  teacher  had  in  that  neighbor- 
hood Thus  was  disciplin.^  established,  and  the  school 
became  one  of  the  most  orderly  and  efficient  in 
the  county.  This  wholesome  result  was  due,  from 
beginning  to  end,  much  to  Ladd's  ability  to  keep  his 
pupils'  minds  at  work  on  practical  problems.     His 


■■■;  J 


i  ■  i 


lit 


l?':l 


600        DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

skill  in  thus  interesting  his  scholars,  [and  his  con- 
quering will,  made  him  their  master  and  friend. 

Railroading  was  the  next  move.  The  Boston, 
Concord,  and  Montreal  railway  was  approaching  the 
town,  and  there  were  a  number  of  young  men  who 
applied  for  a  lucrative  place,  of  high  position,  with 
little  to  do.  Ladd  was  as  ambitious  as  any  of  them, 
but  he  did  not  regard  theirs  as  the  right  way  to 
secure  lasting  preferment.  So  when  the  superin- 
tendent came  along  one  day,  Ladd  plucked  up  cour- 
age and  accosted  him.  "  Mr  Elkins,"  said  he,  "  as 
trains  will  soon  be  running,  I  thought  I  would  ask  if 
you  will  not  want  some  one  to  work  about  the  freight 
depot." 

"  Work  ? "  replied  the  superintendent,  "you  want 
to  work  ? " 

"Yes,  if  you  will  give  me  the  opportunity,"  was 
the  reply. 

"And  you  don't  want  an  office;  you  dont  want  a 
pleasant  and  respectable  position ;  you  don't  want  to 
be  superintendent  or  president  ? " 

"  I  would  rather  first  make  myself  competent 
before  attempting  to  fill  a  responsible  position,"  replied 
Ladd. 

"  Here,  Dodge,"  called  out  the  superintendent  to 
his  deputy,  "give  this  young  man  a  place  in  the 
freight-house." 

His  experience  in  railroading  was  mainly  that  of 
freight  mnd  passenger  agent,  for  which  position  he 
soon  qualified  himself  by  strict  application  to  business. 
He  did  his  work  thoroughly  and  looked  after  the 
interests  of  his  employers  with  the  same  care  that 
every  zealous  man  devotes  to  his  own  affairs.  Active, 
intelligent,  and  conscientious  in  the  discharge  of  his 
duty,  he  won  the  respect  and  favor  of  his  employer. 
In  this,  his  first  association  with  men  of  the  world,  he 
earned  the  confidence  and  appreciation,  and  gave 
evidence  of  his  ability  to  make  his  own  way,  at  the 
same  time,  establishing  a  reputation  for  integrity  in 


WILLIAM  S.   LADD. 


601 


word  and  deed  which  is  the  very  cornerstone  of  all 
business  transactions.  In  the  humblest,  as  well  as 
the  most  exalted  walks  of  life,  there  will  always  be 
found  scope  for  the  exercise  of  this  uprightness  of 
character.  Such  has  been  his  experience,  his  later 
years  confirming  his  youth  ;  for  it  may  be  truly  said 
of  him  as  Hugh  Miller  said  of  the  mason  with  whom 
he  served  his  apprenticeship :  "  He  put  his  conscience 
into  every  stone  he  laid." 

The  work  at  Sanbornton  Bridge  did  not  fill  out  his 
time  after  he  had  got  it  well  in  hand  and  he  was  sent 
to  the  head  of  the  line  and  put  in  full  charge  of  the 
freight  department.  Always  anxious  to  learn  and 
extend  the  scope  of  his  usefulness,  he  was  not  there 
more  than  a  month  or  two  before  the  superintendent 
found  that  there  was  no  other  man  in  his  employ 
who  could  make  up  a  train  as  quickly  as  young  Ladd. 
Without  knowing  why,  he  was  unexpectedly  ordered 
back  to  Sanbornton  Bridge  station,  where  he  found 
his  duties  almost  a  sinecure.  It  was  only  years  after- 
ward that  he  learned  that  Dodge  thought  that  he 
was  getting  on  too  rapidly,  and  not  wanting  him  in 
his  own  way,  had  caused  him  to  be  put  back  out  of 
the  line  of  preferment.  This  had  never  occurred  to 
Ladd  ;  all  that  occupied  his  mind  was  how  to  do  his 
work  to  the  best  advantage  and  save  time.  Being 
ignorant  of  the  fact  that  he  was  in  anybody's  way, 
and  being  disturbed  only  by  the  lack  of  employment 
at  Sanbornton  Bridge,  he  told  Mr  Elkins  he  thought 
it  would  be  better  for  him  to  go  elsewhere  if  he  could 
not  get  more  to  do  as  he  did  not  feel  easy  in  his  posi- 
tion. Soon  afterward  the  superintendent  of  the  Bos- 
ton and  Maine  railroad  wanted  some  twenty  or  thirty 
young  men  to  go  west,  selecting  Ladd  as  the  only 
one  from  his  road,  but  then  he  was  on  the  verge  of 
coming  to  Oregon.  In  all  probability,  however,  he  had 
gone  far  enough  in  railroading,  in  which  he  acquired 
valuable  information  and  developed  a  tact  in  hand- 
ling men  that  have  stood  him  to  great  advantage 


I 


002       DOMINATING   INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 


t 


ever  since.  His  service  with  the  railroad  company 
was  not  marked  by  any  incidents  that  need  be  specially 
recorded  unless,  perhaps,  a  conversation  which  the 
young  agent  enjoyed  with  Daniel  Webster  and  his 
wife,  who  stopped  at  his  station  on  their  way  from 
Franklin  to  White  mountain.  He  found  the  dis- 
tinguished orator  to  be  a  man  of  very  plain,  simple 
manners  and  easy  to  talk  with,  or  rather  to  listen  to. 
This  meeting  was  an  event  in  the  young  man's  life, 
but  it  is  not  an  occasion  that  would  be  noticeable  at 
the  present  time,  for  that  portion  of  the  United 
States  in  which  he  is  prominent  is  often  visited  by 
the  great  men  of  the  nation,  and  Mr  Ladd  is  always 
counted  among  those  whose  duty  it  is  to  receive  and 
entertain  them.  This  shows  in  the  most  practical, 
and  at  the  same  time  in  a  very  happy,  way,  that  our 
country  is  one  in  which  a  man  who  has  the  capacitv 
and  character  to  build  himself  up,  need  not  be  dis- 
couraged even  if  he  has  to  begin  at  the  foot  of  the 
ladder,  for,  as  Mr  Webster  himself  said:  "  There  is 
always  room  at  the  top." 

'Forty-eight  and  'forty-nine  were  now  at  hand,  and 
Ladd  rembered  that  he  had  read  in  his  fllTwy's  Geo- 
graphy about  cattle-raising  in  California,  and  the  hides 
and  tallow  there,  the  trading  vessels  and  the  lazy 
Mexicans.  Besides  he  had  read  the  eloquent  letters 
of  Thurston  descriptive  of  the  Oregon  country. 
Olney  was  well  versed  in  California  affairs,  while 
Oregon  cut  but  a  small  figure  on  his  map.  For  all 
that,  young  Ladd  cared  little  for  California,  but  lie 
thought  much  of  Oregon.  "  Gold,"  he  argued,  "  that 
can  be  picked  up  from  the  ground,  cannot  continue  to 
be  of  much  value,  while  good  farming  land  is  a  sure 
basis  of  progress  and  prosperity." 

And  the  discovery  of  gold  completely  ruined  that 
country  for  him,  while  the  garden  fields  of  Oregon, 
with  their  products,  would  drain  the  southern  placers 
of  their  gold.  There  was  a  young  man,  named  Charles 
Elliott  Tilton,  who  had  been  a  schoolmate  of  Ladd's. 


I 


WILUAM  S.   LADD. 


603 


Tilton  had  been  permitted  to  make  a  voyage  to  Santo 
Domingo  and  South  America,  up  the  Orinoco  river, 
after  which  he  went  to  California.  This  was  prior 
to  Ladd's  engagement -on  the  railroad.  A  Mr  Carr, 
who  was  a  general  storekeeper  at  Sanbornton  Bridge, 
went  to  San  Francisco,  and  trom  there  took  a  stock 
of  goods,  amounting  to  about  $3,500,  to  Portland, 
where  he  sold  it  at  a  good  profit,  returning  home 
with  a  fortune  of  $10,000,  January  1851.  That  was 
a  large  amount  of  money  in  the  interior  of  New 
Hampshire  in  those  days,  and  Carr  became  a  con- 
spicuous personage.  Ladd  held  many  conferences 
with  Carr  respecting  the  Pacific  coast,  where  labor 
was  high  and  fortune  quickly  made.  He  also  corre- 
sponded with  Tilton,  who  was  in  San  Francisco  sell- 
ing goods  sent  to  him  by  his  brother  around  Cape 
Horn. 

"Carr,"  said  Ladd  one  day,  "  I  can  do  better  than 
work  here  at  thirty  dollars  a  month,  when  they  are 
paying  six  dollars  a  cord  for  chopping  wood  over 
there,  and  I  can  cut  two  cords  a  day. '  So  he  con- 
cluded to  go  to  Oregon,  and  gave  notice  to  the 
superintendent  that  he  should  terminate  his  railroad 
engagement  two  months  hence,  and  engaged  passage 
by  the  steamer  leaving  New  York  the  27th  of  Feb- 
ruary 1851.  The  superintendent  would  not  listen, 
at  first,  to  his  quitting  the  service  at  which  he  was 
doing  so  well,  but  he  was  finally  forced  to  reconcile 
himself  to  it. 

Like  most  young  men  first  coming  to  the  country, 
Ladd  had  his  ideas  of  a  fortune.  Twenty  thousand 
dollars  he  thouj^ht  would  satisfy  him,  on  starting  out ; 
later  he  would  have  taken  ten  thousand  for  his 
chances.  At  San  Francisco  he  found  Tilton  selling 
his  consignment  to  jobbers.  **  Charles,"  said  he, 
"why  sell  to  jobbers ;  why  not  you  and  I  go  into 
business  and  sell  these  rjoods  ourselves? "  But  Til- 
ton was  afraid,  and  Ladd  went  on  to  Oregon.  Had 
he  entered  into  business  with  Tilton  at  that  time, 


I 


I 


' 


604        DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 


«| 


\l- 


and  remained  in  San  Francisco,  he  would  have 
escaped  fire  and  failure,  such  as  attended  many 
merchants  of  that  day,  only  by  a  miracle. 

The  manner  in  which  many  allow  themselves  to 
be  sacrificed  to  a  craving  for  immediate  riches, 
reminds  one  of  the  cupidity  of  the  monkey — that 
caricature  of  our  species.  It  is  related  that :  "In 
Algiers  the  Kabyle  peasant  attaches  a  gourd  well 
fixed  to  a  tree,  and  places  within  it  some  rice.  The 
gourd  has  an  opening  merely  sufficient  to  admit  the 
monkey's  paw.  The  creature  comes  to  the  tree  by 
night,  inserts  his  paw,  and  grasps  his  booty.  He 
tries  to  draw  it  back,  but  it  is  clenched,  and  he  has 
not  the  wisdom  to  unclench  it.  So  there  he  stands 
until  morning,  when  he  is  caught,  looking  as  foolish 
as  may  be,  though  with  the  prize  in  his  grasp.  The 
moral  of  this  little  story  is  capable  of  a  very  exten- 
sive application  in  life," 

At  the  time  of  Mr  Ladd*s  arrival  in  Oregon, 
importan*-  political  issues  were  before  the  people  and 
the  legislature;  towns  were  laid  out,  newspapers  were 
established,  and  new  counties  created.  But  the  para- 
mount aim  of  the  young  man  from  New  Hampshire, 
for  the  moment,  was  how  to  get  a  start,  which  being 
obtained,  the  future  would  be  assured. 

If  disappointment  had  attended  him  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, things  looked  darker  still  at  Portland.  That 
$20,000  seemed  very  far  away  during  the  first  months 
of  his  sojourn,  while  living  from  hand  to  mouth  try- 
ing to  get  a  start  in  a  new  and  strange  country.  He 
had  brought  a  few  articles  with  him,  and  kept  a  store 
until  he  had  sold  his  things  out.  One  day  the  super- 
visor came  around  and  assessed  him  for  road  tax. 
**  How  much  is  it,"  he  asked.  "  Six  dollars,"  was  the 
reply — that  is,  two  day's  work  at  three  dollars  per 
day.  Ladd's  finances  were  then  low,  and  this  sum 
would  make  serious  inroads.  Pointing  to  two  stumps 
standing  in  front  of  his  store,  opposite  the  ground 
now  occupied  by  the  Esmond  hotel,  he  asked,  "What 


i 


WILLIAM  S.   LADD. 


605 


to 


will  you  allow  me  for  digging  them  up?"  "  I  will 
give  you  your  tax  receipt,"  was  the  reply.  Mr  Ladd 
spent  two  or  three  nights  and  mornings  cleaning  the 
dirt  from  the  roots,  and  then  burnt  them  out.  It 
was  the  easiest  $6  he  had  ever  earned. 

After  a  trip  through  the  country  for  the  purpose  of 
buying  chickens,  eggs,  and  other  farm  products,  he 
returned  to  find  that  a  vessel  had  arrived  with  goods 
on  board  belonging  to  Mr  Gookin,  to  whom  he  pre- 
sented himself,  asking  if  he  did  not  want  some  assist- 
ance in  landing  and  selling  his  goods.  "  Where  are 
you  from  ?"  Gookin  asked.  "  Sanbomton  Bridge, 
New  Hampshire,"  was  the  reply.  **  Did  you  know 
Samuel  Tilton?"  "He  lived  near  my  father's." 
"  Did  you  know  Doctor  Ladd  ?"  "  He  was  my 
father. '  No  further  introduction  was  necessary.  Mr 
Ladd  engaged  to  work  for  Gookin  for  three  months 
for  $250,  which  seemed  to  him,  being  new  in  the 
country,  very  handsome  wages,  though  the  fact  is 
Gookin  purchased  his  services  far  below  the  ruling 
rates.  Gookin  had  at  first  expected  to  sell  his  goods 
from  the  vessel's  deck,  and  during  that  time  Ladd 
had  cleaned  up  $1,000.  He  then  arranged  to  carry 
in  stock  some  goods  of  his  own,  to  sell  for  his  own 
account.  He  bought  tobacco,  powder,  shot,  and  bar 
lead  from  H.  W.  Corbett,  J.  Failing  &  Co.,  and 
Allen  &  Lewis,  while  Tilton  sent  him  goods  from 
San  Francisco,  so  that  he  soon  found  himself  worth 
$2,500. 

Mr  Ladd  was  now  on  the  high  road  to  prosperity, 
wealth,  and  honor.  The  struggle  had  been  made, 
the  battle  had  been  fought  and  won.  The  first  thou- 
sand dollars,  the  most  difficult  of  all  in  the  achieve- 
ment of  fortune,  had  been  made.  The  floor  of  the  new 
school  of  experience  in  Portland  had  been  churned  by 
the  face  of  the  big  boy  adversity,  and  the  schoolmaster 
was  again  triumphant.  We  have  seen  how  he  con- 
quered. But  take  a  still  closer  view  of  the  matter. 
Other  men  who  have  risen  to  prominence  in  com- 


t 


■i  ! 


9 

Ij    1 

^  f 

I     : 

1  ■  ^ 

f 

1  '  1 

?' 

c. 

I-  '4^.      V 

Hi 

ii 

1 1 

!i 

1' ' 

i-i 

li 

j: 

i 

J  ;,  .  i . 

606        DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

merce  in  his  neighborhood  had  something  to  begin 
with.  Now,  whether  this  were  much  or  Httle,  it  was 
a  great  help  to  them.  It  is  the  first  step  which  costs; 
and  the  severest  test  is  oftentimes  in  the  first  strug 
gle.  This  is  not  said  in  disparagement  of  any  of  those 
other  broad-gauged  and  good  men,  for  whom  no  one 
has  a  more  just  appreciation  than  Mr  Ladd  himself, 
but,  while  conceding  to  them  all  the  great  credit  that 
is  their  due,  it  would  not  be  quite  fair  to  him  or  his- 
torically just  to  pass  by  this  fact.  In  1852,  painted 
on  the  oilcloth  lining  that  came  out  of  a  case  of 
boots,  was  raised  the  sign.  W.  S.  Ladd  &  Co. 
Gookin  conducted  his  affairs  in  a  loose  kind  of  way, 
though  he  was  often  more  fortunate  than  more  pru- 
dent men.  He  oflTered  the  remnant  of  his  stock  to 
Ladd,  first  proposing  that  Ladd  should  buy  it,  and 
then  that  he  should  take  it  on  sale,  which  the  latter 
finally  did. 

Meanwhile  Mr  Ladd  had  taken  a  run  down  to  San 
Francisco,  in  July,  to  arrange  for  his  future  engage- 
ment in  a  mercantile  career  with  C.  E.  Tilton.  Goo- 
kin's  funds  had  accumulated  in  San  Francisco  up  to 
$60,000  in  coin.  This  he  desired  Ladd  to  bring  for 
him  to  Portland,  with  which  to  purchase  gold  dust  to 
take  to  New  York.  He  took  this  large  sum  of 
money  in  gold  into  his  stateroom,  on  his  return  to 
Portland,  to  save  paying  freight  on  it.  After  the 
money  had  been  successfully  conveyed  and  delivered 
to  its  owner  in  Portland,  Ladd  receiving  nothing  for 
his  trouble,  though  Gookin  had  saved  several  hun- 
dred dollars  by  it,  the  young  merchant  reflected  on 
the  risk  he  had  run  of  losing  the  money,  and  involv- 
ing himself  in  unpleasant  complications,  and  he 
resolved  never  to  place  himself  in  such  a  position 
again.  The  matter  occupied  his  thoughts  to  such  an 
extent  that  he  spoke  to  Gookin  about  it.  Said  he  : 
"  You  are  a  much  older  man  than  I  am;  but  I  want 
to  ofler  you  a  piece  of  advice.  This  money  I  have 
brought  up  here  all  safe.     Suppose  I  had  been  robbed 


WILLIAM  S.   LADD. 


607 


rin 


of  $10,000,  you  would  always  think  I  stole  it.  And 
suppose  I  had  taken  it  and  gone  off  to  China.  Don't 
ever  put  such  a  temptation  in  a  young  man's  way 
again." 

It  was  now  that  the  sound  principles  inculcated 
in  his  early  training  brought  fruit,  to  the  lasting 
benefit  of  the  man  and  the  state.  Mr  Ladd  was 
at  his  post  early,  retiring  early,  and  so  economizing 
his  strength.  He  was  not  afraid  of  work,  and 
was  at  his  place  by  four  o'clock  in  the  summer 
mornings  helping  his  customers  load  their  wagons, 
so  that  they  could  get  away  in  the  cool  of  the 
day.  He  never  frequented  saloons  or  went  out  on 
night  carousals.  He  always  attended  church  at 
least  once  on  Sunday,  and  he  manifested  a  healthy 
interest  in  public  affairs.  He  was  a  shrewd  trader, 
meeting  loss  with  the  same  equanimity  as  profit. 
Receiving  word  from  Tilton  that  turpentine  was  run- 
ning low  in  the  San  Francisco  market,  Ladd  made  a 
shipment  by  the  steamer  General  Warren,  which  was 
wrecked  on  the  bar  of  the  Columbia.  The  morning 
after  news  of  the  loss  had  reached  him,  and  almost 
before  other  merchants  were  at  their  places  of  busi- 
ness, Ladd  had  all  the  available  turpentine  in  Port- 
land purchased  and  in  his  store.  This  at  San 
Francisco  brought  ten  dollars  a  gallon,  the  profits 
more  than  covering  his  former  loss.  In  1852  Ladd 
and  Tilton  entered  into  partnership,  and  in  1853 
Mr  Ladd's  brother,  Wesley,  came  out. 

While  thus  plodding  along  the  path  to  fortune,  Mr 
Ladd's  heart  and  mind  were  not  so  taken  up  in  his 
work  that  he  ceased  to  loyally  remember  a  young 
lady  back  in  New  Hampshire  to  whom  his  faith  had 
been  plighted ;  in  truth,  it  was  no  small  part  of  his 
ambition  as  a  pioneer  to  so  acquit  himself  as  to  be 
worthy  of  her.  He  thought  of  her  much  and  ten- 
derly, and  his  most  cherished  ambition  was  to  make 
her  his  wife,  but  his  love  and  enthusiasm  did  not 
interfere  with  his  taking  a  sensible,  practical  view  of 


3        J 


I     ' 


ll 


» 


608        DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

the  situation.  Before  soliciting  his  betrothed  to  leave 
her  home  and  friends,  where  she  was  surrounded  by 
the  comforts  and  refinements  of  life,  to  come  out  to 
be  his  partner  in  a  new  and  crude  community,  he 
would  first  establish  himself  and  make  it  certain  that 
she  would  have  the  least  possible  to  regret  in  relin- 
quishing ties  and  associations  that  bound  her  strongly 
to  her  native  place.  But  when  he  felt  that  the  tide 
in  his  affairs  had  been  taken  at  the  flood,  and  that  he 
had  passed  through  his  period  of  personal  probation 
honestly  and  manfully,  so  that  he  could  offer  himself 
to  her  in  good  faith,  he  was  eager  to  secure  the  prize. 
He  had  not  known  the  lady  of  his  choice,  Caroline 
Ames  Elliott,  while  at  school,  except  as  a  member  of 
the  class  in  algebra.  He  had  observed  and  admired 
her,  but  had  never  enjoyed  the  pleasure  of  an  actual 
acquaintance.  The  rigid  rules  of  decorum  in  mixed 
schools  of  that  day  were  not  calculated  to  facilitate 
intercourse  among  the  girls  and  boys.  He  saw  her 
nevertheless  and  admired  her,  though  at  a  distance. 
After  their  school-days  were  over,  and  she  had 
become  a  teacher  and  he  had  gone  to  railroading,  the 
artificial  barrier  between  them  was  removed,  and  a 
friendship  grew  up  which  ripened  into  love.  When 
Mr  Ladd  left  Sanbornton  Bridge  they  had  betrothed 
themselves  to  each  other  and  corresponded  very  regu- 
larly from  that  day,  and  we  may  be  sure  that,  as  the 
mails  arrived  in  Portland  but  once  a  month,  "steamer 
day"  was  one  of  extraordinary  interest  to  Mr  Ladd. 
If  he  had  hitherto  acted  in  a  wise  and  judicious  man- 
ner with  regard  to  the  matter,  it  was  now  Miss 
Elliott's  opportunity  to  manifest  the  same  discretion. 
He  wrote  and  laid  before  her  very  plainly  the  embar- 
rassment and  loss  that  would  result  to  his  business  if 
he  should  go  east  and  lose,  say,  three  or  four  months 
in  order  to  be  married,  and  that  his  affairs  were  in 
such  a  condition  that  it  would  be  only  with  the 
utmost  difficulty  that  he  could  leave  at  all ;  and  he 
appealed  to  her  generosity  to  consent  to  make  the 


i^ 


VVILUAM  S.   LADD. 


609 


sacrifice  and  come  to  him.  The  propriety  of  taking 
this  step  was  discussed  for  several  weeks  by  the  fam- 
ily, but  Mrs  Elliott  recognized  the  philosophy  of  Mr 
LAdd's  request,  and  gave  her  consent.  Mr  Ladd's 
brother,  Wesley,  had  engaged  himself  to  proceed  to 
New  Hampshire  and  escort  Miss  Elliott  to  San  Fran- 
cisco. The  voyage  was  quite  a  trial  for  the  young 
lady,  but  she  was  supported  by  the  additional  com- 
panionship of  Mrs  S.  G.  Reed  of  Portland.  Miss 
Elliott  sailed  from  New  York  September  28,  1854, 
and  on  reaching  San  Francisco  she  found  her  future 
husband  waiting  to  greet  her,  where  they  were  mar- 
ried, October  17th  of  the  same  year,  in  the  presence 
of  a  pleasant  party,  consisting  of  her  cousin,  Mr 
Charles  E.  Tilton,  and  his  wife,  John  Wesley  Ladd 
and  a  few  other  Portland  friends  who  happened  to  be 
in  San  Franciso  at  the  time.  On  the  6th  of  November 
following  Mr  and  Mrs  Ladd  arrived  in  Portland  An 
incident  occurred  in  connection  with  the  marriage 
which  is  very  suggestive  of  the  times.  It  so  hap- 
pened that  just  before  the  steamer  on  which  Mr  Ladd 
was  to  take  passage  for  San  Francisco  sailed  he  was 
subpoenaed  to  serve  on  a  jury. 

"  But  I  am  going  to  San  Francisco  on  the  steamer," 
protested  Ladd. 

"Can't  help  it,"  replied  Judge  Olney;  "  it  is  just 
such  men  as  you  are  that  I  want  for  jurors." 

"I  have  business — I  must  go  to  San  Francisco  on 
the  steamer." 

"  If  you  do  I  will  fine  you  to  the  full  extent  of  the 
law.  I  am  going  to  put  a  stop  to  this  evasion  of  jury 
duty  by  men  like  you ;  you  are  needed  for  this  work." 

"See  here,  judge,"  exclaimed  Ladd,  becoming 
desperate,  "I  will  let  you  into  a  secret.  I  am  going 
to  San  Francisco  to  be  married  to  a  young  lady  who 
comes  all  the  way  from  New  Hampshire  to  meet  me 
there." 

"Oh,  ah  I"  exclaimed  the  judge,  "that  is  a  different 
matter.     He  who  brings  to  Oregon  a  good  wife  serves 


C.  B.— I.    39 


019        DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

his  country  more  than  in  sitting  on  any  jury.     Go, 
with  my  heartiest  congratulations." 

Ladd  and  Tilton  continued  their  mercantile  busi- 
ness together  until  the  spring  of  1855,  when  the 
former  bought  out  the  latter,  who  thereupon  returned 
to  New  Hampshire.  Three  years  later  Tilton 
returned,  tired  of  the  east,  and  wanted  to  associate 
himself  again  with  Ladd,  who  had,  in  the  mean  time, 
given  his  brother  an  interest  in  the  business.  But 
Ladd  said,  "  No,  Charles,  there  is  no  room.  I  have 
all  the  money  requisite  for  this  business,  and  more. 
But  a  bank  is  needed  in  Portland,  and  if  you  will 
join  me,  I  will  sell  my  me%:antile  business  and  we 
will  open  in  the  spring. '  Tilton  hesitated,  but  finally 
consented,  the  institution  being  ready  for  operations 
in  April  1859. 

Thus  was  the  first  bank  on  the  Pacific  coast  north 
of  San  Francisco  established.  It  was  started  on  a 
capital  of  $50,000,  but  in  1861  this  capital  stock  was 
increased  to  $150,000.  Thereafter  its  earnings  were 
turned  back  into  the  business  until  its  capital 
amounted  to  $1,000,000;  from  that  time  dividends 
were  paid,  ana  it  would  be  superfluous  to  add  that 
they  have  been  satisfactory.  When  the  partnership 
of  Ladd  and  Tilton  was  dissolved,  Mr  Tilton  retiring 
in  1880,  its  bills  receivable  amounted  to  $2,500,000. 
Its  coin  deposits  were  at  first  exceedingly  small,  but 
steadily  increased,  until  at  the  close  of  1889  they 
amounted  to  approximately  $4,000,000.  It  has 
always  done  a  sound  and  select  business,  which  is 
largely  due  to  the  policy  of  keeping  below  the  current 
interest  rates  as  these  have  become  less  and  less. 
The  rate  of  interest  when  the  bank  started  was  from 
three  to  five  per  cent  per  month,  but  it  accepted  the 
best  loans  at  two  and  one-half  per  cent ;  and  it  is  now 
operating  on  rates  proportionately  lower  than  those 
which  are  current.  As  is  evidenced  by  these  facts, 
the  bank  of  Ladd  and  Tilton  has  grown  steadily  and 
rapidly,  until  it  stands  in  the  front  rank,  if  not  at  the 


WILLIAM   S.   LADD. 


611 


head  of  all  others  in  the  north\v  astern  states.  It  has 
large  banking  interests  in  Seattle,  Tacoma,  Walla 
Walla  and  Port  Townsend  in  Washington.  It  is 
pertinent  to  enquire  how  the  banking  house  of  Ladd 
and  Tilton  has  attained  to  such  proportions;  how  it 
has  kept  in  the  lead  of  other  banks  in  the  Pacific 
northwest.  These  other  banks  are  sufficiently  numer- 
ous, and  their  standing,  as  a  rule,  is  as  good  as  in  any 
other  community,  doubtless  better  than  in  most,  for 
stability  in  all  departments  of  industry  in  this  portion 
of  the  country  is  a  decided  characteristic.  From  what 
source  did  this  particular  bank  derive  its  impetus,  and 
how  are  we  to  account  for  its  present  momentum? 
Necessarily  its  management  has  been  competent,  and 
it  is  not  fair  to  ascribe  any  great  portion  of  its  success 
to  fortune.  Has  not  superior  talent  controlled  its 
destinies  ?  A  high  degree  of  success  in  banking  pre- 
supposes special  aptitude,  good  judgment  of  men  and 
affairs,  promptitude  of  action  in  emergency,  self-control 
and  moral  courage.  May  not  a  blending  of  these 
and  other  like  forces  account  for  such  a  marked  suc- 
cess in  finauoe  ?  How  else  can  the  spirit  of  one  man 
make  his  bank  distinct  and  superior  to  others,  which, 
but  for  comparison  with  it,  would  be  regarded  as  suc- 
cessful in  an  extraordinary  degree!  That  he  possesses 
individuality  among  men,  and  also  a  distinct  individu- 
ality among  bankers,  is  evident,  but  above  all  he  must 
possess  character,  which  is  itself  "an  estate  in  the 
general  good-will  and  respect  of  men;"  reliableness 
which  convinces  men  that  its  possessor  can  be  trusted ; 
that  he  can  be  relied  on  ;  that  when  he  says  he  knows 
a  thing,  he  knows  it ;  that  when  he  says  he  will  do  a 
thing,  he  can  do  it,  and  does  it;  reliableness  that  thus 
becomes  a  passport  to  the  general  esteem  and  con- 
fidence of  mankind.  The  banker,  above  all  others, 
must  be  honest,  in  the  broadest  sense  of  that  word, 
because  of  the  sensitive  relationship  he  sust&Ins 
towards  the  public  as  the  custodian  of  money,  which 
is  second  in  importance  only  to  life  itself  among  the 


I 


if' 


Iff;' I 

i:: 


1'  L 

f    1 

h    w 

¥'  i     P 

11 

1  ■ ;             ./      .;; 

■If;  *■       -t 

' 

IB  i 

Ji   1 

li;  : 

i  ;         1 

in  !  I      i  . 

Ml   •      i 

i< ! 

!:■:;  i  ;   ' 

612       DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

generality  of  those  with  whom  he  deals.  The  bank 
in  question  never  solicited  business ;  its  character  has 
been  its  advertisement.  It  has  treated  its  customers 
with  exact  justice  and  liberality.  It  has  not  only 
never  practised  usury,  but,  on  the  ground  of  equity 
as  well  as  expediency,  it  has  not  accepted  more  than 
the  legal  rate  of  interest,  preferring  rather  to  go  below 
it.  Yet  the  history  of  this  bank  begins  and  ends 
chiefly  with  the  personality  of  Mr  Ladd ;  he  is  the 
bank.  Instances  might  be  adduced  to  show  how,  in 
the  ways  indicated,  the  bank  has  been  the  creation 
of  his  labor  and  intelligence,  but  I  confine  myself  to 
the  following  remarkable  instance,  which  shows  some- 
thing of  his  close  business  calculation  and  powers  of 
financiering.  Upon  the  dissolution  of  his  partnership 
with  Mr  Tilton  he  had  an  understanding  with  him 
that  none  of  their  customers  should  be  crowded  or 
forced  to  pay  their  indebtedness  to  the  bank  sooner 
than  would  be  convenient.  As  stated,  the  outstanding 
indebtedness  was  $2,500,000,  and  when  the  bank 
made  its  statement  in  1888  there  was  less  than  $1,300 
of  that  balance  still  outstanding,  and  over  $100,000 
previously  charged  to  profit  and  loss  had  been  col- 
lected, and  in  1889  the  balance  of  the  $1,300  just 
mentioned  had  been  practically  wiped  out,  or  perhaps 
converted  into  a  small  balance  on  the  other  side  of 
the  ledger,  by  an  increase  of  value  in  the  property  by 
which  the  debt  was  secured. 

The  bank  has  been  the  main  feature  of  Mr  Ladd's 
business  activity,  but  he  has  had  enough  to  do  out- 
side of  it  to  keep  an  ordinary  man  fully  occupied. 
There  has  scarcely  been  a  single  enterprise  of  any 
consequence  proposed  or  under;  ^ken  in  Portland  since 
his  identification  with  the  city  ^at  he  has  not  taken 
a  greater  or  less  part  in,  contribu  ng  to  its  promotion 
his  time,  experience  and  money.  -  mere  list  of  these 
would  occupy  considerable  space,  a  d  to  discuss  them 
all  would  fill  a  volume ;  the  most  ohat  can  be  done, 
therefore,  is  to  note  such  as  are  characteristic  and 


WILLIAM   S.    LADD. 


013 


serve  to  show  the  manner  in  which  his  energy  has 
been  devoted  to  the  development  of  the  country  in  its 
material,  moral  and  social  aspects. 

The  first  notable  undertaking  of  which  he  was  a 
part  was  the  Oregon  Steam  Navigation  company, 
to  which — organized  first  in  Washington  Territory 
December  29, 1860,  and  reorganized  in  Oregon  Octo- 
ber 1862,  first  with  a  capital  of  $271,000  and  after- 
wards with  $2,000,000 — s  >  much  is  due  for  opening 
up  the  country  by  improving  the  means  of  internal 
water  transportation.  Among  the  contributors  to 
its  funds  his  name  appears  on  the  list  as  second  in 
amount  of  subscription,  and  he  continued  his  interest 
in  it  until  the  control  passed  into  the  hands  of  Jay 
Cook  and  his  associates ;  when  they  failed  he  and 
other  principal  factors  in  the  enterprise  repurchased  the 
stock  from  the  receiver  of  Cook's  estate,  and  in  1879 
resold  to  the  Oregon  Railway  and  Navigation  company. 

Mr  Ladd  contributed  in  the  early  days  to  test  the 
extent  and  quality  of  the  ore  in  the  property  now 
owned  by  what  is  known  as  the  Oregon  Iron  and 
Steel  company. 

In  the  midst  of  his  other  engagements  Mr  Ladd  has 
found  time  to  devote  himself  personally  to  farming, 
and  it  has  been  one  of  his  chief  sources  of  relaxation 
and  pleasure.  Besides  always  having  a  general  inter- 
est and  lending  his  aid  to  the  promotion  of  agriculture 
in  the  state,  he  owns  four  farms  individually  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Portland,  and  five  others  in  Clarke 
county,  Washington,  and  in  Washington  and  Yamhill 
counties,  Oregon,  in  connection  with  another  enter- 
prising citizen.  The  largest  of  the  latter  is  known  as 
Broad  Meads,  about  four  miles  from  Amity  ;  it  con- 
tains over  three  thousand  acres  and  is  a  model  in  all 
respects.  He  is  president  of  the  board  of  regents  of 
the  agricultural  college,  located  at  Corvallis,  in  which 
he  is  much  interested.  The  benefit  derived  by  the 
community  from  his  efforts  in  this  sphere  are  much 
greater  than  the  advantage  accruing  to  himself,  and 


614        DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 


hif 


\m 


he  looks  upon  his  farming  less  as  an  investment  thaii 
as  a  relaxation.     One  of  nis  farms,  comprising  about 
four  hundred  acres,  is  situated  on  the  outskirts  of  east 
Portland.     He  has  greatly  improved  it  with  the  idea 
of  making  it  a  model  in  every  particular,  on  which 
experimental  farming  may  be  done  for  the  gratifica- 
tion it  affords  him  personally,  and  to  assist  in  fur- 
thering  the  interests   and   progress   oi   r,griculture. 
Farm  life  has  great  attractiveness  for  him,  and  he 
derives  much  entertainment  as  well  as  solid  rest  from 
the  cares  of  his  business,  by  making  frequent  and 
regular  visits  to  this  suburban  farm.     He  has  been 
considerably  interested  in  the  importation  of  thorough- 
bred Clydesdales  and  Cleveland  Bay  horses,   Cots- 
wald  and  Leicester  sheep,  shorthorn  cattle,  and  Berk- 
shire hogs,  and  on  his  own  account  has  given  special 
attention  to  the  importation  and  breeding  of  Guernsey 
and  Jersey  cattle  for  dairy  purposes.     They   have 
studiously  kept  up  the  breed  on  their  own  farms,  and 
it  would  be  difficult  to  estimate  the  extent  to  which 
they  have  in  this  way  contributed  to  the  wealth  of 
the  farmers  throughout  the  northwest.     Mr  Ladd 
has  given  up  the  breeding  of  fast  horses  because  he 
has  no  relish  for  racing,  though  some  of  the  horses 
formerly  bred  by  them  have  made  fine  records  on  the 
track.     They  began  the  importation  of  thoroughbred 
stock  as  early  as  1870,  being  pioneers  in  this  enter- 
prise and  investing  a  large  amount  of  capital  in  it ; 
that  is,   before  anybody  else  had  undertaken  stock- 
breeding  on  such  a  broad  scale  or  with  such  a  high 
standard.     From  that  day  to  this  the  ever-widening 
beneficial  consequences  of  this  nursery  of  fine  stock 
have  been  so  great  that  it  would  be  almost  impossible 
for  the  people  of  Oregon  to  fully  appreciate  how  much 
they  owe  oo  Mr  Ladd  in  this  direction.     Within  the 
last  few  years  Oregon  has  taken  a  prominent  position 
as  a  horse-breeding  community  for  draft  and  light 
harness  horses.     A  number  of  Oregon  horses  have 
been  shipped  to  Denver  and  some  of  them  as  far  east 


I 


WILLIAM   S.    LADD. 


615 


as  Chicago,  in  competition  with  eastern  bred  horses. 
The  breeding  up  of  these  horses  into  their  present 
excellence  was  started  by  the  importation  into  the 
state  of  the  stallions  brought  in  by  Mr  Ladd.  Some 
idea  of  the  value  to  the  people  of  this  breeding  up  of 
the  quality  of  horses  can  be  had  from  the  fact  that 
prior  to  the  year  1870  the  generality  of  Oregon  horses 
were  cayuses,'  of  no  special  value  at  home  or  abroad. 
From  that  foundation  the  present  stock  has  been 
brought  about.  What  has  been  said  of  horses  in  this 
connection  may  fairly  be  said  of  the  other  kinds  of 
:^bOck.  On  the  Broad  Meads  farm  there  is  by  far  the 
finest  herd  of  shorthorn  cattle  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
perhaps  as  large  a  herd,  and  certainly  as  thorough  in 
breeding  also,  as  anywhere  else  in  the  world. 

After  the  Portland  fire  in  1873  in  which  a  number 
of  furniture  dealers  and  manufacturers  were  burnt  out, 
it  was  proposed  to  combine  and  form  a  strong  com- 
pany for  the  manufacture  of  furniture.  Mr  Ladd 
was  one  of  the  principal  founders  and  promoters  of 
the  enterprise.  Under  the  name  of  the  Oregon  Fur- 
niture Manufacturing  company  the  business  of  manu- 
facturing and  selling  furniture  was  begun  April  1, 
1874.  From  small  beginnings  the  house  has  grown 
until  now  it  is  the  leading  establishment  of  its  kind  in 
the  north  Pacific.  Mr  Ladd  has  felt  very  much  con- 
cerned in  it  from  the  first,  watching  its  course  with 
interest,  and  giving  it  always  the  benefit  of  his 
influence,  judgment  and  capital.  He  has  not  taken 
any  active  personal  part  in  the  management  of  the 
company's  business  further  than  this ;  what  he  has 
done  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  and  shows  him  to 
be  a  man  of  very  broad  and  unselfish  views.  Among 
the  men  of  great  wealth  in  the  community  he  was  the 
first  appealed  to  for  aid  to  this  enterprise,  which  may 
fairly  be  set  down  as  the  rule  when  the  countenance 
and  aid  of  leading  men  are  needed  in  such  cases. 
Being  a  citizen  of,  public  spirit,  he  was  pleased  with 
the  opportunity   to   encourage   this  effort  at   home 


l 


ii 


616        DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

industry.  He  has  never  hesitated  at  any  time  to  do 
what  he  could  to  help  forward  the  development  of  the 
state  and  the  city  of  Portland,  in  which  he  has 
unswerving  faith.  He  did  not  go  into  this  manufac- 
tory chiefly  because  of  the  profits  to  be  derived  from  it, 
although  he  would  not  have  put  his  money  in  it  unless 
he  had  felt  reasonably  sure  that  it  would  be  a  success ; 
the  inducement  for  him  was  that  it  was  an  advan- 
tage to  the  community  in  encouraging  home  industry. 
From  beginning  to  end,  in  Portland,  in  Oregon,  in  the 
northwest,  he  is  everywhere  a  builder.  Instead  of 
going  in  with  others  to  lay  the  foundation  and  stay- 
ing with  them  to  erect  the  superstructure  of  the  Ore- 
gon Furniture  Manufacturing  company,  he  could  have 
done  much  better  with  the  funds  invested.  With  his 
opportunities  and  ability  for  handling  large  sums  he 
could  have  put  out  the  same  amount  of  money  to  a 
much  greater  advantage.  He  was  the  only  one  of  the 
very  wealthy  men  of  Portland  who  identified  himself 
with  this  manufacturing  interest  at  its  inception ; 
hardly  anybody  but  himself  knows  how  many  interests 
he  is  connected  with.  He  is  ready  at  all  times  to 
listen  to  a  legitimate  business  proposition  which  is 
calculated  to  promote  the  public  good  and  advance 
the  industrial  development  of  the  city  or  the  state, 
whether  or  not  the  enterprise  proposed  offers  him  per- 
sonally sufficient  immediate  returns  is  of  secondary 
importance  if  he  is  convinced  that  it  is  of  general 
value  to  others. 

In  1883,  after  a  most  disastrous  season  to  the  flour 
milling  industry,  Mr  Ladd  found  that  a  great  many 
of  the  large  flour  mills  in  Oregon  were  nearly  ruined. 
Most  of  the  milling  companies  were  indebted  to  him 
largely,  but  with  his  accustomed  generosity  he  vol- 
unteered to  advance  sufficient  funds  to  keep  the 
business  going,  provided  that  the  other  stockholders 
would  do  something  commensurate  with  their  means 
in  the  same  direction.  The  milling  industry  generally 
was  in  such  a  hopeless  condition,  however,  that  with- 


WILLIAM   S.   LADD. 


617 


out  an  exception  these  men  refused  to  do  this.     Now 
then  if  anything  were  to  be  done  it  must  be  done  by 
the  one  man.     He  took  a  view  of  the  question  that 
was  at  once  charitable  as  w^ell  as  wise.     He  saw  that 
if  these   mills   were   closed  down   upwards   of  one 
hundred  families  would  be  deprived  of  the  means  of 
support.     This  was  really  the  first  view  of  the  case 
that  interested  him  deeply.     It  is  true  that  the  mills 
were  in  his  debt,  but  he   could   have   secured   this 
indebtedness  and  ended  his  accounts  in  that  way,  but 
here  was  a  chance  to  exercise  a  wide  and  practical 
charity.     Again  Mr  Ladd,  in  this  instance  as  iri  so 
many  others,  evinced  a  characteristic  foresight.     He 
appreciated  the  value  of  this  industrj-  to  the  com- 
mercial prosperity  of  the  state,  and  he  could  see  that 
the   disaster   to   milling   was   but    temporary.     He 
therefore  boldly  and  confidently  purchased  all  of  the 
larger  mills  and  combined  them  into  one  corporation, 
under  the  name  of  the  Portland  Flouring  Mills  com- 
pany.    By  the  help  of  his  means  and  judgment  the 
new   corporation   has  kept   its  mills  in   continuous 
operation.     Mr  Ladd  wants  to  have  everybody  at 
work,  and  does  not  desire  any  mill  idle  at  any  time ; 
they  must  be  doing  their  best  and  kept  at   work 
always.     It  is  a  great  pleasure  to  him  to  contemplate 
the  success  which  has  crowned  his   efforts.     From 
time  to  time  as  new  processes  and  methods  of  milling 
have  been  invented  he  has  improved  his  mills  and 
kept  them  modernized,  and   he  has   also  built  new 
mills  whenever  required  for  the   proper  prosecution 
of  the  trade,  until  his  company  now  produces  more 
flour  than  any  other  milling  company  on  the  Pacific 
coast.     It  has  been  his  policy  to  reach  out  in  every 
direction  that  would  tend  to  add  to  the  growth  of  the 
business  and  the  development  of  the  country.     There 
is  a  home  market  for  the  company's  products,  but  the 
chief  market  is  in  Europe,  where  its  brands  are  well 
known.     With  his  accustomed  principle  of  giving  full 
weight  and  good  goods  his  shipments  have  always 


I  •■ 


j: 

/ 

{■'■ 

|,:; 

! 

ii 

I 

f ' 

■ 

r; 

i 

;    '. 

61j^        DOMINATING   INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

been  up  to  the  samples  and  of  full  weight,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  his  foreign  brands  have  obtained  d, 
reputation  second  to  that  of  no  other  American  flour. 
At  a  competitive  test  in  the  year  1888  in  London  it 
was  conceded  that  the  best  loaf  of  bread  was  made 
of  flour  one-half  Pillsbury  brand  and  the  other  half 
the  Portland  company's  flour.  The  company's  brands 
have  such  a  reputation  in  Europe  that  its  flour  is  sold 
two  or  three  months  in  advance  ;  it  is  really  sold  on 
its  reputation.  The  company's  plant  is  large  and  is 
kept  running  to  its  full  capacity.  There  are  six  mills, 
located  at  Portland,  Oregon  City  and  Salem,  in  Ore- 
gon, and  Tacoma  and  Dayton,  in  Washington.  Their 
daily  capacity  is  3,500  barrels.  At  present  there  are 
over  one  hundred  and  fifty  families  dependent  upon 
the  wages  of  laborers  in  these  mills  for  their  support. 
Mr  Ladd  is  personally  entitled  to  the  credit  for  this 
whole  scheme  of  re-creating  the  flour  milling  industry 
in  Oregon  and  Washington,  as  indicated,  for  taking  it 
up  when  everybody  else  was  in  despair,  and  not  only 
saving  it  for  the  time,  but  reestablishing  it  then  and 
carrying  it  forward  ever  since  in  the  spirit  of  modern 
progress  at  every  point.  It  is  the  largest  manufac- 
turing corporation  in  the  northwest  states,  its  volume 
of  business  being  greater  than  that  of  any  other  and 
requiring  a  greater  amount  of  capital  to  handle  it. 
There  is  no  other  bank  than  that  of  Ladd  and  Til  ton 
which  could  afford  to  do  what  he  has  done  for  it.  He 
was  determined  to  carry  the  undertaking  to  success, 
and  though  sometimes  it  was  difficult  to  see  what 
might  be  the  final  result  of  an  outlay  at  this  or 
that  point,  he  never  faltered.  The  nominal  capital 
invested  is  $300,000,  but  the  actual  value  of  the  plant 
in  i889  was  $1,500,000,  with  an  unmistakable  pros- 
pect of  continuous  and  indefinite  growth.  In  view  of 
such  activity  as  this,  it  is  not  surprising  that  all  those 
who  know  Mr  Ladd  by  his  works  agree  that  he  is  the 
most  enterprising  man  among  all  his  neighbors  in 
Oregon  and  the  northwest. 


WILUAM  S.   LADD. 


619 


are 


But  to  revert  to  another  branch  of  industry,  an 
attempt  has  been  made  to  establish  a  cordage  manu- 
factory in  Portland,  resulting  in  failure.  Mr  Ladd 
and  others  seeing  here  an  opportunity  to  carry  for- 
ward this  enterprise  in  a  conservative  way,  as  an 
investment  for  themselves  and  as  a  means  of  offering 
employment  to  a  large  number  of  laborers,  purchased 
what  there  was  of  the  plant  in  1888,  and  formed  the 
Portland  Cordage  company.  It  was  not  specially 
lucrative  at  the  outset,  but  it  was  soon  vitalized  and 
strengthened  in  their  hands,  and  began  to  grow  into 
an  institution  of  profit  to  them  and  value  to  the  city. 
In  the  year  following  the  demand  for  the  product  of 
the  manufactory  had  increased  to  such  a  degree  that 
it  became  necessary  to  double  its  capacity.  It  is  now 
in  a  thrifty  and  progressive  condition,  and  is  looked 
upon  as  a  permanent  industry,  the  usefulness  and 
benefits  of  which  will  grow  wider  and  wider  from  year 
to  year.  He  was  interested  years  ago  in  testing  the 
capabilities  of  woolen  manufacturing. 

Incidentally,  Mr.  Ladd  has  taken  part  in  shipping, 
owning  sundry  vessels  at  various  times,  and  utilizing 
them  in  the  carrying  trade  along  the  coast. 

He  has  done  but  little  in  gold  and  silver  or  coal 
mining,  though  of  late  years  he  has  owned  some 
mining  property.  This  industry  he  holds  is  impor- 
tant and  helpful,  if  legitimately  conducted. 

He  figures  with  others  in  a  company  which  is  suc- 
cessfully carrying  forward  the  manufacture  of  linseed 
oil.  Even  this  undertaking  affords  a  history  that  is 
not  unimportant  in  the  building  up  of  the  metropolis 
of  the  northwest,  in  contributing  to  the  civilization  and 
welfare  of  the  commercial  emporium,  the  influence  of 
which  is  felt  over  a  wide  extent  of  country;  but  to 
the  reflecting  mind  a  suggestion  to  this  effect  is  suffi- 
cient. The  benefits  derived  from  energy  so  concen- 
trated are  complex,  but  the  one  fact  with  which  we 


?    ;■ 


eSO        DOMINATINO   INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

are  all  familiar  is  enough  to  emphasize  its  beneficence, 
which  is  that  every  undertJ^-king  such  as  he  has 
been  identified  with,  is  a  source  of  bread  and  meat, 
education  and  comfort,  to  worthy  men,  whose  wives 
and  children  tre  made  glad  by  their  labor.  Men  of 
such  enterprise  and  vigor  enlarge  whatever  they 
touch  ;  they  are  benefactors  in  the  most  substantial 
sense,  in  this,  that  they  create  opportunities  for  others 
to  earn  a  living,  which,  to  my  mind,  is  better  than  to 
contribute  proportionately  of  alms.  I  am  aware  that 
men  who  are  impelled  to  self-aggrandisement  by  keen 
and  eager  ambition  are  not  classed  among  philanthro- 
pists, yet  their  every  energy  is  spent  in  creating  that 
without  which  philanthrophy  is  helpless.  It  need  not 
be  hinted  that  in  order  to  give  one  must  have,  and  it 
is  a  pleasing  feature  in  the  character  of  Mr  L  -^  dd  that 
he  not  only  works  indirectly  for  others  in  the  manner 
referrjd  to,  but  that  the  needy  are  given  by  him  a 
clear  title  to  a  generous  share  of  his  accumulations. 

For  a  long  time  Portland  had  suffered  for  the  want 
of  two  accessories  to  the  general  health  and  comfort. 
These  needs  were  an  adequate  supply  of  pure  water, 
and  a  hotel  commensurate  with  the  size  and  dignity 
of  a  city  such  as  Portland.  The  legislature  in  1886 
enacted  a  law  creating  a  water  committee  of  fifteen 
persons,  and  empowering  the  city  to  issue  bonds  to  the 
amount  of  $700,000  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  itself 
with  water,  and  chose  the  members  of  this  committee 
in  accordance  with  the  views  of  representative  tax- 
payers and  citizens.  It  was  an  affair  involving  the 
expenditure  of  a  large  sum  of  money,  and  requiring 
ability  and  good  faith  in  the  management.  Mr  Ladd 
has  served  from  the  beginning  as  a  prominent  mem- 
ber of  this  committee,  taking  a  leading  part  in  all  its 
deliberations.  He  had  had  it  in  mind  for  many  years 
to  bring  it  around  in  some  way  so  that  the  city  could 
furnish  itself  with  water,  control  the  supply  and  regu- 
late the  cost,  and  he  finally  devised  and  outlined  the 


\ 


J3 


■ 


WIUJAM  S.  LADD.  621 

legislation  just  described,  and  pressed  the  matter  for- 
ward until  it  took  this  shape.  He  looked  upon  water 
as  a  necessity  of  life  which  should  be  as  nearly  as 
possible  free  to  all ;  and  it  was  abhorrent  to  his  mind 
that  it  should  be  held  in  the  hands  of  a  private  corpo- 
ration. He  could  not  rest,  therefore,  until  steps  like 
these  had  been  taken  to  secure  water  to  the  citizens  at 
a  nominal  cost..  He  made  enemies  of  strong  men  in 
the  community  who,  though  friends  before,  did  all 
they  could  to  injure  him  on  this  account ;  but  he  had 
done  what  he  felt  sure  was  his  duty,  and  he  had  no 
regrets.  The  money  appropriated  was  found  insuffi- 
cient to  construct  a  gravity  system,  and  the  plant  of 
the  Portland  Water  Company  on  the  Willamette 
river  five  miles  south  of  town  was  purchased  on 
behalf  of  the  city,  pending  the  introduction  of  a  better 
supply.  Under  the  committee's  administration,  how- 
ever, water  rates  have  been  reduced  to  fifty  per  cent 
below  previous  figures.  The  operating  expenses  have 
been  met  and  a  portion  of  the  gross  actual  proceeds 
applied  to  new  construction.  The  purpose  was  to 
construct  a  pipe  line  to  Bull  run,  a  mountain  stream 
rising  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Cascades,  from 
which  pure  water  in  abundance  could  be  obtained. 
Since  the  passage  of  the  enabling  act  it  has  been 
determined  that  an  additional  outlay  of  $2,000,000  is 
necessary.  The  authority  of  the  legislature  will  have 
to  be  invoked  again,  but  without  doubt  it  will  revise 
the  law  in  this  respect,  for  no  guarantee  is  needed 
that  every  dollar  appropriated  will  be  judiciously 
expended.  I  deem  it  of  interest  to  note,  in  passing, 
that  the  personnel  of  the  water  committee  is  superior; 
that  they  are  all  men  of  substance  and  character  who 
are  above  collusion  and  jobbery.  This  I  set  down  as 
creditable  to  the  constituency  whom  they  represent,  for 
there  are  cities  that  I  wot  of  in  which  the  selection  of 
men  for  the  discharge  of  such  a  function  would  have 
been  influenced  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  by  politi- 


Ll 


622        DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

cians  who  have  friends  to  serve  or  axes  of  their  own 
to  grind. 

As  to  the  hotel,  a  magnificent  building  had  been 
projected  by  Henry  Villard,  with  large  European  capi- 
tal behind  him  ;  but  when  he  fell  the  hotel  project,  as 
did  many  others  immaturely  undertaken  by  him,  waa 
brought  to  a  standstill.  As  a  monument  to  his  san- 
guine temperament,  a  massive  stone  wall  of  the  pro- 
posed caravansary,  one  story  high,  stood  upon  the 
square  bounded  by  Morrison,  Yamhill,  6th  and  7th 
streets.  Up  to  1887  much  had  been  said  but  noth- 
ing done  toward  completing  the  building ;  nobody  of 
sufficient  energy  and  influenco  seemed  willing  to  step 
forward  and  take  the  initiative,  when  one  day  Mr 
Ladd  invited  a  number  of  the  leading  men  and  prin- 
cipal property  holders  in  the  city  to  meet  him  at  the 
parlors  of  the  Ladd  and  Tilton  banking  house  to  discuss 
a  business  proposition ;  whereupon  in  a  brief  charac- 
teristic speech  he  set  forth  the  loss  that  Portland  had 
suffered  in  not  taking  advantage  of  this  opportunity 
to  provide  itself  with  an  essential  convenience.  He 
pointed  out  to  theni  the  damaging  effect  of  tourists 
coming  to  Portland,  and  for  the  want  of  proper 
accommodations  passing  on  to  Tacoma  ;  going  any- 
where else  to  find  a  hotel.  Said  he,  "  If  you  will 
organize  a  company  with  a  capital  of  $500,000,  I  will 
take  one-fifth  of  the  stock  on  condition  that  Mr.  H. 
W.  Corbett,  a  man  in  whose  zeal,  business  ability  and 
integrity  every  one  has  confidence,  is  made  president 
of  the  corporation."  With  this  impetus  given  to  the 
project  there  was  little  further  delay  encountered, 
and  early  in  the  year  1890  The  Portland,  inferior  to 
no  other  hotel  building  on  the  Pacific  coast,  was 
opened  to  the  public  to  the  great  joy  of  travellers,  and 
much  to  the  benefit  of  the  city. 

Thus,  after  we  have  looked  into  the  industrial  his- 
tory of  Portland  as  seen  through  the  principa}  fea- 
tures of  Mr  Ladd's  activity,  the  reader  may  fairly 
judge  what  manner  of  man  he  is  in  business,  and 


J, 


WILLIAM  S.   LADD. 


023 


what  his  factorship  has  been  in  its  advancement.  The 
fruits  of  his  commercial  labor  are  not  all  his  own,  for 
while  he  is  in  actual  and  undisturbed  possession  of 
his  enormous  estate,  his  property,  all  of  which  he  has 
earned,  remains  in  the  community  for  its  enrich- 
ment and  enlivenment.  But,  coming  more  to  those 
things  the  direct  aim  of  which  is  for  the  public 
advancement,  he  has  been  a  noteworthy  friend  of  educa- 
tion. In  the  year  1864  the  Portland  library  association 
was  formed  and  started  with  a  fund  of  $2,500,  contrib- 
uted by  a  number  of  men,  among  whom  the  name  of  Mr 
Ladd  was  prominent.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year 
1865  it  contained  577  books,  and  at  the  beginning  of 
1878,  8,724,  and  in  1890,  17,600.  It  has  grown 
healthily,  and  now  fills  such  a  place  in  the  city  that  to 
very  many  persons  it  has  become  almost  a  necessity. 
It  contains  information  to  satisfy  the  student  of 
literature,  history,  politics,  religion  and  science,  and  it 
furnishes  a  cheap  and  convenient  means  of  forming 
the  best  opinion  which  the  state  of  knowledge  on 
these  subjects  permits.  For  many  years  without 
resources  or  aid  save  the  faith  and  true  friendship  of 
comparatively  a  few  persons,  it  kept  its  doors  open 
and  increased  its  property  and  usefulness.  At  this 
date  it  is  in  a  more  flourishing  condition,  and  its  pros- 
pects are  very  bright.  It  is  safe  to  assume  that  it 
has  been  among  the  potent  and  effective  agencies  in 
culture  and  information,  and  that  is  has  done  a  good 
part  in  influencing  the  character  of  the  community, 
The  president  of  the  association,  February  5,  1876, 
in  his  report  expressed  his  hope  as  follows:  "That 
ere  another  five  years  have  been  numbered  with  the 
past  it  shall  be  found  no  longer  dependent  upon 
the  shelter  of  one  good  friend."  That  good  friend 
has  given  it  shelter  ever  since,  however,  and  conse- 
crated the  valuable  quarters  in  which  its  books  are 
contained  to  the  indefinite  use  of  the  association  in 
rooms  above  his  banking-house,  in  the  heart  of  the 
business  portion  of  the  city.     It  was  the  expectatiou 


624        DOMINATING   INFLUENCE8  IN  THB]  NORTHWEST. 


P 


that  a  separate  building  would  be  provided  for  the 
library  during  the  year  1890.  He  has  ever  been 
earnest  in  his  efforts  to  advance  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion in  every  way.  In  the  earlier  days  he  was  sev- 
eral times  director  of  the  public  schools.  His  gifts 
to  educational  institutions  have  been  numerous  and 
discriminating,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  a 
scholarship  in  the  university  at  Salem,  and  the  endow- 
ment of  a  chair  in  the  medical  department  of  the  state 
university  in  Portland.  Several  who  have  risen  to 
prominence  in  the  state  owe  the  opportunity  of  an 
education  to  the  facility  afforded  by  the  scholarships 
above  mentioned.  As  to  whom  shall  be  the  benefici- 
aries he  allows  the  professors  of  the  dniversity  to 
determine,  believing  that  they  are  the  most  disinter- 
ested and  capable  persons  to  choose  among  the  candi- 
dates for  the  privilege. 

In  the  year  1886  the  presbyterians  of  the  Pacific 
coast  undertook  to  raise  the  sum  of  $50,000  for  their 
theological  seminary  in  San  Francisco.  After  much 
labor  they  secured  subscriptions  of  from  $4,000  to 
$5,000,  when  Mr  Ladd  came  to  their  relief  and 
endowed  the  chair  of  practical  theology  with  $50,000, 
on  condition  that  he  would  pay  the  sum  when  a  like 
amount  was  raised  by  the  synod  of  California  to  put 
with  it  for  the  endowment  of  another  chair,  which 
was  effected.  It  is  a  peculiarity  of  Mr  Ladd's  in 
giving  that,  while  he  does  so  freely,  he  makes  his  own 
gift  a  nest-egg  for  others ;  thus,  it  may  be  said,  multi- 
plies his  own  donation.  He  never  gives  blindly,  but 
always  with  a  specific  object  in  view,  and  for  a  tangi- 
ble reason.  He  was  not  able  to  preach  himself,  and 
he  gave  of  his  abundance  to  the  theological  seminary 
that  others  might  be  enabled  thereby  to  fit  themselves 
for  the  ministry.  Through  a  wide  extent  of  country 
few  churches  have  been  built  without  aid  from  him. 
It  would  be  hard  to  find  one  in  Oregon,  Washington 
or  Idaho  that  he  has  not  a  brick  or  shingle  in.  In 
responding  to  appeals  for  assistance,  which  come  to 


I  ; 


WILUAM  S.  LAOD. 


i 


him  oftener  than  to  most  others,  and  which  he  never 
neglects,  it  is  a  peculiarity  of  his  to  offer  the  amount 
which  he  feels  he  can  afford  to  contribute  with  the 
proviso  that  his  donation  alone,  or  together  with 
others;  must  cover  the  indebtedness  of  the  church 
receiving  it ;  in  other  words,  that  he  makes  it  a  rule 
not  to  give  to  a  church  in  need  unless  its  indebted- 
ness ceases  with  the  act  of  his  giving.  If  this  original 
idea  of  Mr  Ladd's  be  properly  considered,  together 
with  his  liberality  as  a  helper  of  churches,  it  will  be 
seen  that  he  does  a  great  deal  for  needy  congrega- 
tions with  his  own  money,  while  at  the  same  time  he 
contrives  to  have  much  contributed  to  the  same  object 
by  others  who,  without  his  action,  would  be  slow  to 
move  in  the  matter. 

In  1886  he  published  a  brief  and  unpretentious,  but 
an  apt  and  useful,  pamphlet,  entitled  Fac(^  and  Tlwughis 
for  Business  Men  on  Profitable  Investments,  in  which  he 
sets  forth  clearly  the  great  religious  as  well  as  mate- 
rial benefits  derived  from  a  discriminating  encourage- 
ment and  support  of  churches  generally.  These  teach- 
ers often  he  regards  as  the  well-spring  of  good  conduct 
among  the  people  in  this  life,  and  as  the  best  means 
of  securing  that  reward  in  the  future  which  is  above 
price.  He  was  reared  in  the  methodist  faith,  and  his 
father  and  mother  were  strict  and  self-denying.  He 
did  not  identify  himself  with  any  denomination,  how- 
ever, until  he  had  been  a  resident  of  Portland  some 
twenty  years,  though,  as  intimated  before,  he  attended 
strictly  to  his  religious  duties. 

In  the  year  1873  he  became  a  member  of  the  pres- 
byterian  church,  thinking  it  better  for  the  sake  of  exam- 
ple to  his  children  to  have  one  particular  church  for 
regular  family  worship ;  being  induced  to  adopt  this 
denomination  on  account  of  Mrs  Ladd's  membership. 
He  never  lost  his  sympathy  with  or  affection  for  the 
methodist  church,  however,  and  it  has  known  him  as 
a  warm  substantial  friend  at  all  times.  His  views  are 
broad,  and  he   entertains   charity   for   all  religious 


C.  B.-I.    40 


626       DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

beliefs.  No  creed  or  sect  appeals  to  him  in  vain  for 
assistance  in  its  labors  for  the  elevation  of  mankind, 
in  so  far  as  this,  recognizing  the  universal  aim  of  the 
churches  to  rescue  fallen  humanitv,  whether  it  be 
protestant  or  catholic.  His  Christianity  is  so  much 
more  of  the  practical  than  of  the  theological  kind  that 
he  lays  but  slight  stress  upon  creed  distinctions  or 
denominational  differences,  the  aim  and  basis  of  all 
Christian  religions  being  essentially  the  same,  man's 
true  advantage  now  and  forever.  His  mind  dwells 
little  upon  the  outward  mechanism,  the  mere  hulls 
and  superficial  accidents  of  the  object  and  much  upon 
the  object  itself.  Regarding  charity  as  the  chief  duty, 
he  has  striven  to  cultivate  this  virtue.  It  has  been 
his  custom  to  set  aside  one-tenth  of  his  income  every 
year  with  which  to  meet  the  next  year's  demands  upon 
benevolence,  ^nd  he  has  always  disbursed  it.  This 
money  so  set  apart  ceases  to  be  his  own,  but  is  held 
by  him  in  trust  for  others.  To  the  Master  he  is 
responsible  for  his  stewardship.  These  tithes  would 
by  this  time  have  aggregated  a  vast  fortune. 

Yet  the  mere  giving  of  alms  is  not  all  of  Mr  Ladd's 
charity.  He  is  willing  to  lend  a  helping  hand,  giving 
time,  which  to  him  is  often  very  precious,  counsel  and 
personal  assistance  in  more  than  one  direction.  Many 
young  men  have  been  helped  by  him  to  a  start  in  busi- 
ness. When  these  turned  out  well  it  was  a  source  of 
great  satisfaction  to  their  benefa<.^tor ;  if  they  turned  out 
badly,  it  was  a  source  of  sorrow  to  him.  There  was 
one  person,  formerly  in  the  liuii'^,  and  who  left  it  to 
go  into  business  for  himself,  who  was  completely 
ruined  in  1876,  through  no  fault  of  his.  Mr  Ladd 
was  east  at  the  time,  and  to  him  he  went  with  his 
troubles.  He  told  the  man  to  go  back  and  see  his 
creditors,  and  tell  them  if  they  would  let  him  alone 
and  give  him  time  he  would  pay  every  dollar ;  if  not, 
he  was  to  settle  with  them  on  the  best  terms  he  cou)'^ 
make,  and  Mr  Ladd  would  let  him  have  the  money. 
Most  of  them  gave  him  the  time  he  asked  for.     Then 


WILUAM  S.  LADD. 


827 


said  Ladd  to  him,  "  If,  now,  you  have  the  courage  to 
attempt  to  recuperate  your  fortunes  in  business,  go 
forward  and  do  so ;  if  not,  you  can  take  your  former 
position  with  uie."  He  went  to  work,  and  for  thir- 
teen years  fought  his  battle,  winning  it  in  the  end, 
saving  his  reputation,  paying  all  he  owed,  and  having 
over  $100,000  besides. 

In  order  that  Portland  might  have  a  proper  field  of 
rest  for  her  dead,  Mr  Ladd,  with  active  public  spirit 
and  reverential  feeling  of  duty  to  our  relatives,  friends, 
and  neighbors,  who  crossed  over  the  river  in  advance 
of  us,  took  great  pains  to  select  them  an  eligible  place 
for  a  cemetery.  A  considerable  sum  of  money  was 
needed  to  improve  it,  but  only  two  others,  Mr  Cor- 
bett  and  Mr  Failing,  could  be  found  to  cooperate 
with  him.  To  these  three  people  Portland  is 
indebted  for  the  beautiful  River  View  cemetery,  a 
spot  charmingly  cultivated  and  delightful  in  its  sur- 
roundings. On  an  elevation  several  miles  south  of 
the  city,  near  the  west  bank  of  the  Willamette  river, 
it  commands  a  magnificent  view,  and  is  reached  either 
by  water  or  by  drives  over  a  delightful  road. 

As  regards  politics,  Mr  Ladd  entered  upon  his 
majority  as  a  democrat.  Just  why  he  adopted  the 
views  of  the  democratic  party  it  might  be  difficult  to 
determine,  except  that  he  believed  its  policy  to  be  the 
best ;  certainly  he  did  not  inherit  his  political  senti- 
ments from  his  father,  as  most  young  men  do.  He  is 
not  a  copyist.  Very  few  young  men  who  have  to  earn 
their  bread  are  likely  to  make  a  sufficient  study  of  the 
history  and  doctrines  of  political  parties  to  compre- 
hend them  fully.  There  is  no  cause  to  doubt,  how- 
ever, that  there  seemed  to  him  good  reasons  for  the 
choice  he  made.  He  was  born  and  bred  in  a  com- 
munity in  which  the  greatest  interest  is  taken  in  gov- 
ernmental affairs,  and  great  reverence  for  republican 
principles  entertained.  Whether  he  was  right  or 
wrong  in  allying  himself  with  the  democratic  party  of 
that  day,  perhaps  the  wisest  men  who  have  studied 


f,  I 


.!f. 


:i 


If: 


^'i :  . ; 


[. 


i  :!  i 


fi 


628        DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

the  political  economy  of  the  United  States  would  find 
it  diflScult  to  determine.  It  was  only  later  in  life, 
when  his  material  interests  had  become  enlarged  and 
his  mind  had  matured,  that  he  began  to  think  more 
deeply  with  reference  to  politics,  and  he  then  took  his 
stand  among  those  to  whom  the  credit  is  due  for 
establishing  the  integrity  of  the  states.  During  the 
civil  war  he  was  a  war  democrat,  retaining  his  ideas 
of  general  policy  as  a  democrat,  but  being  in  sympa- 
thy with  the  republicans  on  all  matters  tending  to  the 
preservation  of  the  union.  He  voted  for  Douglas  as 
against  Lincoln  in  the  latter's  first  candidacy,  but  his 
opposition  was  not  against  him  so  much  as  against 
Breckenridge  and  the  incendiary  ideas  of  which  he 
was  the  exponent.  When  Mr  iLincoln  was  a  candi- 
date the  second  time,  and  national  issues  had  become 
sharply  defined,  Mr  Ladd  voted  for  him,  and  has  con- 
tinued ever  since  strong  in  his  republicanism  as  regards 
national  politics,  although  he  is  not  a  partisan  or 
bound  to  any  system.  In  political  affairs  of  a  local 
nature,  that  is  to  say,  state,  county,  and  municipality, 
he  votes  according  to  his  estimate  of  the  fitness  of  the 
men  who  are  candidates.  In  national  politics,  where 
men  are  selected  as  representatives  of  certain  princi- 
ples or  policy,  he  does  not  regard  individual  qualifica- 
tions as  so  serious,  and  he  therefore  usually  casts  his 
vote  for  his  party  nominees.  His  participation  in 
politics  has  been  that  of  the  citizen  intelligently 
endeavoring  to  do  his  full  duty  as  an  elector.  He 
filled  the  office  of  mayor  of  Portland  in  1 854,  but  apart 
from  this  he  has  never  been  a  candidate  for  any  politi- 
cal office.  If  his  tastes  had  inclined  him  that  way  he 
might  have  commanded  any  position  within  the  gift 
of  his  state,  but  he  has  not  only  neAer  sought,  but  has 
declined  everything  in  the  nature  of  political  prefer- 
ment. His  private  affairs  have  engrossed  his  entire 
time  and  attention. 

His  views  of  the  relations  of  capital  and  labor,  or 
of  monopolies  to  toil,  are  practical  and  sound.    "  No 


~S1 


WILLIAM  S.   LADD. 


629 


m 


business,"  said  he,  "should  be  conducted  so  as  to  be 
a  burden  to  the  community ;  and  if  it  is  so  managed, 
the  people  should  demand  and  require  protection 
through  legislation.  On  the  same  principle  labor 
should  not  combine  against  and  embarrass  capital. 
There  is  a  just  equilibrium  between  the  two,  and  it  is 
the  duty  of  citizens  to  see  that  this  is  determined 
and  maintained.  In  all  departments  of  life  there 
should  be  a  quid  pro  quo  for  everything.  He  takes 
the  ground  of  high  moral  sense  as  an  arbitrator,  and 
thinks  there  would  be  but  little  trouble  if  irrational, 
selfish,  and  unprincipled  elements  did  not  agitate 
and  control  our  politics.  While  a  capitalist  himself, 
he  is  a  friend  of  the  toiling  masses.  He  wants  to 
see  American  labor  fully  protected.  He  is  independ- 
ent. He  does  not  follow  in  the  current  of  those  who 
rage  against  the  Chinese.  He  sees  much  good  in 
them,  mixed  with  whatever  may  be  bad.  He  thinks 
if  they  could  vote  and  would  spend  their  earnings  for 
whisky  and  beer  they  would  be  more  popular ;  that 
they  would  then  seem  to  the  politician,  as  they  now 
seem  to  him,  as  good  in  morals,  industry  and  intelli- 
gence as  the  degraded  anarchical  class  of  immigrants 
that  are  coming  to  our  shores  from  the  slums  of  Euro- 
pean society.  Mr  Ladd  is  really  an  American  in  poli- 
tics. His  motto  is  "  None  but  Americans  on  guard." 
No  foreijrner  should  vote  until  he  has  resided  in  this 
country  ior  twenty-one  years,  the  same  probation 
that  our  own  boys,  natives  to  the  soil,  have  to  pass 
through,  and  understand  our  institutions  as  well  as 
these  boys  usually  do  at  fifteen  or  sixteen  years  of 
age  ;  nv»r  yet  until  he  is  able  to  read  and  write  the 
constitution  of  the  United  States ;  and  no  man,  native 
born  or  other  wise,  should  hold  office  unless  he  is  a 
freeholder  and  taxpayer  and  substantially  identified 
with  tlie  interests  of  the  community. 

He  is  decided  in  his  convictions  in  all  such  matters, 
fearless  in  voicing  h'S  3eniiniv;ut,  and  he  does  not 
hesitate  to  act  upon  his  judgment  of  right,  giving  lit- 


s 


1 


\:  , 


630       DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 


tie  heed  to  consequences,  though,  unlike  his  father, 
he  possesses  sufficient  policy  to  arrive  at  his  ends 
ordinarily  without  undue  friction. 

In  the  early  days  the  large  majority  of  the  people 
of  Oregon  were  from  the  south  and  southwest,  and 
Portland  had  its  share  of  them.  They  brought  with 
them  the  idea  that  the  negro's  lot  was  to  be  that  of 
a  slave ;  this  and  nothing  more.  Colored  children 
seated  among  white  children  at  school  was  to  them 
an  abomination.  There  was  quite  a  number  of  col- 
ored people  in  Portland,  and  they  craved  the  privi- 
lege of  the  public  schools  for  their  offspring.  Mr 
Ladd  was  school  director.  They  appealed  to  him 
for  advice  after  a  mischievous  attorney,  however,  had 
counseled  them  to  make  a  test  case  in  the  courts. 
He  said  to  them:  **  I  think  just  as  much  of  a  black 
man  and  neighbor,  as  I  do  of  a  white  man  and 
neighbor  so  long  as  he  behaves  himself  well.  I 
want  to  see  your  children  have  all  the  benefits  of 
education,  but  do  not  go  to  law.  The  prejudice 
against  you  here  is  very  strong.  It  won't  do  to  call 
in  the  police  to  protect  your  children  when  they  are 
entering  and  coming  out  of  the  schoolhouse.  I  guar- 
antee that  you  shall  have  a  separate  school  in  the 
lower  grades.  Let  your  boys  and  girls  enter  there, 
and  by  diligence  prepare  themselves  for  the  higher 
departments,  then  you  will  find  the  question  solved 
by  the  test  of  their  merit.  As  fast  as  they  fit  them- 
selves for  promotion  they  will  slip  into  the  upper 
grades,  and  then  nobody  will  dare  object."  Sure 
enough,  this  was  the  happy  result,  even  before  the 
shackles  were  struck  from  the  slaves  in  the  United 
States  by  Lincoln's  immortal  proclamation.  It  is 
worthy  of  record  that  Mr  Ladd  was  a  democrat,  but 
his  democracy  did  not  influence  him  to  go  contrary 
to  his  convictions  of  humanity  and  justice. 

During  the  entire  course  of  his  enterprising  life,  in 
which  he  has  utilized  the  services  of  hundreds  of  labor- 
ers he  has  never  had  but  one  controversy  with  them. 


WILLIAM  S.   LADD. 


631 


and  to  this  he  refers  with  good-humor  as  a  joke  on 
himself.  The  bricklayers  engaged  in  building  a  store 
for  him,  which,  by  the  way,  was  the  first  brick  build- 
ing erected  in  Portland,  on  Front  near  Stark  street, 
where  laying  about  eight  hundred  bricks  a  day  in 
straight  walls  when  they  should  have  laid  from  fifteen 
hundred  to  two  thousand.  He  demurred  to  this  and 
they  struck.  He  was  caught  at  a  disadvantage,  for 
he  had  a  stock  of  goods  coming  and  they  had  to  be 
housed  upon  their  arrival.  The  reconciliation  was 
eflPected  on  a  basis  entirely  satisfactory  to  the  brick- 
layers, for  they  proceeded  to  work  and  thereafter 
averaged  less  than  five  hundred  bricks  per  dayl 

Since  leaving  Sanbornton  Bridge  Mr  Ladd  has 
spent  almost  his  entire  time  in  Portland,  travelling 
little,  too  much  absorbed  in  business  to  think  that  he 
could  afford  himself  the  leisure  for  such  diversion ; 
nevertheless,  accompanied  by  Mrs  Ladd,  they  visited 
the  eastern  states  two  or  three  times.  In  1858,  on 
the  occasion  of  their  first  trip,  they  went  down  to 
New  Orleans  and  from  there  north,  stopping  in  the 
Red  River  country  to  visit  his  uncle,  who  had  gone 
there  and  become  one  of  the  principal  planters  in 
his  section.  Mr  Ladd  was  much  impressed  with  the 
farming  that  was  done  there  on  a  large  scale,  but  his 
life  had  been  cast  in  another  field.  The  following 
incident  of  his  travels  will  show  the  disposition  of  the 
man  to  observe  closely  and  to  measure  things  with  ref- 
erence to  their  future  value.  At  Chicago  he  met 
Mr  Gookin,  whom  he  worked  for  in  '51  and  who  went 
up  to  St  Paul  and  St  Anthony's  with  him.  One 
day  Mr  Ladd  said  to  him:  "  I  am  no  prophet,  nor 
the  son  of  a  prophet,  but  for  anybody  that  has  money 
this  water  power  is  the  best  investment  in  the  world. 
You  can  just  put  up  a  sawmill  on  one  side  and  a  grist- 
mill on  the  other  and  make  things  hum.  Think  of 
Lawrence  and  Lowell  and  then  think  of  this  water 
power."  They  extended  their  trip  to  New  Hamp- 
shire,   renewing    their    acquaintances    there.       At 


\  . 


1 


It 


i  ■■'• 


;ji! 


632        DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

Bangor,  Maine,  he  saw  a  house  that  struck  his  fiincy,^ 
and  making  a  drawing  of  it,  he  erected  its  counter- 
part in  Portland,  which  was  enlarged  and  improved 
in  1878. 

Speaking  of  Mrs  Ladd  and  their  home  life,  one 
writer  speaks  of  her  ap  an  estimable  lady  of  far 
more  than  ordinary  good  sense  and  domestic  qualifi- 
cations, and  who  during  the  succeeding  years  has 
proved  a  noble  wife  and  mother.  Theu*  home  in 
Portland  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  city.  Wealth  and 
good  taste  ha  ^  imlted  in  beautifyims;  its  surround- 
ings, and  their  v.,  ^iation  of  the  beautiful  is  evinced 
in  their  choice  sel.  ions  of  statuary,  paintings,  etc., 
and  those  who  are  sufficiently  fortunate  to  be  classed 
among  their  friends  find  much  within  their  home  to 
interest  and  instruct  them  in  arts  and  sciences 
hitherto,  perhaps,  unknown  to  them. 

Mr  Ladd  ascribes  a  very  great  portion  of  his  suc- 
cess to  the  cooperation  and  never-faltering  sympathy 
of  his  wife.  Says  be  :  "I  owe  everything  to  her. 
Through  all  she  has  been  to  me  emphatically  a  help- 
mate. In  the  best  and  highest  sense  a  noble  wife  ;  a 
saintly  mother  to  our  children.  I  can  place  no  ade- 
quate estimate  upon  her  help  to  me  in  building  up 
our  fortunes  in  this  state.  Always  patient,  thought- 
ful and  courageous,  she  has  cheerfully  assumed  her 
part  of  whatever  load  I  have  had  to  carry.  We  both 
started  tf^ether  at  bedrock,  and  from  then  till  now 
we  have  taken  every  step  in  harmony."  In  the 
words  of  Solomon  :  "  The  price  of  such  a  woman  is 
far  above  rubies.  She  looKeth  well  to  the  ways  of 
her  husband  and  eateth  not  the  bread  of  idleness. 
Her  children  arise  up  and  call  her  blessed,  her  hus- 
band, also,  and  he  praiseth  her."  Mrs  Ladd  has 
maintained  a  leading  place  in  charitable,  religious  and 
educational  work,  and  her  spirit  and  materiiu  support 
has  been  a  tower  of  strength  in  home  and  foreign 
missions.     Id  all  these  things  her  views  and  plans 


i 


'K: 


f'y'tn^  aBBaVji  iJ^""  ■"''"■  ^* 


WILUAM   S.    1.AUI.1. 


633 


have   been    those    of  her    husband,    and   thoy   have 
worked  together  always  for  bcneticeiit  ends. 

Mrs  Ladd,  wlioso  history  is  so  interwoven  with 
that  of  tho  principal  sul)joct  of  this  study  as  to  he 
inseparable  from  it,  is  a  descendant  on  her  mother's 
side  from  the  Ames,  the  founders  of  winch  family 
were  three  brf)thers  who  came  to  America  o,t  a  very 
early  date,  one  <;f  whom,  her  ancestor,  settled  in  New 
Hampshire  a'ul  the  other  two  in  Massachusetts. 
Her  fathei'.s  family,  the  Elliutts,  were  also  early 
settlers  in  New  Hampshire.  Her  Maternal  and 
maternal  ancestors  were  alike  of  pure  Enghsli  origin 

Mrs  Ladd's  fathcj  was  Ira  Elliott,  'ja\(\  \\o.t  mother 
Rhoda  Ames,  both  natives  of  New  Hamii.^hire. 
Seven  children  were  born  to  Mr  and  Mrs  Ladd  in 
Oregon,  five  of  whom  are  hving  :  William  M.  Ladd, 
born  December  16,  185.T ;  Charles  Elliott  I. .add. 
born  August  5,  1857;  Henry  Kendall  liadd,  U»rn 
July  4,  1859;  Caroline  Ames  T^'idd,  born  September 
3,  186L  and  John  Wesley  J^add,  born  January  3, 
1870. 

William    M.    Ladd,    the   eldest,    came    early   ami 
efliciently  to  his  father's  aid  in  the  managaniefit  or" 
his  largely  increasing  int«:;rests.     lie  inh*^it«  UtaiiT  of 
the  traits  which  distiu;j;uisb  his  fattier :   atr/n^  wj*!, 
aggressive  temper,  perseverance  and  stcrlitt'z  mtAy^ 
rit\'.     He    is    an    arlmirabie    specimen    of    iBftnh«M*d 
physically  and  mentally,  strong,  energetjc  hiui    'nt..-, 
ligent,  and  there  is  no  fairer  sight  under  ht-av  ■.   ?  :> 
UiJit  of   a    noble    son    supplementing    the  Iv 
noble    father.      It   is  refioshing  to  see  t! 
responding  with  not  only  the    a))ility,  hn      • 
rarei',  the  diK|)osition  to  stand  worthily  fl^  ^ 
Uitive    of  the  latter,      Wlien    si.tteen    ^ 
William,  con\'alesf*ing  from  typholrl    (tr. 
abr«>ad  in  oharuc  of  Mr  Til  ton,  wiio  ]teri 
travel    all    over   Gern'.any    alone      S>eif 
hearted  and  frev:-handed,  vbe  voung  ma 
h.ad  never  been  out  of  Oregon  K-far 


;i 

IM 

1 

T 

1 

iM 

■:  .-:;J 

^H 

M 

I^B 

Ifi' 

;;   )    . 

■  -  •  i 

^^B 

' 

V  :  r' 

j  ■■■;  1 

■j 

1 

''3     ■•■ 

i :-;.  1 

AU 

ii 

if 

i    s 

II 

I 

1     ^te 

C^tK^J^ 


1 


WILUAM  S.   LADD. 


633 


have  been   those  of  her   husband,   and  they  have 
worked  together  always  for  beneficent  ends. 

Mrs  Ladd,  whose  history  is  so  interwoven  with 
that  of  the  principal  subject  of  this  study  as  to  be 
inseparable  from  it,  is  a  descendant  on  her  mother's 
side  from  the  Ames,  the  founders  of  which  family 
were  three  brothers  who  came  to  America  at  a  very 
early  date,  one  of  whom,  her  ancestor,  settled  in  New 
Hampshire  and  the  other  two  in  Massachusetts. 
Her  father's  family,  the  Elliotts,  were  also  early 
settlers  in  New  Hampshire.  Her  paternal  and 
maternal  ancestors  were  alike  of  pure  English  origin. 

Mrs  Ladd's  father  was  Ira  Elliott,  and  her  mother 
Bhoda  Ames,  both  natives  of  New  Hampshire. 
Seven  children  were  born  to  Mr  and  Mrs  Ladd  in 
Oregon,  five  of  whom  are  Hving  :  William  M.  Ladd, 
born  December  16,  1855 ;  Charles  Elliott  Ladd, 
born  August  5,  1857;  Henry  Kendall  Ladd,  born 
July  4,  1859;  Caroline  Ames  Ladd,  born  September 
3,  1861,  and  John  Wesley  Ladd,  born  January  3, 
1870. 

William  M.  Ladd,  the  eldest,  came  early  and 
efficiently  to  his  father's  aid  in  the  management  of 
his  largely  increasing  interests.  He  inherits  many  of 
the  traits  which  distinguish  his  father :  strong  will, 
aggressive  temper,  perseverance  and  sterling  integ- 
rity. He  is  an  admirable  specimen  of  manhood 
physically  and  mentally,  strong,  energetic  and  intel- 
ligent, and  there  is  no  fairer  sight  under  heaven  than 
that  of  a  noble  son  supplementing  the  life  of  a 
noble  father.  It  is  refreshing  to  see  the  former 
responding  with  not  only  the  ability,  but,  what  is 
rarer,  the  disposition  to  stand  worthily  as  a  represen- 
tative of  the  latter.  When  sixteen  years  of  age 
William,  convalescing  from  typhoid  fever,  was  sent 
abroad  in  charge  of  Mr  Tilton,  who  permitted  him  to 
travel  all  over  Germany  alone.  Self-reliant,  free- 
hearted and  free-handed,  the  young  man,  though  he 
had  never  been  out  of  Oregon  before,  was  at  home 


mi 
itfi 


634        DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 

anywhere.  Having  prepared  himself  for  college  at 
Andover,  Massachusetts,  he  went  to  Amherst,  where 
he  graduated  in  1878.  Upon  his  return  home  he 
entered  the  bank  as  a  clerk,  but  on  the  retirement  of 
MrTiUon  in  1880  he  was  made  partner.  Five  years 
later  he  married  Miss  Mary  Andrews  of  Oakland, 
California.  They  have  one  son.  Various  interests 
besides  his  work  in  the  bank  have  been  transferred 
to  him  from  time  to  time  by  his  father,  whose  time 
for  the  last  few  years  has  been  given  up  mainly  to  the 
management  of  the  banking  house. 

The  second  son,  Charles  Elliott  Ladd,  who  was 
fitted  for  college  at  Andover  and  graduated  from 
Amherst  college,  class  of  1881,  is  a  young  man  of 
refined  tastes  and  scholarly  instincts.  He  differs 
somewhat  from  his  elder  brother,  being  less  in 
stature  and  less  rugged  in  habit  of  body  and  mind. 
Gentle  in  manner  and  speech,  he  is  nevertheless  posi- 
tive and  firm,  and  has  developed  excellent  business 
traits.  Both  brothers  made  a  fair  record  in  college 
without  crippling  themselves  by  overstudy,  and 
hence,  having  well  digested  the  information  they 
obtained,  they  took  hold  of  business  with  minds  well 
disciplined  and  cultured,  yet  fresh  and  vigorous.  To 
Charles  his  father  entrusted  the  flour  milling  interests 
heretofore  mentioned.  He  married  Miss  Sarah  Hall 
of  Somerville,  Massachusetts,  in  1881. 

The  eldest  daughter  of  Mr  and  Mrs  Ladd  was 
married  September  7,  1880,  to  Henry  J.  Corbett, 
the  son  of  Senator  Corbett,  both  of  whom  form  a 
part  of  my  biographical  study  elsewhere  in  this  work. 
They  have  three  sons. 

"On  the  evening  of  October  17,  1889,"  says  the 
Portland  Oregonian,  "occurred  the  most  notable 
society  event  that  ever  took  place  in  the  nofthwest, 
the  wedding  of  Miss  Caroline  Ames  Ladd  and  Mr 
Frederick  Bailey  Pratt,  solemnized  at  Calvary 
church,  Portland.  Mr  W.  S.  Ladd,  the  father  of 
the  bride,  is  unquestionably  the  wealthiest  citizen  of 


\ 


r 


WILLIAM   S.   LADD. 


635 


the  pacific  northwest,  and  Mr  Charles  Pratt,  father 
of  the  groom,  one  of  the  principal  officers  and  stock- 
holders of  the  Standard  Oil  company,  is  among  the 
wealthiest  men  on  the  Atlantic  coast."  Mr  Charles 
Pratt  is,  like  Mr  Ladd,  not  only  a  man  well  known 
for  his  riches  but  for  his  beneficence  as  well.  He  is 
the  founder  of  the  large  industrial  institute  or  train- 
ing school  in  Brooklyn,  New  York,  in  which  young 
men  and  young  women  are  taught  in  the  various 
mechanical  arts  and  trades,  in  order  that  they  may 
become  useful  and  respected  citizens  through  the  skill 
thus  acquired.  He  is  also  the  founder  of  the  Astral 
flats  in  Brooklyn,  in  which  are  provided  homes  for 
laborers  at  a  rent  considerably  below  the  rates  for 
similar  quarters  elsewhere  in  the  city.  The  income 
obtained  from  this  source  is  applied  to  the  industrial 
institute,  which  is  free  to  all  worthy  young  people.  In 
these  charitable  institutions  a  very  large  sum  of  money 
is  invested,  and  Mr  Pratt  has  it  in  mind  to  extend 
his  beneficence  in  other  similar  directions.  His  son, 
Frederick  B.  Pratt,  is  occupied  in  the  management  of 
his  father's  benevolent  enterprises.  He  is  a  graduate 
of  Amherst  college,  where  a  friendship  was  formed 
between  him  and  William  and  Charles  Ladd.  It  was 
in  this  way  that  the  Ladds  and  the  Pratts  became 
acquainted,  out  of  which  grew  i.Lis  alliance,  and 
thus  the  east  and  the  west,  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Pacific,  are  happily  brought  together  by  the  union  of 
two  families,  each  of  which  is  characteristic  of  its 
abiding  place  in  position,  control  and  benevolpi.:*e. 

Thus,  with  the  greatest  brevity  consistent  \vith  the 
nature  of  the  subject  I  have  endeavored  tr>  present 
the  experience,  the  life-work  and  the  intimate  connec- 
tions of  my  principal  study  among  the  builders  of 
empire  on  the  north  Pacific  coast.  A  few  ''f  his  dis- 
tinctive traits  of  character  have  been  noted.  It  is 
desirable  that  such  a  force  be  thoroughly  compre- 
hended and  measured  in  order  that  it  may  be  perpet- 
uated with  the  least  loss  of  indviduality,  so  that  here 


636        DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 


I'll  i 


m 


on  earth  its  beneficent  vitality  may  still  be  recognized 
and  felt  even  after  the  inevitable  summons  has  been 
answered.  "The  life  of  every  man  is  as  the  well 
spring  of  a  stream  whose  beginnings  are  plain  to  all, 
but  whose  ulterior  course  and  destination  only  the 
omniscient  can  discern.  His  influence,  which  has 
had  a  beginning,  will  never  have  an  end."  It  is  a 
pleasing  thought,  however,  that  we  may  control  a  life 
in  the  hereafter  on  this  earthly  sphere  somewhat  to 
the  degree  that  we  are  able  to  fashion  our  temporal 
career. 

Says  Samuel  Smiles  in  his  work  on  Self  Help : 
"There  is  indeed  an  essence  of  immortality  in  the 
life  of  man  even  in  this  world.  No  individual  in  the 
universe  stands  alone  ;  he  is  the  component  part  of  a 
system  of  mutual  dependencies ;  and  b}'^  his  several 
acts  he  either  increases  or  diminishes  the  sum  of 
human  good  now  and  forever.  As  the  present  is  rooted 
in  the  past  and  the  lives  and  examples  of  our  fore- 
fathers still  to  a  great  extent  influence  us,  so  are  we 
by  our  daily  acts  contributing  to  form  the  conditions 
and  character  of  the  future.  No  man's  acts  die  utterly; 
and  though  his  body  may  resolve  into  dust  and  air, 
hie  good  or  his  bad  deeds  will  still  be  bringing  forth 
fruit  after  their  kind  and  influencing  future  genera- 
tions for  all  time  to  come."  Herein  I  apprehend  is 
revealed  the  supreme  duty  of  the  historian  and  biogra- 
pher, the  essence  of  whose  labor  it  is  to  seize  the  spirit 
of  the  present  as  manifested  in  aien  and  preserve  it 
against  the  ravages  of  time.  "  Kow  comfortable  it 
is,"  says  an  eminent  and  earnest  British  author, 
"  how  inexpressibly  comfortable,  to  know  our  fellow- 
creature,  to  see  into  him,  understand  his  goings  forth, 
decipher  the  whole  heart  of  its  mystery  ;  nay,  not 
only  to  see  into  him  but  out  of  him ;  to  view  the 
world  altogether  as  he  views  it,  so  that  we  can  theo- 
retically construe  him  and  almost  practically  per- 
sonate him."  "The  life  of  the  lowest  mortal,  faith- 
fully recorded,  would  be  interesting   to  the  highest ; 


WILUAM  S.   LADD. 


m 


then  how  much  more  interesting  when  the  mortal  in 
question  is  already  distinguished  in  fortune  and  nat- 
ural quality  so  that  his  thinkings  and  doings  are  not 
significant  of  himself  only  but  of  large  masses  of  man- 
kind." 

These  words  are  peculiarly  applicable  to  William 
Sargent  Ladd,  for  the  reason  that  he  has  made  him- 
self what  he  is.  "Heaven  helps  those  who  help 
themselves"  is  a  well-tried  maxim,  embodying  in  a 
small  compass  the  results  of  vast  human  experience. 
The  spirit  of  self-help  is  the  root  of  all  genuine  growth 
in  the  individual,  and  exhibited  in  the  lives  of  men 
it  constitutes  the  true  source  of  national  vigor  and 
strength.  The  lives  of  some  men  are  almost  equiv- 
alent to  gospels — teaching  high  living,  high  thinking 
and  energetic  action  for  their  own  and  the  world's 
good.  The  valuable  examples  which  they  furnish  of 
the  power  of  self-help,  of  patient  purpose,  resolute 
working  and  steadfast  integrity,  issuing  in  the  forma- 
tion of  truly  noble  and  manly  character,  exhibit  in 
langui^;e  not  to  be  misunderstood  what  it  is  in  the 
power  of  each  to  accomplish  for  himself,  and  eloquently 
illustrate  the  efficacy  of  self-respect,  in  enabling  men 
of  even  the  humblest  rank  to  work  out  for  themselves 
an  honorable  competency  and  a  solid  reputation.  He 
is  a  conspicuous  example  of  what  may  be  accomplished 
by  one  who,  possessing  native  ability  and  actuated 
by  a  wholesome  ambition,  can  achieve  in  the  way 
of  things  that  make  a  man  powerful  and  respected. 
There  are  those  who  are  respectable,  but  weak. 
There  are  those  who  are  powerful  and  are  not 
respected.  The  acquisition  of  influence  in  every 
department  of  life  in  the  community  in  which  he 
dwells  manifests  his  intellectuality.  His  strict  observ- 
ance of  the  moral  law,  at  any  and  all  times,  has  been 
such  that  though  he  may  be  subjected  to  the  envy  of 
less  successful  neighbors,  all  concede  to  him.  a  char- 
acter above  reproach.  To  say  that  he  is  without 
foibles  would  be  to  place  him  on  a  plane  that  no  one 


V 


638        DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 


|i ' 


|i    #: 

!i  ii||:.|:- 

1  '■■  1"' 

1       ^ 

|,i     r, 

1      1^ 

|;        i 

m\     1^' 

i 

in  the  form  of  man  has  occupied  save  him  who  has  been 
called  "the  only  true  and  perfect  gentleman."  In  his 
walk  and  conversation  among  men,  if  Mr  Ladd  has 
not  lived  fully  up  to  this  exemplar  of  Christianity,  it 
may  be  said  that  he  has  manfully  striven,  at  least,  to 
do  so.  His  law  of  conduct  in  which  his  parents 
taught  him,  the  bible,  has  ever  been  the  lamp  by 
which  his  feet  have  been  guided.  He  has  endeavored 
to  do  his  full  duty  to  his  fellow-beings,  not  that  he 
expects  his  reward  in  temporal  credit,  for  such  recog- 
nition is  uncertain  and  unsubstantial.  He  has  labored 
to  be  just  and  generous  among  men,  while  laying  up 
for  himself  treasures  where  moths  do  not  corrupt  nor 
thieves  break  through  nor  steal ;  with  conscience  he 
has  striven  to  meet  his  responsibilities  on  every  hand. 
His  charity,  though  beginning  at  home,  has  not  ended 
there.  While  it  has  been  impossible  for  him  to  hide 
the  light  of  his  charity  altogether  under  a  bushel 
and  much  is  known  of  the  good  that  he  has  done,  by 
far  the  greater  part  of  the  blessings  that  he  has 
bestowed  must  ever  remain  unrecorded  and  unknown 
save  to  himself;  in  many  instances  the  simple  "  Qod 
bless  you"  of  the  unfortunate  and  needy  has  been  his 
only  reward,  while  oftener  his  beneficiaries  have  not 
known  their  benefactor.  His  children  he  has  labored 
to  bring  up  in  the  way  they  should  go,  and  unquestion- 
ably he  has  succeeded.  His  ambition  for  them  was, 
first  of  all,  that  they  should  be  honest  and  true  to 
themselves  and  just  to  others,  and  next  that  they 
should  become  useful  and  intelligent  men  and  women 
in  their  sphere,  respected  and  self-respecting  citizens. 
His  sons  he  warned  at  an  early  day  against  those  evil 
associations  that  corrupt  good  manners,  and  his  anxiety 
ever  was  to  keep  them,  to  use  the  words  of  St.  James, 
unspotted  from  the  world,  not  neglecting,  however, 
those  practical  and  material  considerations  which 
enter  into  the  well-being  of  society.  Ho  would  teach 
them  the  value  of  money  by  giving  them  actual  lessons 
in  earning  a  dollar.     When,  in  the  early  days  of  Port- 


\ 


WILLIAM  S.  LADD. 


639 


land,  less  labor  could  be  spared  for  the  cultivation  of 
extensive  private  grounds  and  dandelions  were  trouble- 
some, he  gave  his  sons  such  a  lesson  as  is  intimated, 
by  setting  them  to  pull  up  these  weeds  at  a  cent 
apiece  or  a  dollar  per  hundred,  and  for  other  such  like 
work  as  the  lads  were  able  to  perform  he  paid  them 
as  he  would  have  paid  any  one  else  hired  for  similar 
labor,  inculcating  in  their  minds  a  due  observance  of 
the  terms  of  the  agreement  and  paying  them  strictly 
in  accordance  therewith.  We  have  seen  something 
of  the  fruits  of  the  care  bestowed  upon  the  children 
by  himself  and  his  wife,  who  was  as  zealous  and  as 
careful  as  himself  in  this  serious  duty.  In  their  own 
conduct  it  was  their  chief  aim  to  set  them  a  proper 
example,  which  is  so  much  more  powerful  than  pre- 
cept, especially  among  the  young. 

As  merchant,  he  never  misrepresented  in  order  to 
sell,  giving  full  weight  and  measure,  and  over  rather 
than  under.  He  never  haggled.  In  all  his  experi- 
ence as  buyer  or  seller  he  was  punctilious  in  having 
what  belonged  to  him,  and  equally  so  that  others 
should  have  what  belonged  to  them.  With  him 
"  business  was  business"  strictly,  and  he  was  precise 
to  the  cent  in  his  business  figuring,  and  yet  turn  right 
around  and  give  thousands  to  charity.  His  word  on 
the  street  as  merchant,  banker,  or  in  any  transaction 
whatever,  was  always  as  good  as  his  written  obliga- 
tion. Faithful,  stf  unch  and  loyal  in  all  his  relations 
with  others;  a  plam,  practical,  unassuming  man,  not 
puffed  up  nor  conceited  ;  economical  of  time,  as  quick 
in  action  as  in  thought,  he  is  laconic,  going  directly 
to  the  pith  of  the  matter  in  hand.  Impatient  of 
restraint  and  averse  to  circumlocution,  his  words  at 
times  may  be  short  and  sharp ;  not  because  of  unkind- 
ness,  however,  but  rather  because  delay  or  indirection 
is  at  war  with  his  nature  and  habit.  Unlike  most 
men  occupying  such  a  place  as  he  fills  in  the  commu- 
nity, he  is  accessible  to  all,  having  no  intermediaries 
between  himself  and  the  people,  meeting  strangers 


640       DOMINATING  INFLUENOES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 


I- 

,■'4'   h 

Si;:  !  ( 


with  consideration  and  greeting  old  acquaintances 
with  pleasant  reminiscence.  The  hod-carrier  is  as 
much  at  liberty  as  the  magnate  to  approach  him. 

Among  men  of  affairs  he  is  at  home  always,  for  he 
is  a  graduate  in  more  than  one  branch  of  commerce. 
He  is  anything  but  pompous,  pretentious  or  obtrusive 
anywhere.  On  the  contrary,  he  is,  like  most  men  that 
are  original,  unconscious  of  his  originality.  In  the 
days  of  his  prosperity  he  does  not  forget  ^'s  old  asso- 
ciates. On  occasional  trips  into  the  co.  ry  it  is  his 
delight  to  meet  with  other  pioneers  who  began  the 
early  struggle  of  life  as  his  neighbors,  to  stop  and 
talk  with  them  about  the  times  in  the  early  fifties, 
and  to  exchange  congratulations  that  the  days  of 
boiled  wheat  are  over.  Having  thought  less  of  things 
done  than  of  the  w^vs  and  means  to  do  these  thii}Qfs. 
he  places  a  smaller  estimate  upon  himself  and  his 
achievements  than  anyone  else  who  studies  him  fairly^ 

Owing  to  his  limited  early  education,  and  the  lack 
of  leisure  for  subsequent  study,  he  feels  a  diffidence 
in  meeting  men  of  books,  scientists  or  scholars;  but, 
having  overcome  his  hesitancy,  people  of  culture  find 
in  him  a  fund  of  good  sense  and  practical  wisdori 
such,  as  Bacon  says,  is  outside  of  books  and  abo\e 
them;  and  they  relish  the  sort  of  information  thit 
he  can  impart  to  them  as  much,  perhaps,  as  he  does 
the  ideas  he  gets  from  them.  Why  should  men  of 
strength  in  letters  and  business  stand  apart?  In 
what  way  the  intellect  required  for  success  in  busi- 
ness differs  from  that  which  commands  success  in  sci- 
ence or  art  I  confess  I  am  unable  to  determine.  I 
am  convinced  that  the  consummate  man  of  business 
possesses  capabilities  that  would  have  made  him  emi- 
nent in  letters  had  his  faculties  been  developed  in  that 
direction.  In  fact,  men  of  business  have  won  laurels 
in  literature,  and  distinguished  scholars  have  shown 
themselves  to  be  excellent  men  of  business.  And, 
whatever  else  may  be  said,  it  goes  without  saying 
that  the  latter  are  the  bone  and  sinew  of  the  land. 


I  ill 


WEST. 

uaintances 

•rier  is  as 

1  him. 
lys,  for  he 
!ommerce. 

obtrusive 
;  men  that 
In  the 
1  old  asso- 
Y  it  is  his 
►egan  the 
stop  and 
riy  fifties, 

days  of 
of  things 
le  thii^srs. 
'  and  Lis 
ta  fairly, 
the  lack 
liffidence 
irs;  but 
ture  find 
wisdori 
d  above 
ion  thit 
he  does 
men  of 
rt?    In 
in  busi- 
J  in  sci- 
ine.     I 
*usiness 
m  emi- 
in  that 
laurels 
shown 

And, 
saying 

land. 


WILLIAM  S.  LADD. 


641 


and  that  they  exercise  the  greatest  influence  in  regu- 
lating and  controlling  the  affairs  of  the  states  and 
nation,  not  only  in  bank  or  store,  but  in  the  legisla- 
tures and  in  Congress  as  well. 

It  must  not  be  assumed  that  his  way  through  life 
has  been  plain  a,nd  easy.  He  has  had  his  ups  and 
downs,  and  he  has  not  only  had  to  struggle  against 
the  world,  but  he  has  had  to  contend  for  the  mastery 
over  himself  "But  while  he  has  had  enough  to 
encounter,  there  has  been  an  inward  force  vouch- 
safed him  whereby  the  pressure  of  things  outward 
might  be  withstood.  Obstruction  abounded,  but  faith 
was  not  wanting.  It  is  by  faith  that  man  removes 
mountains.  While  he  had  faith  his  limbs  might  be 
wearied  with  toilhig,  his  back  galled  with  bearing,  but 
the  heart  within  him  was  peaceable  and  resolved.  In 
the  thickest  gloom  there  burnt  a  lamp  that  guided 
him.  If  he  struggled  and  suffered  he  felt  that  it 
even  should  be  so,  knowing  for  what  he  suffered  and 
struggled.  Faith  gave  him  an  inward  willingness,  a 
world  of  strength  wherewith  to  front  a  world  of  diffi- 
culty." It  has  been  his  lot  to  be  tried  as  if  by  fire, 
and,  perhaps,  we  would  not  know  him  as  he  is  but  for 
this  ordeal. 

He  had  been  a  ceaseless  toiler  from  1851  to  1875, 
unconscious  that  he  was  taxing  his  vitality  unduly, 
and  hence  unable  to  appreciate  the  admonitions  of  his 
family  and  friends  who  observed  that  his  health  was 
failing.  During  the  latter  year  he  went  east  and 
was  gone  twelve  months,  but  he  did  not  consult  phy- 
sicians: he  could  not  endure  the  idea  that  he  was 
sick,  and  for  the  time  his  iron  will  sustained  him 
Leaving  Chicago  with  a  pleasant  party,  on  their 
return  trip  he  was  jovial,  as  usual,  but  suddenly  there 
was  a  change  and  he  became  quiet,  as  though  endeav- 
oring to  repress  symp'^oms  of  physical  distress.  * '  Don't 
you  feel  well  ?"  asked  his  wife.  "Not  exactly,"  was 
his  considerate  reply.  ^Vhether  he  realized  at  that 
moment  that  a  shadow  had  fallen  upon  his  life,  no  one 


I'.  B,-I.    41 


kf-^i 


IM 


.1;: 


V 


642        DOMINATING  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  NORTHWEST. 


but  himself  knows.     Never  complaining,  he  reached 
San  Francisco  and  by  that  time  his  lower  limbs  were 
so  much  affected  that  he  walked  only  with  the  great- 
est difficulty.     Physicians  advised  him  to  return  east 
for  treatment.     His  mind  was  made  up  to  return  to 
Portland,  but  on  account  of  the  ice  blockade  in  the 
Columbia  river,  he  was  detained  in  San  Francisco 
three  months.     After  reaching  Portland  he  remained 
there  until  the  autumn  of  1876,  when,  having  had 
another  stroke  of  paralysis,  he  went  to  Philaddphia, 
his  wife  accompanying  him,  and  there  subjected  him- 
self to  the  most  heroic  treatment  under  Doctor  S. 
Wier  Mitchell,  an  authority  on  nervous  diseases.     So 
obstinate  was  his  struggle,  so   determined   was  the 
strong  man  nOt  to  yield  up  his  strength  that  he  sub- 
mitted to  everything  that  seemed  to  offer  any  hope 
of  restoring  him  to  health,  but  in  vain,  and  he  lost 
permanently  all  use  of  the  limbs  affected.    This  stroke 
•coming  upon  him  in  the  full  flower  of  manhood  and 
vigor  was  a  great  cross  to  him,  doubtless  the  great- 
•est  that  he  has  ever  had  to  bear.     He  could  not  at 
first  command  sufficient  philosophy  or  Christian  resig- 
nation to  accept  the  inevitable  and  bow  in  submission. 
The  affliction  seemed  greater  than  he  could  bear,  but 
in  the  darkest  hour  of  distress  words  of  light  and  con- 
solation  came  to  him  from  scripture :  Whomso  the 
Lord  loveth  he  cbasteneth.    During  his  convalescence 
a  poor  laboring  man,  as  if  sent  by  providence  as  a 
messenger  of  peace,  came  up  and  greeted  him  as  he 
was  seated  in   a  warm  sunny  part  of  the  elegant 
grounds  about  his  house  with  every  comfort  at  com- 
mand, and  told  him  of  a  similar  affiiction  through 
which  he  had  passed  without  money,  without  friends, 
and  with  no  help.     With  his  recovery  his  wonted 
good-humor  and   cheerfulness   returned,  though  at 
times  when  the  memory  of  his  former  vigor  comes 
upon  him  and  he  recalls  the  satisfaction   of  moving 
about  in  the  pride  of  his  former  manhood,  he  has  to 
iiave  recourse  again  to  that  philosophy  which  is  the 


WILLIAM  S.   LADD. 


643 


spirit  of  his  religion.  It  is  a  grand  spectacle  of  forti- 
tude, resignation,  and  power  that  he  presents  at  this 
time  attending  to  the  details  of  his  tremendous  enter- 
prises, with  intense  and  unimpaired  intellectuality : 
a  majestic  exemplitication  of  patience  triumphing  over 
suffering;  his  limbs  failing  him,  he  walks  upon  his 
courage.  Surely  such  a  man  may  stand  before  kings. 
In  closing  this  study,  so  rich  in  good  lessons,  I 
have  onl}'^  to  remark  how  pleasant  it  would  be  if  we 
were  in  possession  of  as  much  information  regarding 
Daniel  Ladd,  of  whom  no  sufficient  record  is  left  for 
the  enlightenment  of  his  descendants.  Were  the 
study  of  his  life  before  me  I  can  fancy  what  charm 
there  would  be  in  comparing  the  details  of  his  coloni- 
zation experiences  on  the  eastern  seaboard  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  with  those  of  his  exemplary  scion  on 
the  western  shore  in  the  nineteenth  century. 


